Transport Disadvantage and Social Exclusion

Professor JulianProfessor Julian HineHine, Professor of Transport, Professor of Transport

University of Ulster, UKUniversity of Ulster, UK

Presentation to Presentation to International conference on public transport and urban citizenshInternational conference on public transport and urban citizenshipip, , Trinity College, Dublin 21st September 2007Trinity College, Dublin 21st September 2007

IntroductionThere is now widespread recognition that access to transport There is now widespread recognition that access to transport can influence life chances.can influence life chances.

Work on the links between transport and social exclusion, and Work on the links between transport and social exclusion, and the consequences of transport disadvantage in the UK and the consequences of transport disadvantage in the UK and elsewhere has clearly demonstrated this.elsewhere has clearly demonstrated this.

Range of policy solutions available to solve some of these Range of policy solutions available to solve some of these problemsproblems

This presentation will look at:This presentation will look at:

The concept of social exclusion and transport disadvantage;The concept of social exclusion and transport disadvantage;

How transport disadvantage is experienced;How transport disadvantage is experienced;

The implications for future transport policy.The implications for future transport policy.

Exploring linkages – some thoughts

Transport is important in determining the level of access by Transport is important in determining the level of access by individuals and households to goods and servicesindividuals and households to goods and services

In other words levels of participation or inclusionIn other words levels of participation or inclusion

Transport policy, practice, and provision isTransport policy, practice, and provision is

not an egalitarian domain not an egalitarian domain

‘not a civil engineering board game’ nor a search for a single ‘not a civil engineering board game’ nor a search for a single tool e.g. road pricing (tool e.g. road pricing (GriecoGrieco, 2002), 2002)

about the consequences of socioabout the consequences of socio--spatial patternsspatial patterns

The linkages between transport (disadvantage) and social The linkages between transport (disadvantage) and social exclusion have become a key policy concernexclusion have become a key policy concern

Exploring linkages – some thoughtsTransport is rarely an end in itself Transport is rarely an end in itself –– it is about coit is about co--presence presence (intense social obligations and patterns that make transport (intense social obligations and patterns that make transport seem necessary (seem necessary (UrryUrry, 2002)), 2002))

We all have:We all have:

Legal, economic and familial obligationsLegal, economic and familial obligations

Social obligationsSocial obligations

Time obligationsTime obligations

Place obligations Place obligations –– sense of placesense of place

Live obligations Live obligations -- eventsevents

Object obligations Object obligations –– objects, technologies or texts that have a objects, technologies or texts that have a specific physical locationspecific physical location

Transport policy can have limitations Transport policy can have limitations –– patterns of mobility do patterns of mobility do not change predominantly because of transport policynot change predominantly because of transport policy

Mobility not just about individual desire but of systematic sociMobility not just about individual desire but of systematic social al processes and patternsprocesses and patterns

Need for changing transport practices of providers/regulators Need for changing transport practices of providers/regulators that can either meet/change the form of social obligations and that can either meet/change the form of social obligations and patterns patterns

Exploring linkages – some thoughtsQuality of life/Well beingQuality of life/Well being

Central to the social exclusion/transport provision debateCentral to the social exclusion/transport provision debate

Access to workAccess to work

Access to learningAccess to learning

Access to healthcareAccess to healthcare

Access to food shopsAccess to food shops

Access to social/cultural/sporting activitiesAccess to social/cultural/sporting activities

Impact of traffic on deprived communities (SEU, 2003)Impact of traffic on deprived communities (SEU, 2003)

Mobility central to quality of life/well being issuesMobility central to quality of life/well being issues

Evaluations of specialist transport in North East of England Evaluations of specialist transport in North East of England revealed these schemes improve quality of life on six revealed these schemes improve quality of life on six dimensionsdimensions

IndependenceIndependence

LonelinessLoneliness

Morale and life satisfactionMorale and life satisfaction

Health and absence of painHealth and absence of pain

Financial welfareFinancial welfare

Activity participation (for example Ling andActivity participation (for example Ling and MannionMannion, 1995), 1995)

Exploring linkages – some thoughts

This concern has now been expanded into:This concern has now been expanded into:

Health Impact/Regulatory AssessmentsHealth Impact/Regulatory Assessments

Evaluations of crossEvaluations of cross--sector benefits of accessibility sector benefits of accessibility planning (planning (DfTDfT, 2004), 2004)

Overcoming administrative obstacles at institutional Overcoming administrative obstacles at institutional level (Brown and Tyler, 2004)level (Brown and Tyler, 2004)

Integrated decisionIntegrated decision--makingmaking

What is social exclusion and how does it link with transport disadvantage?

Deterioration in participationDeterioration in participation

Reflects loss of ability to connect with jobs, services Reflects loss of ability to connect with jobs, services and facilitiesand facilities

No common definitionNo common definition

Dimensions of social exclusion have been identified Dimensions of social exclusion have been identified to help with this processto help with this process

Dimensions

A number of researchers have identified different dimensional A number of researchers have identified different dimensional frameworks (Lee and frameworks (Lee and MurieMurie, 1999; , 1999; BurchardtBurchardt et al, 1999) to et al, 1999) to show those areas where social exclusion potentially has an show those areas where social exclusion potentially has an impactimpact

Burchardt Burchardt et al (1999) for example suggests the following:et al (1999) for example suggests the following:

Consumption activity Consumption activity

Savings activitySavings activity

Production activity Production activity

Political activityPolitical activity

Social activitySocial activity

The ability of a group or individual to participate across theseThe ability of a group or individual to participate across thesedimensions can be affected by a number of factorsdimensions can be affected by a number of factors

Dimensions IIChurch (1999, 2000) has identified 7 categories where Church (1999, 2000) has identified 7 categories where transport access can have an impacttransport access can have an impact

Physical exclusion Physical exclusion

Geographical exclusion Geographical exclusion

Exclusion from facilities Exclusion from facilities

Economic exclusion Economic exclusion

Time based exclusion Time based exclusion

Fear based exclusion Fear based exclusion

Space exclusionSpace exclusion

Importantly these are influenced by:Importantly these are influenced by:

The nature of time space organisation in householdsThe nature of time space organisation in households

Nature of the transport systemNature of the transport system

Nature of timeNature of time--space organisation of the facilities and space organisation of the facilities and opportunities that individuals are seeking to accessopportunities that individuals are seeking to access

How is transport disadvantage experienced?Problems in the UK transport system have arisen as a result of :Problems in the UK transport system have arisen as a result of :

Availability and physical accessibility of transportAvailability and physical accessibility of transport

CostsCosts

Services and activities in inaccessible placesServices and activities in inaccessible places

Safety and securitySafety and security

Decline in bus use and growth in car useDecline in bus use and growth in car use

Geographic variation in transport access in terms of public tranGeographic variation in transport access in terms of public transport sport frequency, reliability and network coverage frequency, reliability and network coverage

29% of rural areas have no services at all in GB29% of rural areas have no services at all in GB

Public transport a rare commodity in the offPublic transport a rare commodity in the off--peakpeak

Those most likely to experience transport disadvantage are thoseThose most likely to experience transport disadvantage are those on on low incomes, women, the elderly, disabled people and children, low incomes, women, the elderly, disabled people and children, ethnic minoritiesethnic minorities

How is transport disadvantage experienced?

Households experiencing multiple deprivation, namely:Households experiencing multiple deprivation, namely:

poor housingpoor housing

poor healthpoor health

low education standardslow education standards

high unemploymenthigh unemployment

poor transport choices (geographically clustered or scattered)poor transport choices (geographically clustered or scattered)

Multiply deprived households are highly interMultiply deprived households are highly inter--correlated with correlated with other factors (low incomes, low levels of car ownership, public other factors (low incomes, low levels of car ownership, public sector housing)sector housing)

Bradford, UK (Friends of the Earth, 2001)

Evening commercial services Merseyside, UK (from SEU, 2003)

Belfast PTALS study

The transport disadvantaged

Low income groupsLow income groups

Make fewer journeys overallMake fewer journeys overall

Walk and use public transport more than higher Walk and use public transport more than higher income groups, rely on lifts from family or friendsincome groups, rely on lifts from family or friends

Experience low levels of car ownershipExperience low levels of car ownership

Car ownership now increasing amongst low income Car ownership now increasing amongst low income groupsgroups

Poor transport is a barrier to employmentPoor transport is a barrier to employment

Shift work is often not suited to public transport Shift work is often not suited to public transport timetablestimetables

High travel to work costs for those working partHigh travel to work costs for those working part--timetime

Car Ownership and Income Quintile (NTS: 1985/86, 1995/97, 2001, 2004, 2006)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80N

o c

ar

On

e c

ar

Tw

o o

r m

ore

No

ca

r

On

e c

ar

Tw

o o

r m

ore

No

ca

r

On

e c

ar

Tw

o o

r m

ore

No

Ca

r

On

e C

ar

Tw

o o

r m

ore

No

Ca

r

On

e C

ar

Tw

o o

r M

ore

1985/86 1995/97 2001 2004 2006

% H

ou

se

ho

ld c

ar

ow

ne

rsh

ip p

er

inc

om

e g

rou

p

Lowest real income

Second level

Third level

Fourth level

Highest real income

Access to facilities without a car – England (ODPM, 2005)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Corn

er sho

p P

ost O

ffic

e

Docto

r S

uperm

arket

Hospita

l

Facility difficult to get to

% h

avin

g d

iffi

cu

lty w

ith

ou

t

access t

o a

car

2001/02

2002/03

2003/04

2004/05

Income & time taken to access facilities –urban Scotland (Hine and Mitchell, 2003)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Loca

l sh

opP

ost O

ffic

e

Super

mar

ket

Ban

kD

octo

r C

hem

ist

Den

tist

Spo

rts/

leis

ure

cen

tre

Cin

ema

Pub

Rai

lway

sta

tion

Bu

s st

atio

n

Pri

mary

sch

ool

Sec

ondar

y s

cho

ol

Lib

rary

Ch

urch

H

osp

ital

Lo

cal g

over

nm

ent

off

ice

Facility

Avera

ge A

ccess T

ime (M

ins)

Under £7.7K Mean

£7.75K - £15.5 Mean

£15.5K + Mean

The transport disadvantaged

WomenWomen

SpecificallySpecifically

Women with children Women with children –– multiple roles/ restricted time budgetsmultiple roles/ restricted time budgets

Lone parentsLone parents

Women aged over 65 Women aged over 65 –– walk more and use bus/coachwalk more and use bus/coach

Women in public sector housing (licence holding much lower Women in public sector housing (licence holding much lower than women in high income areas)than women in high income areas)

Experience exclusion as a result of poor public transport Experience exclusion as a result of poor public transport (especially 17(especially 17--20 age groups and over 70s)20 age groups and over 70s)

Personal safety is a key concern amongst this groupPersonal safety is a key concern amongst this group

Fear of walking in the darkFear of walking in the dark

Avoid making a tripAvoid making a trip

Fear of interchange facilities and stations at offFear of interchange facilities and stations at off--peak periodspeak periods

Access to health facilities for women in low income groups is a Access to health facilities for women in low income groups is a problem due to reliance on public transportproblem due to reliance on public transport

Time taken to access facilities - urban Scotland (Hine and Mitchell, 2003)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Local

shop

Post O

ffic

e

Superm

arke

tB

ank

Doct

orC

hemis

tD

entis

t

Sports

/leis

ure

centr

eC

inem

aPub

Rai

lway

sta

tion

Bus

stat

ion

Prim

ary

scho

ol

Second

ary

schoo

lLib

rary

Chur

chH

ospita

l

Local

gove

rnm

ent o

ffic

e

Facility

Me

an

Ac

ce

ss

tim

e (

min

s)

Men

Women

The transport disadvantaged

Older peopleOlder people

Access to car declines with age but access will increase as Access to car declines with age but access will increase as present license holders move into older age groupspresent license holders move into older age groups

Problems with mobility increase with age Problems with mobility increase with age

Difficulties walking (including uneven pavements, hills, ramps, Difficulties walking (including uneven pavements, hills, ramps, traffic and crossing roads, steps and carrying bags) (traffic and crossing roads, steps and carrying bags) (HopkinHopkin et et al 1978; Hillman andal 1978; Hillman and WhalleyWhalley, 1979), 1979)

Walking (especially 60Walking (especially 60--70 age group) and bus use higher 70 age group) and bus use higher amongst older peopleamongst older people

Older people feature disproportionately in UK road casualty Older people feature disproportionately in UK road casualty datadata

Older people aged 60 & over (DfT, 2001)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Car p

assen

ger

Bus

Tram

/ Tube

Train

Door-

to-d

oor

Taxi

Taxi s

ubsidis

edW

alk/ c

ycle

Whee

lchai

r/S

hopmob.

Mode

% u

sin

g m

od

e/d

iffi

cu

lty

% Using each mode

% That would havedifficulty

The transport disadvantaged

Disabled peopleDisabled people

Estimates suggest 12Estimates suggest 12--14% of the adult population experience 14% of the adult population experience a form of impairment, in NI the estimate is 17%a form of impairment, in NI the estimate is 17%

Disabled people travel a 1/3 less than the rest of the Disabled people travel a 1/3 less than the rest of the populationpopulation

Disabled people are able to travel only very limited distancesDisabled people are able to travel only very limited distances

In London a survey found that 34% of transport handicapped In London a survey found that 34% of transport handicapped people could not walk more than ¼ mile (GLAD, 1986 also people could not walk more than ¼ mile (GLAD, 1986 also confirmed by confirmed by Oxley Oxley and Alexander 1994)and Alexander 1994)

Problems waiting, boarding and moving around a busProblems waiting, boarding and moving around a bus

Regulations and the DDA 1995 mean new buses and trains Regulations and the DDA 1995 mean new buses and trains have to meet accessibility requirementshave to meet accessibility requirements

Currently 10% of trains and 29% of buses meet standards in Currently 10% of trains and 29% of buses meet standards in GB (SEU, 2003)GB (SEU, 2003)

Lack of controlled crossing points close to bus stopsLack of controlled crossing points close to bus stops

Poor quality pedestrian environment around stopsPoor quality pedestrian environment around stops

The transport disadvantaged

Children and young peopleChildren and young people

Largely ignored in studies of transport and social exclusionLargely ignored in studies of transport and social exclusion

Work has found:Work has found:

Secondary school pupils and young trainees found access to Secondary school pupils and young trainees found access to jobs, education being reduced by costly and inaccessible jobs, education being reduced by costly and inaccessible transport services(Scotland, North Yorkshire) (Save the transport services(Scotland, North Yorkshire) (Save the Children Scotland, 2000; Jones and Children Scotland, 2000; Jones and RuggRugg, 1999), 1999)

Reduction in independent mobility and opportunities to Reduction in independent mobility and opportunities to discover their physical environment (De discover their physical environment (De MonchauxMonchaux, 1981, , 1981, Hillman et al, 1990)Hillman et al, 1990)

Increase in the number of escort journeys by car Increase in the number of escort journeys by car

Children in the poorest areas and lower socioChildren in the poorest areas and lower socio--economic economic groups are more likely to killed and seriously injured (groups are more likely to killed and seriously injured (AbdallaAbdallaand and RaesideRaeside, 1997), 1997)

Problems experienced by young people seeking work (Bryson et al, 2000)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

No pro

blem

s

No jobs

near

by

Lack o

f per

sonal tr

ansport

Ow

n ill h

ealth

/dis

abili

ty

Lack o

f refe

rences

from

pre

vious

emplo

yer

Debt or m

oney p

roble

ms

Lack o

f public

tran

sport

Proble

ms

with

the

law

or p

revi

ous re

cord

No per

man

ent p

lace

to li

ve

Illnes

s of a

nother f

amily

mem

ber

Proble

ms

with

dru

gs o

r alc

ohol

Lack o

f child

care

or a

fford

able

child

care

Stated Problem

% S

tati

ng

Pro

ble

m

Child pedestrian casualties & index of multiple deprivation (SEU, 2003)

The transport disadvantaged

Child road safetyChild road safety

Asian children, in Birmingham, aged less than 9 were twice as Asian children, in Birmingham, aged less than 9 were twice as likely to be injured than their nonlikely to be injured than their non--Asian counterparts (Lawson Asian counterparts (Lawson and Edwards, 1991)and Edwards, 1991)

This was attributed to housing location and situation of Asian This was attributed to housing location and situation of Asian families i.e inner city areas with low levels of play spacefamilies i.e inner city areas with low levels of play space

Research in Manchester and Salford found strong Research in Manchester and Salford found strong connections between injury rate, index of overcrowding and connections between injury rate, index of overcrowding and index of social class (Preston, 1972)index of social class (Preston, 1972)

Children from families in the lowest income quartile cross 50% Children from families in the lowest income quartile cross 50% more roads than those in the highest income quartilemore roads than those in the highest income quartile

Implications for future transport policy

Policy is currently moving in the right directionPolicy is currently moving in the right direction

Variety of innovations in provisionVariety of innovations in provision

Demand responsive public transportDemand responsive public transport

Specialist transport services (dialSpecialist transport services (dial--aa--ride)ride)

Subsidised personal transportSubsidised personal transport

Investment in walking and cycling infrastructureInvestment in walking and cycling infrastructure

Future challenges will include:Future challenges will include:

An ageing populationAn ageing population

More single parent and single person households (low More single parent and single person households (low income)income)

Enduring risk of poverty among certain groupsEnduring risk of poverty among certain groups

Acute problems for some ethnic minority groupsAcute problems for some ethnic minority groups

Continued polarisation of work (work poor and work rich)Continued polarisation of work (work poor and work rich)

Geographical disadvantage Geographical disadvantage –– concentrations of poor people, concentrations of poor people, declining infrastructure, poor housing, fewer jobsdeclining infrastructure, poor housing, fewer jobs

Smaller household sizesSmaller household sizes

Implications for future transport policy

Accessibility planningAccessibility planning

Community level using agreed indicatorsCommunity level using agreed indicators

Accessibility audit, resources audit, action planAccessibility audit, resources audit, action plan

Measurement of suppressed journeys/latent demandMeasurement of suppressed journeys/latent demand

Recognition of suppressed demand for cars but not public Recognition of suppressed demand for cars but not public transporttransport

Need to recognise suppression of pedestrian trips amongst Need to recognise suppression of pedestrian trips amongst children and elderly children and elderly –– vital for planning safer roadsvital for planning safer roads

Overcoming physical coOvercoming physical co--presence presence –– virtual mobilityvirtual mobility

Reducing the need to travel (for some not all journey types)Reducing the need to travel (for some not all journey types)

Implications for future policy

More households on low incomes will move into car ownershipMore households on low incomes will move into car ownership

And more older people will be driving than beforeAnd more older people will be driving than before

Extension of demand responsive transport into the main Extension of demand responsive transport into the main streamstream

Increased coIncreased co--ordination of school transport, community ordination of school transport, community transport and socially necessary subsidised servicestransport and socially necessary subsidised services

Intelligent reservation Intelligent reservation –– real time match between vehicle fleets real time match between vehicle fleets and travel needs of socially excludedand travel needs of socially excluded

Justified on grounds of crossJustified on grounds of cross--sector benefitssector benefits

Improved design and planning of walking and cycling Improved design and planning of walking and cycling infrastructure and linkages with public transportinfrastructure and linkages with public transport

Implications for future policy

Growing need to fill gaps in commercial operations Growing need to fill gaps in commercial operations such as feeder services to corridorssuch as feeder services to corridors

Can be provided by:Can be provided by:

Subsidised and concessionary travel for taxisSubsidised and concessionary travel for taxis

Car schemes or car clubs (private or public sector)Car schemes or car clubs (private or public sector)

Demand responsive services (dial Demand responsive services (dial ––a a ––ride)ride)

Provision of service routes where a high value is placed Provision of service routes where a high value is placed on door to door travelon door to door travel

Conclusions

This presentation has offered insights into the links between This presentation has offered insights into the links between transport disadvantage and lifestyle. It has shown that:transport disadvantage and lifestyle. It has shown that:

Transport disadvantage is experienced by different groupsTransport disadvantage is experienced by different groups

Disadvantage can manifest itself in a variety of ways and that Disadvantage can manifest itself in a variety of ways and that there are numerous dimensions to this that need to there are numerous dimensions to this that need to considered in the development of policy at macro and micro considered in the development of policy at macro and micro levelslevels

Long term societal changes or patterns of mobility will require Long term societal changes or patterns of mobility will require more thought in terms of transport provisionmore thought in terms of transport provision

The transport disadvantaged may change in terms of profileThe transport disadvantaged may change in terms of profile

More older people with transport needsMore older people with transport needs

Enduring group in poverty, geographically concentratedEnduring group in poverty, geographically concentrated