Transient Global Amnesia

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Transient global amnesia (TGA) is characterized by sudden inability to form new memory traces (anterograde amnesia) in addition to retrograde memory loss for events of the preceding days, weeks, or even years. During attacks, which affect both verbal and nonverbal memory, there is often bewilderment or anxiety and a tendency to repeat one or several questions (e.g., “Where am I?â€). Physical and neurologic examinations, including mental status, are otherwise normal. Immediate registration of events (e.g., serial digits) is intact, and self-identification is preserved. Attacks last minutes or hours, rarely longer than a day, with gradual recovery. Retrograde amnesia clears in a forward fashion, often with permanent loss for events occurring within minutes or a few hours of the attack; there is also permanent amnesia for events during the attack itself. TGA sometimes seems to be precipitated by physical or emotional stress, such as sexual intercourse, driving an automobile, pain, photogenic events, or swimming in cold water. Because amnesia can accompany a variety of neurologic disturbances, such as head trauma, intoxication, partial complex seizures, or dissociative states, criteria for diagnosing TGA should include observation of the attack by others. Patients are usually middle-aged or elderly and otherwise healthy. Recurrent attacks occur in less than 25% of cases, and fewer than 3% have more than three attacks. Intervals between attacks range from 1 month to 19 years. Permanent memory loss is rare, although subtle defects have been reported after only one attack. The cause of TGA is uncertain. Case-control series and anecdotal reports variably implicate stroke, seizures, or migraine. In a large series of patients with TGA, the cause was epileptic in 7%. Attacks in this group were nearly always less than 1 hour in duration and tended to occur on awakening; two-thirds had additional seizure types, usually simple or complex partial seizures. Sleep, but not interictal, electroencephalograms revealed temporal lobe epileptiform discharges. TGA has been anecdotally described in association with carotid artery occlusion and amaurosis fugax, with infarction of the inferomedial temporal lobe, with infarction of the retrosplenial corpus callosum, and with cerebral angiography (especially vertebral). In large series, however, major risk factors for stroke

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Transcript of Transient Global Amnesia

Page 1: Transient Global Amnesia

Transient global amnesia (TGA) is characterized by sudden inability to form new memory traces (anterograde amnesia) in addition to retrograde memory loss for events of the preceding days, weeks, or even years. During attacks, which affect both verbal and nonverbal memory, there is often bewilderment or anxiety and a tendency to repeat one or several questions (e.g., “Where am I?†�). Physical and neurologic examinations, including mental status, are otherwise normal. Immediate registration of events (e.g., serial digits) is intact, and self-identification is preserved. Attacks last minutes or hours, rarely longer than a day, with gradual recovery. Retrograde amnesia clears in a forward fashion, often with permanent loss for events occurring within minutes or a few hours of the attack; there is also permanent amnesia for events during the attack itself. TGA sometimes seems to be precipitated by physical or emotional stress, such as sexual intercourse, driving an automobile, pain, photogenic events, or swimming in cold water. Because amnesia can accompany a variety of neurologic disturbances, such as head trauma, intoxication, partial complex seizures, or dissociative states, criteria for diagnosing TGA should include observation of the attack by others.

Patients are usually middle-aged or elderly and otherwise healthy. Recurrent attacks occur in less than 25% of cases, and fewer than 3% have more than three attacks. Intervals between attacks range from 1 month to 19 years. Permanent memory loss is rare, although subtle defects have been reported after only one attack. The cause of TGA is uncertain. Case-control series and anecdotal reports variably implicate stroke, seizures, or migraine.

In a large series of patients with TGA, the cause was epileptic in 7%. Attacks in this group were nearly always less than 1 hour in duration and tended to occur on awakening; two-thirds had additional seizure types, usually simple or complex partial seizures. Sleep, but not interictal, electroencephalograms revealed temporal lobe epileptiform discharges.

TGA has been anecdotally described in association with carotid artery occlusion and amaurosis fugax, with infarction of the inferomedial temporal lobe, with infarction of the retrosplenial corpus callosum, and with cerebral angiography (especially vertebral). In large series, however, major risk factors for stroke (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, tobacco, ischemic heart disease, atrial fibrillation, and past stroke or transient ischemic attack) are no more common among patients with TGA than in age-matched controls, and TGA is not a risk factor for stroke. Studies addressing a possible association of TGA with cardiac valvular disease, patent foramen ovale, or jugular valve incompetence have been inconsistent. Patients with amnestic stroke owing to documented posterior cerebral artery occlusion do not report previous TGA; their neurologic signs usually include more than simple amnesia (e.g., visual impairment), and they do not exhibit repetitive queries. Reduced blood flow to the thalamus or temporal lobes has been documented during attacks of TGA but could be secondary to neuronal dysfunction rather than its cause.

Epidemiologic studies confirm an association of TGA with migraine, even though in most migraine patients headache attacks are recurrent, whereas attacks of TGA are not. Sometimes, both amnestic and migrainous attacks (including visual symptoms and vomiting) occur simultaneously or follow one another. A case report described a man with repeated episodes of TGA associated with sexual activity whose spells cleared as long as he took the beta-blocker metoprolol. Spreading depression of Leao (possibly the pathophysiologic basis of cerebral symptoms in migraine) could, by affecting the hippocampus, explain some cases of TGA. Diffusion-weighted MRI during or soon after an attack

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of TGA in several patients revealed signal abnormalities in one or both temporal lobes that were more suggestive of spreading depression than primary ischemia.

Thus, even when strict diagnostic criteria are applied, TGA probably has diverse origins. In patients in whom epilepsy and migraine can be excluded and who have risk factors for cerebrovascular disease, antiplatelet drugs should be considered, but the benign natural history makes it difficult to evaluate any preventive treatment.

Transient global amnesia (TGA) ditandai oleh ketidakmampuan tiba-tiba untuk membentuk jejak memori baru (amnesia anterograde) selain kehilangan memori retrograde untuk acara dari hari-hari sebelumnya, minggu, atau bahkan bertahun-tahun. Selama serangan, yang mempengaruhi memori baik verbal dan nonverbal, sering ada kebingungan atau kegelisahan dan kecenderungan untuk mengulangi pertanyaan satu atau beberapa (misalnya, â € œWhere aku? Â €??). Pemeriksaan fisik dan neurologis, termasuk status mental, sebetulnya normal. Pendaftaran langsung peristiwa (misalnya, angka serial) masih utuh, dan self-identifikasi diawetkan. Serangan menit terakhir atau jam, jarang lebih dari satu hari, dengan pemulihan bertahap. Amnesia retrograde membersihkan dengan cara maju, sering dengan kerugian permanen untuk peristiwa yang terjadi dalam beberapa menit atau beberapa jam serangan, ada juga amnesia permanen untuk acara selama serangan itu sendiri. TGA kadang tampaknya dipicu oleh stres fisik atau emosional, seperti hubungan seksual, mengendarai sebuah mobil, nyeri, peristiwa fotogenik, atau berenang di air dingin. Karena amnesia dapat menemani berbagai gangguan neurologis, seperti trauma kepala, keracunan, kejang kompleks parsial, atau negara disosiatif, kriteria untuk mendiagnosis TGA harus mencakup pengamatan serangan oleh orang lain.

Pasien biasanya setengah baya atau tua dan sehat. Serangan berulang terjadi dalam waktu kurang dari 25% dari kasus, dan kurang dari 3% memiliki lebih dari tiga serangan. Interval antara serangan berkisar dari 1 bulan sampai 19 tahun. Kehilangan memori permanen jarang terjadi, meskipun cacat halus telah dilaporkan setelah hanya satu serangan. Penyebab TGA tidak pasti. Kasus-kontrol seri dan laporan anekdotal bervariasi melibatkan stroke, kejang, atau migrain.

Dalam serangkaian besar pasien dengan TGA, penyebabnya adalah epilepsi dalam 7%. Serangan dalam kelompok ini hampir selalu kurang dari 1 jam dalam durasi dan cenderung terjadi pada kebangkitan, dua-pertiga memiliki jenis kejang tambahan, kejang parsial biasanya sederhana atau kompleks. Tidur, tapi tidak interiktal, electroencephalograms mengungkapkan pembuangan lobus epileptiform temporal.

TGA telah anekdot dijelaskan dalam hubungan dengan karotid arteri oklusi dan amaurosis fugax, dengan infark lobus temporal inferomedial, dengan infark dari corpus callosum retrospental, dan dengan cerebral angiography (terutama tulang belakang). Dalam seri yang besar, bagaimanapun, faktor risiko utama untuk stroke (hipertensi, diabetes mellitus, tembakau, penyakit jantung iskemik, atrial fibrilasi, dan serangan iskemik masa lalu stroke atau transient) tidak lebih umum di antara pasien dengan TGA daripada kelompok kontrol usia-cocok, dan TGA bukan merupakan faktor risiko untuk stroke. Studi mengatasi kemungkinan asosiasi TGA dengan penyakit katup jantung, ovale

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paten foramen, atau inkompetensi katup jugularis telah tidak konsisten. Pasien dengan stroke yang amnestik karena oklusi arteri serebral posterior didokumentasikan tidak melaporkan sebelumnya TGA, tanda-tanda neurologis mereka biasanya mencakup lebih dari amnesia sederhana (misalnya, gangguan penglihatan), dan mereka tidak menunjukkan permintaan yang berulang-ulang. Berkurangnya aliran darah ke thalamus atau lobus temporal telah didokumentasikan selama serangan TGA tapi bisa menjadi sekunder untuk disfungsi saraf daripada penyebabnya.

Studi epidemiologi mengkonfirmasi asosiasi TGA dengan migrain, meskipun dalam serangan migrain kebanyakan sakit kepala pasien berulang, sedangkan serangan TGA tidak. Kadang-kadang, kedua serangan amnestik dan migren (termasuk gejala visual dan muntah) terjadi secara bersamaan atau mengikuti satu sama lain. Sebuah laporan kasus menggambarkan seorang pria dengan episode berulang dari TGA terkait dengan aktivitas seksual yang mantra dibersihkan selama ia mengambil metoprolol beta-blocker. Penyebaran depresi Leao (mungkin dasar pathophysiologic gejala otak pada migrain) dapat, dengan mempengaruhi hippocampus, menjelaskan beberapa kasus TGA. Difusi-tertimbang MRI selama atau segera setelah serangan TGA pada beberapa pasien mengungkapkan kelainan sinyal pada satu atau kedua lobus temporal yang lebih sugestif menyebarkan depresi daripada iskemia primer.

Jadi, bahkan ketika kriteria diagnostik yang ketat diterapkan, TGA mungkin memiliki asal-usul beragam. Pada pasien yang epilepsi dan migren dapat dikecualikan dan yang memiliki faktor risiko penyakit cerebrovascular, obat antiplatelet harus dipertimbangkan, tetapi sejarah alam jinak membuatnya sulit untuk mengevaluasi pengobatan pencegahan.