Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership
Transcript of Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership
PAPER SERIES
Service-Learning across the globe: from local to transnational
5th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM SERVICE-LEARNING 2013
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Paper Series 5th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM: SERVICE LEARNING 2013
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
Antoinette Smith Tolken and Jacob du Plessis (Editors)
Sponsored by:
Copyright © 2013 by Division for Community Interaction, Stellenbosch University
ISBN: 978-0-620-59299-4
All rights reserved. No portion of this monograph may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission of the Division
for Community Interaction, Stellenbosch University
Paper Series editing and proofreading contributions:
Julie Steicher
Cover Source:
Chinese Ink Brush Painting by Bonnie Kwan Huo; Stellenbosch University Ou Hoofgebou and University of Indianapolis Goodhall
Building.
Cover Design and Layout: SUN MeDIA Stellenbosch
Major funding support to make this publication possible:
Prof Julian Smith: Vice Rector, Community Interaction and Personnel, Stellenbosch University.
Contents
Editorial .................................................................................................................................................................... i
Contextualisation
University of Indianapolis Press & service-learning: Innovative and cutting-edge practice ....................................... 1
Wiegand M and Lin PL
Institutionalisation
Elements needed for service-learning in an international higher education institution .............................................. 9
Swanzen R
The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology
(Zhejiang University, China) ...................................................................................................................................... 21
Jin W and Zhu S
Responsive leadership as service for curricular engagement at South African universities:
narratives from academics ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Bender CJG
Curriculum design in different disciplines
An appraisal of integrating service-learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System while grounding it
in Chinese educational philosophy ............................................................................................................................ 37
Yang J and Cai L
Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage: Four constructed studies into service-learning ......................................... 47
Shall S
Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA Operations Management class ......................................... 55
Jordaan J
Conceptual frameworks and paradigms
Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy ......................................................... 65
Van Huyssteen M and Bheekie A
Community-academic service-learning programme models for success and sustainability ...................................... 73
Crandell CE, Pariser G, Wiegand MR and Brosky JA
Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership: Making change happen! ........................................ 79
MacPhee M, Paterson M, Tassone M, Marsh D, Berry S, Bainbridge L, Steinberg M, Careau E and Verma S
Interprofessional education and practice: two community-based models ................................................................. 89
Waggie F and Laattoe N
A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education ................................................... 99
Wilson L
Collaborations and partnerships
International teaching practicum with a difference: When Australian teacher education partners with
South African communities and schools ................................................................................................................... 107
Parr G and Rowe C
Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey .................................................... 117
Venter K
Author Bios .............................................................................................................................................................. 127
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Service-learning Across the Globe – Paper Series ISSL 2013
Preface
The starting point of the ISSL journey was in 2004, when co-founders Phylis Lan Lin (University of Indianapolis) and
Antoinette Smith-Tolken (Stellenbosch University), were introduced by the International Office directors in their
respective institutions namely, William (Bill) Ayres and Robert Kotze. In this year, both universities were strengthening
their international relations. However, this significant meeting that resulted in a remarkable journey of collaboration and
institutional partnership was preceded by historical events in both countries that will be elaborated on.
The democratisation of South Africa (SA) in 1994 through new policy directives and legislation resulted in a
comprehensive restructuring of all social institutions affecting public life in this country. The high levels of social
inequality and related challenges faced by the majority of the SA population also necessitated the restructuring of higher
education. The White Paper on The Transformation of Higher Education (Department of Education, 1997) in South Africa
mandated universities to ‘demonstrate social responsibility … and their commitment to the common good by making
available expertise and infrastructure for community service programmes’. During 1997 and 1998 the Ford Foundation
awarded a grant to the Joint Education Trust (JET) to conduct a survey of community service in South African higher
education (SAHE) and building on the results of the survey, a further allocation of funding was made to form the
Community – Higher Education – Service Partnerships (CHESP) initiative. The CHESP initiative was strategically
positioned to work with national higher education stakeholders, firstly to inform a policy framework and later after this
was completed, to support the development of service-learning (SL) courses at universities from 2001 onwards (Lazarus,
Erasmus, Hendricks, Nduna and Slamat 2008).
Antoinette was appointed in 2001 as the Assistant-director: Community service at SU as part of the University’s
commitment to answering the call for universities to become relevant to the communities where they exist, together with
their Strategic Framework instituted in 2000 (SU, 2000). In this strategic planning the University committed itself to
prioritise community service as a third core function.
Antoinette recalls her thoughts at the time: “My knowledge of SL was very limited. At first I travelled to several
universities in the country who could assist me in gaining knowledge about the subject. I read every piece of information
I could find as I was placed in an institutional position where I had to help the institution put together a plan and a policy
for ‘community interaction’ (the term that was later accepted at Stellenbosch University). I came across the JET report
that was released after its initial research on the phenomenon of community service in SA (Perold 1998). I contacted the
then director Joseph Lazarus and I was invited to join the CHESP initiative. Together with other universities, I learned
more about SL and which university processes were necessary to institutionalise CE. I began building alliances within
the institution amongst others Robert Kotze from the International Office and Rona Newmark from the Department of
Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education”. In 2003, initial conversations between Robert and Antoinette (then
Acting Director: Community Interaction at SU in a unit called University Stellenbosch Service-Learning and Community
Interaction - USSC) explored the viability of offering a SL study abroad program at SU. “I also visited universities in the
USA to gain a better understanding of CE and SL in other parts of the world. On one of these trips abroad the
international office sponsored my trip to visit the University of Indianapolis (UIndy) during which I met Bill Ayres. I
realised that UIndy had the advantage of practicing SL for a long time while SU was still finding its feet in establishing a
foundation for CI”. We decided in principle to pursue an inter-institutional relationship based on our mutual interest in SL.
In the United States of America (USA) a longstanding role of universities was to develop good citizens resulting in
different types of community-university relationships and engagement and amongst others SL (Thomson, Smith-Tolken,
Naidoo & Bringle 2010). CHESP utilised expertise from SL scholars from the USA to inform their work in SAHE. Through
CHESP, Robert Bringle, then from Indiana University Purdue University Indiana (IUPUI), held a workshop at SU
attended by thirty scholars from all the faculties in the University. Ten of these scholars showed interest to develop a SL
module as part of a pilot project to determine the viability of SL for the institution. In 2005 a capacity-building program
was launched at SU with sponsorship from CHESP. Antoinette reflects: “I just returned from the USA where I attended
the annual National Outreach and Engagement Conference for the second consecutive time in 2004. It was during this
time that I met Phylis Lan Lin during my second visit to the USA” she recalls. The University of Indianapolis Press was
just established (2003) and were exploring connections to generate publications against the background of a regional
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initiative in Indiana that led to the establishment of the Indiana Campus Compact and strengthening their relations with
other universities and national organisations. By then SU had appointed Prof Julian Smith as the Vice-Rector who will
take responsibility for the proliferation of community interaction. A policy and plan for community interaction (CI) was
completed and provided a foundation for institutionalising CE and SL.
Against this background Rona and Antoinette visited UIndy again and the ISSL 2005 was discussed and planned. The
idea was to bring together a small group of around thirty people and this was also the reason that it became a
symposium and not a conference. Stellenbosch would host the first one and then alternate with Indianapolis. An
institutional agreement to this end was signed between the leadership of the two institutions and the ISSL was born.
Editorial
Writing about the past can take a historical character where the sequence and the content of the events are merely
described. Through critical narrative reflection past events and experiences can be documented and reflected upon,
guided by the interpretation of the narrator. Through reflection the underlying meanings through which ISSL came to
fruition and what motivated its continuance and sustainability was the focus of the preface. With this editorial we aim to
engage reflectively on the ideas, questions, themes, intersections, variants that evolved over time since the inception of
the ISSL, and not in a sequential order, but rather conflated within the reflection. We will use a reflective narrative style
to revisit the birth of the idea of the ISSL, the trajectory it took from local to transnational and what informed this, and
how SL evolved alongside this conceptually and theoretically. Our thinking is guided by a constructivist approach in
which the production of knowledge, the innate meanings and differential understandings of SL across the globe (also the
title of the paper series) becomes a core feature for reflection. We would argue that a narrative approach becomes
relevant in a transnational context and which will be illustrative of the poster sessions, storytelling, seminars, workshops
and research presentations of a global family gathering together on the African continent for the 5th ISSL, to share their
experiences with and amongst each other.
We encourage the participants of this symposium to be open to the challenge of critical self-reflection; to listen truthfully
to the experiences, insights and wisdom of scholars from across the globe, unfiltered by own contextual and possibly
limiting understandings. It is by listening and finding similarities, but especially also subtle differences, that we might find
innovate and creative pathways towards a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities presented by
engaging in the transnational domain.
The ISSL journey from local to transnational
Introduction
The 5th International Symposium Service-Learning (ISSL) – From Local to Transnational brings together scholars
from eight countries to share their ideas, stories, practices and knowledge. The focus of this this symposium is to
develop theoretical and conceptual frameworks globally to proliferate the practice of service-learning (SL) in different
contexts. This purpose will guide our reflection.
Symbolism of ‘local’ and ‘across’
Reflecting about the inception of the ISSL brought the realisation that the collaborative relationship that evolved between
the University of Indianapolis (UIndy) and Stellenbosch University (SU) were driven by firstly institutional strategy and the
people who were charged to operationalise that strategy. The symbolism of ‘local’ was demonstrated by the two
universities’ strategy to better connect with their communities, and they were driven by a quest for knowledge that could
enrich and advance what they do in their own communities. The symbolism of ‘across’ features the different dimensions
in which the crisscrossing of ‘across’ evolved. The first crossing between universities and communities happens within
universities realising the importance to be relevant to communities but also driven by the need to expose students to real
life situations in order to connect theory and practice. Such connections typically happen within a disciplinary context, but
are also driven by the type of society and country in which these connections take place. However, SL in the disciplines
alone tends to focus on the need in the community for their discipline-related services, which fragments and limits the
addressing of needs in the community with which they engage.
Editorial
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When these connections are formed from an institutional basis, the consequence is focused interaction of all the
resources of the university with different communities in whether they are based on interest, geography or association. A
further consequence is that on institutional basis, there could be a move to interdisciplinary work. Institution-based
engagement however proofed not to be as easy as it seemed logic. Resistance to change and lack of leadership to drive
such initiatives are easier said than done. Knowledge to address this challenge is needed and in SA was addressed by
an initiative in SA namely Community Higher Education Service Partnership (CHESP) fulfilling the same role as Campus
Compact in the US, but on a smaller scale.
This second crossing is the result of our own lack of knowledge which creates the opportunity to learn from others in
neighbouring or national institutions (local to national). In SA, as in the US, initial funding were mobilised to initiate
processes in universities and SL courses proliferated coupled with research initiatives and capacity-building processes
nationally. National processes made a natural progress of sharing theory, concepts and practice across country
boundaries.
Around 2004-5 international education was a prominent phenomenon and SL was seen as an opportunity to not only
study abroad, but for students to immerse themselves in the culture and lifestyle of other countries, while sharing their
knowledge. These intercultural connections symbolises the third crossing that was characterised by the realisation that
one culture cannot simply transfer their understanding on another culture. A differential understanding of cultures and
communities was necessary to make the connections across country borders successful and meaningful. Antoinette
recalls her reflection of the 2005 symposium at the welcome event of the ISSL 2007 in Indianapolis:
“This event [ISSL 2005] illuminated the importance of such interaction in search for new knowledge about the theory
and practice of service-learning. It brought to the fore the quality assurance, logistics, ethics and many different
aspects of institutionalising service-learning that tends to lie on the periphery of the field. The different interpretations
of the term service-learning almost created a hybrid transnational best practice. For Stellenbosch University it
marked a new dispensation of positioning itself as an institution that made a paradigm shift towards academically-
based service-learning within the approach of integrating teaching, research and community interaction”.
The sharing of knowledge and awareness of cultural diversity brought about two distinctive pathways that led to the
combined quest to contribute to the internationalisation of SL. The first was a consciousness of the character of the
country and the culture(s) in which SL is practiced. The second was to build SL around the culture, but at the same time
drawing from international theory and practice and customising it to local contexts. Another part of the reflection at 2007
symposium:
“Recently, our new Rector/Vice-Chancellor was installed. He introduced his vision for our University as “building a
pedagogy of hope” quoting the author Paulo Freire. He urged our University to be one of meaning and significance
who rethinks the implication of democracy for the curriculum. The agenda of creating socially responsive knowledge
needs to furthered, creating both more wealth, at the same time creating hope for the poor and destitute to access
the created resources. How is service-learning aligned to do this rethinking and how can this conference make a
contribution to this call? I am convinced that the universities presented in this room can become the incubators of a
pedagogy of hope? I challenge you to assess the relevance of your work not only for student learning and
competence, but the relevance it has to the international development agenda as espoused by the Millennium
Development Goals of which the eradication of poverty and related ailments, the strive for world peace, and the
improvement of quality of life are just a few”.
Multidisciplinary models for SL were generated and enriched the practice of the different countries and even continents
as the ISSL progressed and grew. The internationalising of SL symbolises the fourth crossing and a movement to an
international focus. What evolved from this crossing, was taking the ISSL to two other continents namely Greece in
Europe (2009) and to Ningbo in China (2011). Phylis Lan Lin articulates the implications of this crossing in the 2011
proceedings:
“While service-learning has been institutionalized in some areas, such as South Africa and the United States, and
also in Taiwan and Hong Kong (Taiwan Normal University and Lingnan University are two of the leading universities
in Asia, and Lingnan University is also a member of Campus Compact), service-learning on Mainland China, for
example, is a burgeoning enterprise. Holding this conference at NIT means there will be a growth in awareness of
service-learning in higher education institutions in China.”
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The meanings that underpinned the continuance of the ISSL were the real drivers of the sustainability of this series of
symposia. One tends to think it is driven by organisation, planning and creative ideas, but those elements were mere
products of underlying meanings and understanding that was developed over the years with SL being the common
denominator that stimulated the being, thinking, sharing, conceptualising, theorising and practicing.
The legacy of the ISSL and focus of ISSL in 2013
The legacy of these symposia that were held the past eight years on four continents across the globe, namely Africa,
Asia, North America and Europe, continues with the fifth one in 2013. Scholars from eight countries will come together to
share their ideas, stories, practice and knowledge. When it is taken into consideration that SL is not only practised on the
four continents but also in Australasia and South America, it is safe to deduce that SL may become a movement
worldwide.
Research is the key to develop any practice into a field of enquiry. Academic books, journal articles and journal special
editions on SL have proliferated over the last twenty years (SJHE; Education as Change 2007). Through the ISSL a rich
body of knowledge was produced by capturing the presentations into chapters of four book publications that have seen
the light as a result of these symposia (Wiegand & Lin elsewhere in this publication). With the fifth symposium underway,
the University of Indianapolis Press presents a tangible record of the excellent presentations and papers that
characterised the symposia. Many of the presentations at the ISSL were also reworked in publications in peer-reviewed
journals and other books. This paper series is a continuance of the legacy and a contribution to add to the existing body
of knowledge.
ISSL 2013 will take the legacy a step further by focusing on the global context of service-learning and through the notion
of thinking global and acting local. The guiding questions of the ISSL 2013 emphasise the quest to develop theoretical
and conceptual frameworks globally and proliferate the practice of service-learning in different contexts. The questions
guiding the symposium and this paper series are:
How can what we do locally be shared across the globe?
How can we develop a global service-learning (or community-engaged learning) language?
Which theoretical and conceptual frameworks underscore such global practice of service-learning?
How can research contribute to understanding service-learning in different contexts?
How can we develop students’ and faculty’s consciousness of the global-local nexus?
Which graduate attributes will be strengthened by global academic citizenry?
How do we contribute to local development agendas and how can we feed in to international development
agendas?
Developing SL as a field of enquiry is eminent to informing the fostering of service-learning where it is still unknown and
strengthening current theory and practice. Students and faculty are the key role-players in the proliferation of service-
learning. They must be enabled to become engaged scholars and citizens who consciously align their learning and
research to addressing the most pressing challenges of society as portrayed in local and global development agendas.
Service-learning transcended community service to become a scholarly action which has the potential to be a vehicle to
produce graduates and faculty who embrace engaged citizenship in their local environment.
When reading these papers, we identified the overarching theme characterising each individual paper. It is important to
note and interestingly so, that the themes that emerged through all the ISSL symposia, were then also the ones that we
used to group the fourteen papers of the series together, and also in a similar chronology. This ordering happened
unconsciously and even serendipitously, and therefore not intentionally. This thematic positioning of papers allowed for a
more conventional ordering and typology for describing what each of these papers are focusing on, but at the same time,
allowing us to identify and reflect on the meanings and understandings that underpin each of these papers. Therefore,
after grouping the papers together, the following themes emerged and which is also presented in this particular order
and mirroring the themes that emerged via the ISSL symposia over time:
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Contextualisation
UIndy PRESS
The first paper: University of Indianapolis Press & Service-Learning: Innovative and Cutting-Edge Practice by
Wiegand & Lin gives an overview of service-learning books that were published by the Press over the past decade and
some of them as an outcome of the International Symposium on Service-Learning (ISSL) held biennially the past eight
years. In this paper the authors give their interpretation of how the ISSL started and how it evolved over time and in
different settings. They analyse the contributions of the published books thematically and emphasise the shifts in focus.
What is unique about their analysis is the paradigm shifts in the focus over the eight years of the existence of the ISSL.
The initial focus was on models of service-learning and was based on the practice in local universities that are reaching
out to others in a quest to improve their own practice. The thematic tracks that evolved from the first symposium were
loosely the same across all the symposia and covered most of the key elements that mark the distinct character of SL.
In this paper the authors identified a number of themes that cut across the different publications that show similarities to
the thematic tracks as mentioned earlier namely: Institutionalization of Service-Learning; Curriculum Development;
Paradigms for Teaching, Learning & Pedagogy in Higher Education which is the title of the 2007 book; Community
Engagement for Community Needs; Community Engagement for Student-Learning; Integrated Community Needs &
Student Learning; Intercommunity, Intra-national, International and Interdisciplinary Collaborations: Evaluating Outcomes
of Service-Learning.
The themes address the key roles and responsibilities of the different groups that engage in SL processes such as
universities, community organisations, academics, students and community members. It would be interesting to do an in-
depth study of what underlying theory, conceptual frameworks and practice underscores these themes. What can we
learn from that to guide and accompany us in our journey to the transnational domain? It does not seem possible if we
are unable to learn from the past and transform what we do. Colburn & Newmark (2007) describe a paradigm-shift in
higher education brought on by social, political and academic changes that embraced the use of service-learning as an
effective pedagogical strategy for student and community transformation.
In the last decade the mode of knowledge creation, the purpose of knowledge and engaged scholarship has moved
rapidly to the fore in literature and academic rhetoric. Subsequently transformation in education was imminent of which
South Africa and China (see Jin and Zhu in this volume) are good examples. The transformation of education can be
enhanced by collaborative teaching, learning and research with and within communities, while emphasising the
importance of benefit for students and community. The contextual character of this paper lays the foundation of
understanding the content of the Paper Series as similar themes evolved from the rest of the fourteen papers. What is
different to the papers that follow is their focus that shift to the fifth crossing to the transnational domain where the
viability of local theory and practiced may be transferable to other contexts.
Institutionalisation
Elements for SL
Swanzen in her paper Elements needed for Service-Learning in an International Higher Education Institution in
the South African context presents a literature overview to identify what elements are needed for the successful
implementation of SL using the case of an institutional field placement unit in the institution where she is employed.
Using an appreciative enquiry approach and methodology, she uses the first two stages which are: the problem analysis
and project planning; and the information gathering and synthesis stages. She evaluates the unit against requirements
drawn from literature and exploring the perceptions of students, field supervisors in the community, peers and leadership
about the unit. She envisages the design of an in-service training model for implementing of SL in the institution as a
further step in the research process.
This paper’s contribution is the in-depth literature overview of the elements that were identified on three dimensions,
namely structural elements in the institution, pedagogical elements relevant to academic learning and engagement of the
community in collaboration processes. She offers a framework for institutions in to apply in their own contexts, which
transcend the tick list of what is necessary to make CE work. The importance of institutional structures conducive to SL,
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interdisciplinary work, cultural sensitivity and the value of community input and understanding in and of the curriculum is
illuminated and motivated and grounded in existing literature. The research of the perceptions of the respondents
reveals the possible stumbling blocks that might hinder the implementation of SL. The use of Appreciative Enquiry as
research methodology is well demonstrated. The author reflects on her own practice and takes the reader on a journey
of trying to find answers in literature and hearing the voices of others in her institution. The community’s lack of
participation is a question left unanswered. It might surface when she advances this research to the next stages.
Institutional model
The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University,
China) paper by Jin and Zhu presents the ATAS model as institutional framework aimed at enhancing student ability
through the attainment of applied skills that would make graduates relevant, employable and suitable for industry. The
Chinese government mandates universities of technology to sustain close working relationships with industry, which
becomes a key role-player for shaping and revising curricula. Graduates are also required to have the knowledge to
address the regional economic and social challenges of the country. Since the incorporation of SL concepts within the
ATAS framework, student performance improved. This example is illustrative of the institutionalisation of SL embedded
within a Chinese educational philosophy and framework (ATAS) for ‘teaching and learning’. Civic responsibility is highly
valued in this context. A bursary scheme for needy students requires that the bursary is not to be paid back in monetary
terms, but rather, by doing a similar ‘public good’ in the future. It is up to the consciousness of the citizen to ‘pay it
forward’.
It could be important to have a closer look at the ATAS model, and to follow up on the claims of its transformative nature
or the link to Chinese educational philosophy; and thinking how this philosophy which also incorporated SL within
(ATAS), might have impacted SL. It is further mentioned that the ATAS model aims to ‘cultivate’ ‘talents’ and practical
skills. The use of ‘cultivate’ instead of educate or teach, is interesting. It appears that ‘cultivate’ has more meanings
attributed to it, and is also typically used in agriculture. This might have deep-rooted cultural meaning if connected to
Chinese society being mainly agrarian for centuries. The idea of ‘talents’ is not explicitly discussed. On the other
dimensions of the paper, it would be worthwhile to engage colleagues with questions directed at what it means to work in
this context as universities and with such strong direction from government and industry on academic outcomes. Another
focus could be to explore institutionalisation in this context, and understandings thereof that might be significantly
different to understandings in the Western context.
Responsive leadership
The paper Responsive leadership as service for curricular engagement at South African universities: narratives
from academics of Gerda Bender, focuses on the development of leadership for SL. She contends that experience in
the field of SL has shown that, without the support of the leadership of universities, SL will remain on the periphery of
teaching and learning, also quoted by Gerda Bender from her own work in this volume: “These issues indicate the
importance of a well-planned and properly implemented leadership and academic development plan which emphasises
an SL initiative (Bender 2007; 2008b)”. She problematizes the “attributes [that are expected] of the academic leader and
of the service-centred leader… in the local-global nexus”. Apart from her contribution to clarify how narrative enquiry may
be used in research of CE issues, she uses narrative to firstly gauge her own reflection and secondly that of peers who
are service-centred leaders in their respective universities. Initially one wonders what the meaning of the term ‘service-
centred leaders’ is, but that meaning is clarified as those scholars in an institution who are charged to take leadership in
curricular CE of which SL may one component. Professional development is proposed for such leaders, based on their
voices and needs which she endeavours to explore in this paper.
Becoming an engaged scholar often poses many challenges because it is a growing phenomenon, but not a fully
accepted one worldwide. The mode 1-mode 2 nexus of knowledge creation is still highly controversial (Gibbons,
Limoges, Nowotny, Schwartzman, Scott, & Trow 1994). Engaged scholars mostly tend to embrace the philosophy of
creating useful knowledge that benefit the communities they engage with. Engaged research and practice pose a
challenge of traditional scholars who are often sceptic of the mode 2 research methodologies. Bender provides a
framework of attributes and expectations of the service-centred leader. Such scholars may find this framework useful in
pursuing this form of leadership.
Editorial
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Curriculum design in different disciplines
Integrating SL into the practice teaching system
One of the editors learned valuable lessons through engaging with the authors Yang and Cai in the writing of their paper
An appraisal of integrating service-learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System while grounding it in Chinese
educational philosophy within the Chinese context. One of the innate meanings of transnational became for us to
engage in the culture and thinking of those different from our own. We became aware of the unique style of writing and
the metaphoric inclination of Chinese educational philosophy. In our western frame of mind and adhering to the
requirements of rigorous research, we wanted to box this contribution into context, research method, findings and
conclusion. However, while engaging with one of the authors, the deeper meanings of this work surfaced. The institution
referred to, adopted a specific institutional model (see Jin & Zhu above). The authors of this paper situated their English
as foreign language in the context of this model. What is unique, is how the link between theory and practice is made
and the how their design is deeply ingrained in Chinese educational philosophy. The transnational connection is made
by connecting the Chinese philosophy to the educational theory of praxis of Dewey who earned great respect in China.
The following words of the authors sum up the philosophy of their paper’s context: “Ancient Chinese philosophy holds
that the ultimate goal of education is to foster a whole person. A whole person is someone who grows to be physically,
spiritually, socially and intellectually sound, the virtue or moral perfection should be cultivated through education and
experience”.
Architecture within fringe settlements
The paper Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage: Four constructed studies into service-learning by Scott Shall
focuses on architecture as discipline and engages the question of the nature of involvement of architects within fringe
settlements both local and international. He argues that the role assumed by architects within fringe settlements has
significantly expanded beyond familiar boundaries of the discipline, and as a result of this, contemporary architectural
practice is challenged and inevitably also the identity of the architect. Also, the chances for seeing an increase in
socially-conscious design in the 21st century, is limited, unless more architects and designers are willing to break from
conventional and traditional moulds. The author asks a set of constructed questions in relation to the presumed role of
the architect as being either an insider (becoming immersed in the context of inquiry) or outsider (instigator, assuming a
more traditional role) while operating in these fringe settlements. Thinking on a methodology level, he poses the question
if this role should be thát of an engineer (carefully analysing, calculating – more typical role) or rather thát of bricolleur
(constructing small scale, iterative engagement out of material, resources and methods at hand)? Each of the projects
described in the paper are part of an on-going series of constructed questions to this end.
This paper is of particular relevance for service-learning and curriculum design. As localities for service-learning, the
complexities presented by these fringe settlements appear to be ‘ideal contexts’ for deeper and more meaningful
learning and experiencing dissonance, but also for creative thinking and for fostering civic and social responsibility. The
unique context requires rather flexible, innovative and creative strategies to curriculum design. SL in this context could
potentially foster the cultivation of a new kind of architect or designer, and who values and understands the importance
of socially-conscious design. Ideas presented in this paper also speak to meaning in relation to the transnational.
American faculty and students (from various disciplines) collaborating (with various actors) in different contexts and
spaces within the fringe, is an example. This paper provides rich content and substantive detail as a basis for generating
questions around the nature of collaborations and relationships in these spaces, and that can be directed to the
author/presenter during the symposium.
A simple SL project for an MBA Operations Management class
Earlier we referred to the debate on which disciplines are conducive to the SL approach. In the history of ISSL there
were very few presentations on SL in the economic and business sciences. The books published from presentations in
the four past ISSL’s do not include one such study. What makes the paper Designing a simple service-learning
project for an MBA Operations Management class authored by Johan Jordaan a noteworthy contribution is the
literature study on similar studies in the management sciences and his focus on a Master of Business Administration
(MBA) Operations Management (OP) module in the SA context. The author expresses the doubt he had about the
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applicability of SL pedagogical principles to OP and refers to his implementation of the module as an ‘experiment’.
Through his thorough literature review he finds the answers. This illuminates the importance of practitioners to reflect
and write about their work. The value of publications was discussed earlier to inform the proliferation of SL. Jordaan also
review the impact of SL in other related disciplines. Reflecting on this paper, the question comes to mind that SL in the
disciplines could be the theme of a future ISSL. When he tables the steps of a SL project and the criteria for success the
theory-practice nexus again surfaces with emphasis on equal benefits for students and the community.
Conceptual frameworks and paradigms
African value and philosophy
One of the papers that demonstrate how an African value and philosophy may be employed to enhance or cultivate
patient-centred socially responsive graduates in Pharmacy, is the paper Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit
with service-learning in Pharmacy by Van Huyssteen and Bheekie writing from the South African context. The word
cultivation is used as a metaphor derived from the agriculture history of pre-industrial subsistence. This same word also
features in Chinese history and educational discourse (See Jin & Zhu in this publication). The meaning of Ubuntu is
unpacked and similarities to health-related graduate attributes in the SA context are indicated. This construct illuminates
the collective interdependence of African societies in contrast to the valuing of individualism in Western societies. The
authors signify that: “The African ‘way’ tends to lend itself more naturally/easily to transformative learning theory,
because it is an internally (being-) centred approach and not an external (‘having’) approach which is more synonymous
with Western thinking”. Within the context of curriculum design, the values of Ubuntu may encourage students’ deeper
engagement of the selves in their work in communities. The potential of this is demonstrated in the presentation of two
modules where this philosophy guided the programmatic design. As editors we believe that across the globe scholars
may learn more about non-western contexts resulting in transforming their students to become global citizens.
SL models for success and sustainability
The conclusion that SL partnerships can only be sustainable if connected to institutional mission and strategy,
mandating faculty to teach, learn and research in a community engaged paradigm, is made by Crandell, Pariser,
Wiegand and Brosky of the paper Community-academic service-learning programme models for success and
sustainability in the USA context. The longevity of these collaborative relationships is sustained by tangible and
intangible institutional resources, the commitment of faculty and students, and the benefit to the community who trusts
and reciprocate the investment. The interrelatedness of the three core functions of a university is also emphasised in this
integrated model. The meaning derived from the two examples of university-community partnership that has proved to
be sustainable over time is that institutional acknowledgement is motivational if equal value is placed on engaged
scholarship. Academics’ involvement in CE is not sustainable if it has no benefit for the furthering of their career, despite
the personal accomplishment that one may experience in the engagement with the community.
Health systems transformation through comparative leadership
The Lancet Commission’s report on Health professional education for the 21st century (2010) had a significant impact on
HE institutions who were ethically obligated to respond to the call of transforming health education to better meet rapidly
changing, global health needs (which is also reflected in the contribution of the next paper following by Waggie and
Laatttoe). One component of reform, includes the adoption of a new set of professional competencies, such as
interprofessional teamwork, collaborative leadership, community engagement, social accountability, and change
management within complex systems. The Commission also recommended SL as chosen pedagogical strategy. The
Institute of Medicine (IOM) Board on Global Health selected university collaborates from four countries (Canada, India,
South Africa and Uganda) to develop leadership programmes based on the Lancet Commission recommendations. The
purpose of the paper Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership: Making change happen! by
MacPhee, Paterson, Tassone, Marsh, Berry, Bainbridge, Steinberg, Careau and Verma is to “describe the work of the
Canadian Interprofessional Health Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC), who were tasked to develop, implement, evaluate
and disseminate an evidence-based collaborative health leadership programme”. The paper presents how the research
was operationalized using four approaches. After a synthesis of findings, a conceptual framework for the leadership
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programme was developed. In this conceptual framework, social accountability and community engagement are
identified as core principles of enactment, while service-learning combined with blended learning, are the designated
pedagogical strategies. Core leadership competencies will reflect the transition from self-leader development to
collaborative leadership, which is considered as necessary component for successful transformative change within
complex health systems.
What is significant of this study is the rigour of the research and evidence produced that aligns closely with the
philosophy, values and theoretical underpinning of SL. The study also affirms the relevance of SL as pedagogy when the
learning environment requires of participants to make sense of complex global issues, while having a framework and
context (community-based SL) for ‘translating’ this understanding within to the local. This community-engaged SL
collaborative leadership programme, has the potential to become an exemplar for professional health education and
service-learning, and we encourage our colleagues to report back on the next phase of testing or refining the programme
within the Canadian context, as well as then on the implementation of the programme.
Interprofessional education and practice
The authors Waggie and Laattoe present in their paper Interprofessional education and practice: two community
based models a case for interprofessional education and practice by showcasing the development and lessons learnt of
two distinct models of interprofessional education offered in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (FCHS) at
the University of the Western Cape (UWC). Model 1 is an interdisciplinary community-based practice model presented
as an interdisciplinary module, and Model 2 is a interprofessional community-based practice (ICBP) programme. Both
module and programme make use of SL as pedagogical approach. With this paper the authors aim to add to current
thinking around the transformation of health professions education (which is also a core focus of the previous paper by
MacPee et al.) and to assist other higher education institutions in their own processes of creating interprofessional
curricula. The literature study reveals that “future health professionals often begin their training with a stereotypical view
of their own field and those of others and that they are socialised through immersion in the representations and culture of
their own profession, limiting opportunities to develop interprofessional collaboration skills. Lack of knowledge about
basic concepts of collaboration and issues facing other professions, coupled with limited teamwork skills, and lack of
understanding of the role of each profession, can hinder effective collaboration between professionals”. This presents a
similar line of thinking as the previous paper which focuses on the development of collaborative leadership programme.
Although the recommendations of the study include core structural aspects that signify the need for a common
framework and acceptance of ‘ownership’ of interprofessional education; and the strengthening of institutional structures
and logistics to support the implementation of programmes. A valuable contribution of this study, is that the models
presented has been tested and evaluated over time, presenting strong evidence which is grounded in practice, for
arguing their case of adding value to existing knowledge and to inform programme development. The issue of
‘ownership’ highlighted by the authors is of key importance for health science educationalists designing and developing
programmes, which is also informed by community development practice. Some elements of localisation and
incorporating local voices, is a key requisite for taking up ownership and associated responsibilities.
Framework for CE in HE
The introduction of CE as a third core function created the perception that the three functions of teaching and learning,
research and CE function as adjacent silos. Although some universities may maintain this model, connectedness and
integration of the core functions is widely supported (see Crandell et al above). Wilson supports this stance in her paper
A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education in a South African context. In the
literature overview of this paper strong arguments are made for teaching, learning, research and service to be integrated
in a post-graduate program. However, in the underlining meanings, the author point out the challenges that accompany
this integration. Students find it less difficult to learn theory in class and apply it in practice, but the finer nuances of really
engaging with community members’ needs and synthesising this with research, proofs to be a challenge. The aim of
community-based research (CBR) quoted from Strand et al (2003) “a partnership of students, the academics and
community members who collaboratively engage in research with the purpose of solving a pressing community problem
or affecting social change” seems to be an elusive ideal in this context. Are we as educators realistic about our students’
abilities and how can we overcome this difficulty?
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
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Collaborations and partnerships
International teaching practicum
The authors Graham Parr and Craig Row in their paper, International teaching practicum with a difference: When
Australian teacher education partners with South African communities and schools, uses international education
and its subsequent spin-offs such as widening the student’s experience and developing the student’s ability to be more
tolerant of cultural differences, as their point of departure. They reflect on the implementation of a practicum where one
author represents the home campus and the other one the hosting campus of the same university, working in
partnership on a study abroad initiative. The reflective way in which they first describe the setup of the international
experience and then the implementation, brings to the fore their selves (that of a person, academic and partner) that are
involved and the complexities that underscore the work of both the partners. Using reflection to prepare students, they
facilitated teamwork amongst the students through exchanging ideas and uncertainties, a component that is often
overlooked in SL. A few important meanings surface in the process that may be important for other practitioners who
embark on such an initiative. Thorough exploration of the two countries’ policy frameworks and societies, together with
the continuous dialogue between the different actors, are contributed largely to the positive experience for both students
and the community. The importance of internal partnerships between colleagues of the same university is a strong
message that underpins this paper. The reflective character and the research methodology used also opens up new
possibilities for others who are seeking to apply this method.
Powerful partnerships in Nursing
A controversial issue in doing research on partnerships, relates to who the ‘partners’ are in the relationship. Karen
Venter in her paper Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey uses the triad
relationship model of collaboration of CHESP that uses a rather indistinct description of the partners namely higher
education, service providers and community (HEQC/JET 2006). Reading the text, one discovers that the actors in the
relationships are the students, academics (educators) and the community members. A critical reflective question that
should be asked is to what extend can one educator and a group of nursing students be representative of the ‘institution’
or even higher education? The author focuses clearly on individual relationships that is being fostered over time and
striving to be mutually beneficial to all those involved. Smith-Tolken (2010) argues that collaborative relationships are
different on curricular level than those between institutions in society such as universities and municipalities. The levels
of ‘partnerships’ and the differentials between them is a topic that should be researched further. The contribution of
Venter is the reflective dialog between the ‘voyagers’ including herself. The finer nuances of the meanings that are
generated through this reflexivity reveal the deeper engagement of the actors with each other. Through the action
research process, they refine and maintain the collaboration and the particular methodology is effectively used to give
voice to all the actors involved. This is an exemplar how this form of research can be applied in a SL context.
Summative remarks
In order to make sense of contributions in this series, “Service-learning across the Globe”, we first considered the
meanings attributed to each of these words “Service-learning”, “across”, and the “Globe”. With regards to service-
learning, and using a reflective narrative framework, we were carefully reflecting on the innate meanings and differential
understanding of SL. ‘Innate meanings’ refer to distinctive or inherent [innate] value or significance or implications
[meaning] considered by authors as represented in their own narratives or approach taken when they wrote their papers,
although it might not have been intentionally nor explicitly conveyed. Meaning is a core component of a social
constructivist framework and for our purposes, finding the meaning attributed to SL as our main objective. Another level
of making sense of SL as pedagogy, or we would also argue as ‘phenomenon’, was based on the idea of ‘differential
understanding’, where this construct refers to difference, variance, distinction, gaps, discrepancies [differential] as
descriptive of a particular kind of [understanding] as appreciative, considerate, thoughtful, kind. Take note that these
descriptors are not exhaustive and that we as subjective readers could have missed some key meanings and
understandings in our own process of identifying these, or as a result of being influenced by our own biases.
In dissecting the meaning of ‘across’, this section was discussed in detail earlier in this narrative when looking at the
ISSL historically and the themes that emerged in relation to the spatial components of experiences, and as
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conceptualised through the consideration of meanings and understandings related to the local through to the
transnational. By considering direction and different localities, it highlights the themes of ‘interconnectedness’ (supportive
of the power of SL to provide its scholars with a particular identity) and ‘variance’ (highlighting the potential for
differences, often subtle but most probably significant). An important lesson in this is to sharpen our awareness for
cultural and contextual sensitivity when meeting in the transnational space. Although we might believe, for example, that
SL as pedagogy originated in the USA, we should be cautious of potentially hegemonic interpretations that might limit
our chances for effectively engaging, comprehending, listening and collaborating in the transnational space.
Finally, engaging SL across the ‘globe’ has particular meaning, that not only refers to global, but that speaks to the
theme of internationalisation, considered to be part of the original impetus of the ISSL as described in earlier parts of this
editorial and preface and in particular linked to the historic and contextual factors that resulted in the collaboration
between UIndy and SU. Furthermore, and which would be discovered through engagement at the 2013 ISSL, would be
avenues of engaging transnational spaces and this would most likely be linked to the themes of global citizenship, the
sharing of global expertise and how SL transcends the local, regional, national, international border to be transnationally
relevant.
After-thought
On a meta-level, it was interesting to note that meanings and understanding attributed to SL in relation to the ISSL,
emerged through several themes, of which the following three stood out:
SL as phenomenon draws the actors (us) together as participants (in ISSL) and emphasis placed on the nature of
these relationships indicate a highly interconnected and cohesive relationship, and on some levels, this might even
be indicative of friendships (following UIndy Press ISSL-related quotes or narrative descriptions).
SL has personal meaning for actors and forms part of our believe systems which are strongly supportive of the
inherent value of SL as pedagogical approach in teaching and learning and SL also provides a space for
developing an identity, and in particular a scholarly identity.
SL has the inherent power to not only impact on students, but also on those who facilitate learning (us and our SL
partners and communities) and can also be a transformative force for institutions.
Antoinette Smith-Tolken and Jacob du Plessis
November 2013
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
xii
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1
University of Indianapolis Press & service-learning: Innovative and cutting-edge practice
Mark Wiegand and Phylis Lan Lin
Abstract
Since 2005, this International Symposium on Service-Learning and the companion texts have been on the forefront of
theory, development, implementation and assessment, providing contemporary best-practice in higher education
service-learning. The first text in this series, published by the University of Indianapolis Press and developed from the
Indiana Campus Compact Faculty Fellows experience, explored ideas and models of service-learning from a local focus,
and provided the foundation to the subsequent International Symposia on Service-Learning. The next four books arose
from the conference papers presented in Stellenbosch, South Africa, Indianapolis, Indiana USA, Athens, Greece and
Ningbo, Zhejiang, China. With each publication, service-learning best practices, applications, theory, pedagogy,
evaluation and institutionalization have been advanced, and the scope has broadened from local to national to
international, transnational and global experiences. The purpose of this paper, based on the 106 articles published by
the University of Indianapolis Press, is to shed some light on the essence of the evolution of service-learning in higher
education over the past 10 years, through the context of these conferences and textbooks.
Introduction
Over the past 30 years, service-learning has come to be recognized as a respected and effective pedagogy in higher
education that provides tangible and intangible benefits to students, faculty, institutions, and communities. Developed
from a rich historical tradition of the university existing in partnership with the surrounding community, service-learning
has grown from informal outreach of universities into the local community, to mission-driven, curricular supported and
institutionalized teaching, learning and scholarly engagement with ever-expanding concepts of community. Service-
learning has more recently become transnational in outreach with substantial transformative power for all partners that
can significantly impact the development of students as global citizens with an interconnected world-view. Furthermore,
service-learning has fostered the globalization of higher education through institutional international discussions,
collaborations and partnerships. Driving the maturation of this collaborative, partnership-driven pedagogy has been an
expanding body of literature that has described service-learning theory, best practice, curricular development,
institutionalization, outcomes assessment, economic impact and the development of inter-cultural understanding. The
purpose of this paper is to summarize and describe the evolution of common themes of service-learning practice that
have grown from the four International Symposia on Service-Learning and subsequent published proceedings of these
conferences.
Since the early 1990’s, the Indiana Campus Compact (ICC) and its many key collaborators have played a fundamental
role in providing forums for discussion and dissemination of service-learning pedagogy, scholarship and research. The
ICC provided a centralized consortium of colleges and universities in Indiana that responded to appeals for higher
education to re-connect with the community through engaged activities, including scholarship and service-learning
(Bringle et al, 2000; 2005). Key to this calling was the formation of national organizations promoting community-
academic partnerships (e.g., Campus Compact; Campus Outreach Opportunity League; Learn and Serve America) and
Boyer’s seminal work on redefining the academy (1990) and its relationship with the community (1996). It was from
these events that the ICC was established in the 1995-1996 academic year through a grant from the Corporation for
National Service in 1995 (Bringle et al 2000; 2005). The goals of the ICC Faculty Fellows program were to develop a
core of faculty across partnering institutions to serve as “informed and effective advocates for service-learning” in order
to support others and contribute to the body of knowledge in service-learning effectiveness (Pomery & Bellner 2005:3).
The University of Indianapolis Press and Service-Learning
The University of Indianapolis Press, institutionalized in 2003, has focused on the dissemination of current thought in
service-learning through a series of books that have contributed significantly to the expanded understanding of the
implementation and effectiveness of service-learning in higher education curricula. The purpose of the book series was
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
2
to: (1) create a reservoir of scholarly work related to service-learning theory, development, implementation , outcomes,
and research ; (2) ascertain and describe common threads, interests, approaches, challenges, and opportunities for
scholars interested in service-learning; and (3) celebrate unique, innovative and successful applications, models and
best practices in service-learning pedagogy across a range of disciplines. This collection represents a body of work that
grew from the ICC Faculty Fellows program, and from subsequent symposia on service-learning that have since taken
on a decidedly international focus. The first book in the series, Service-Learning: Intercommunity & Interdisciplinary
Explorations (2005) documented the experiences in service-learning gained by the participants of the ICC Faculty
Fellows program in 2000-2001. While unapologetically local in the extent of application and partnership development, the
fellows contributing to this book dared to create a vision to expand and transform students, faculty, institutions, and
partners’ view of the world through service-learning. In 2005, the idea for a collaborative international effort in service-
learning that guided the format of subsequent texts took root when Phylis Lan Lin of the University of Indianapolis in
Indiana, USA and Antoinette Smith-Tolken of Stellenbosch University in South Africa met to explore the opportunities for
an international symposium on service-learning. Through a partnership between the University of Indianapolis and
Stellenbosch University the International Symposia on Service-Learning was established. Four such symposia have
since been held: the first in Stellenbosch, South Africa; the second in Indianapolis, Indiana, USA; the third in Athens,
Greece (on the Athens campus of the University of Indianapolis); and the fourth in Ningbo, China (in partnership with
Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University). From each of the symposia, a companion book of conference
papers has been issued by the University of Indianapolis Press. From these five books, there have been 106 chapters
published that represent not only the broad scope of service-learning best practices, but individually and collectively help
to document the evolution of service-learning understanding in increasingly complex and diverse concepts of community.
Another book will come from the Fifth International Symposium on Service-Learning, which will return to the location of
the first symposium at Stellenbosch University in South Africa in November 2013.
The 106 chapters contained in these books recognize the contributions of scholars from 69 different institutions
representing seven different countries. A tapestry of professions, collaborations, organizations, institutions, and activities
have been described, including projects and theory from such diverse disciplines as Education, Engineering, Interior
Design, Clothing Design, Health Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Art, Accounting, Business, Biology, Social Work,
Sociology, Psychology, Medicine, History and Communications. Service-learning projects described have included those
from single disciplines, or have represented multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and interprofessional collaborations, and
have arisen from service-learning courses from a single institution to alliances that were inter-institutional and
international. The writings in this series have identified partnerships with a wide range of communities in locations from
around the corner to around the world. Broadly considered, the following common threads in service-learning practice
described in this series have been identified:
Institutionalization of Service-Learning: contributions in this category have explored the relationship between
service-learning and institutional identity, mission and character, and the impact of national culture and social
influences on higher education institutional support for service-learning. Institutional best practices and theory that
support the development, implementation and sustainability of service-learning activities from local to national and
international collaborations are discussed, as well as institutional support for the development of service-learning
courses and service-learning trips (faculty development) and faculty advancement through tenure and promotion
are discussed. Examples from the book series include: Bringle et al (2000; 2005); Moore (2007); Jagla &
Lukenchuk (2009); Bringle, Jones & Pike (2009); Bryant (2011), Zhang & Lin (2011, 2013); Briere, Foulkrod & Kelly
(2013).
Curriculum Development: The development of course specific and discipline/profession-wide curricula have been
presented across many fields of study at both the graduate and undergraduate level. Examples of chapters include:
Coles (2005); Kerrigan (2007); Erasmus (2009); Wiegand & Brosky (2011).
Paradigms for Teaching, Learning & Pedagogy in Higher Education: Colburn & Newmark (2007) described a
paradigm-shift in higher education brought on by social, political and academic changes that embraced the use of
service-learning as an effective pedagogical strategy for student and community transformation. They stated
“service-learning represents a new educational paradigm that conceives the mission of the university and the
purpose of higher education in a profoundly new and creative way that emphasizes … integrative, transformative
and communal roles” (Colburn & Newmark 2007:14). Chapters in this category provide a multitude of examples
and best-practices demonstrating creative and innovative approaches to student experiential learning that
University of Indianapolis Press & service-learning – Wiegand, Lin
3
introduces the nuances and gradations of the application of the classroom to the real-life community. Examples of
applications of student knowledge base in meeting community partners’ needs include: Hessford, Barker & Locklin
(2005); and Eisenhauer (2013).
Community Engagement for Community Needs: Moore and Lin, as the editors of the third book in this series,
Service Learning in Higher Education, Paradigms & Challenges (2009), proposed three paradigms of service-
learning application based in part, on models of service-learning in South Africa and the United States. The primary
question in addressing each paradigm is “who benefits?” In the South African model, identified as Community
Engagement for Community Needs, the community is the primary entity that benefits from the service-learning
collaborative. This paradigm, driven by national accreditation dictates, allowed South African universities to play a
transformational role in the outreach to underserved peoples and communities following the dismantling of
apartheid. While numerous examples of this paradigm exist in these books, Colgan & Linington (2007); Daniels
(2013); Chan, Ma & Chin (2013); are particularly insightful.
Community Engagement for Student-Learning: The second paradigm described by Moore and Lin (2009)
shifted the focus of primary benefit from the community to that of student (the US model) and places the emphasis
on student experiential learning during community-based activities. In this model, the transformational role of
service-learning is more directed toward student attitudes and behaviours and less on community impact. Chapters
from these books that illustrate this model of service-learning are found in Gray (2005); and Marthakis (2011).
Integrated Community Needs & Student Learning: The third paradigm described by Moore & Lin (2009)
balances the needs of the community and the student and is described as an integrated ideal model of service-
learning. In this paradigm, the emphasis moves from “doing for” to “doing with” (Bringle, Jones & Pike, 2009).
Examples of this best-practice in service-learning can be found in Creighton (2009); Belcher, Henkle, Stone &
Minor (2009); and Price, Roth & Jagla (2013).
Intercommunity, Intra-national, International and Interdisciplinary Collaborations: Contributions to the
development of collaborations within the local community, the nation, and between nations abound across all the
books of this series, with the contents becoming increasingly sophisticated and global with each new edition. As the
level of collaborative relationship grows (e.g., from collaboration with local partners that enhance student
intercultural appreciation to a collaboration with international partners that enhance student cultural competence
with a sense of place in the global community), the level of institutional support and adherence to mission expands.
Moore & Lin (2009) describe international and interdisciplinary collaborations and explorations in service-learning
as a fourth paradigm. Described as “emerging” by Moore & Lin in 2009, the Third (2011) and Fourth (2013)
International Symposium in Service-Learning validated their vision “for an authentic relationship with external
communities (that) simultaneously broadens the university’s strategic planning to integrate an
international/interdisciplinary dimension into the teaching, scholarship and service functions of the institution of
higher education” (p. 12). Significant contributions to this series include the following: Cunningham, Kennedy,
Clark, Walker, Hart et al, (2009); Boakye-Boaten & Ruffin (2011; 2013); Moore & Mualem (2011); and Liu, Chang &
Wang (2013).
Evaluating Outcomes of Service-Learning: Assessing the impact of service-learning on student learning,
attitudes and behaviours, and community impact is a difficult proposition at best. However, throughout these five
texts anecdotal, qualitative and quantitative explorations of effectiveness have been described supporting the role
of service-learning in the development of skills, attitudes, and behaviours for practice and life-long outreach to
others. Over the past eight years and five books, a foundation of evaluating has been integral to these discussions
on service-learning, preparing for the Fifth Symposium which aims to “strengthen scientific contributions on service-
learning as a pedagogical tool to enhance local and global citizenship and the scholarship of engagement” (Lin &
Wiegand, 2013:11). Past examples of outcome assessment in service-learning include the following: Newmark,
Lackay, Visagie et. Al. (2007); Soto-Rojas, Martinez-Mier, Meadows & Hatcher (2011); and Ruiz & Warchal (2013).
A sixth book, Service-Learning: Theory and Practice in Higher Education, which was co-authored by Phylis Lan Lin
(University of Indianapolis, USA) and Weimin Xu (Zhejiang University, China) (2011) and co-published by Zhejiang
University Press and University of Indianapolis Press, exemplified further international collaboration in service-learning.
The book was written in Chinese for a readership in China and Asia and is one of the first books on service-learning
published in China. The purposes of the book were to (1) introduce service-learning as practiced in the USA to an Asian
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
4
audience; and (2) discuss the applicability of this pedagogical model to Chinese higher education institutions. The book
also included a comprehensive and culturally relevant introduction on how to develop and design service-learning
courses, including the assessment of course and curricular outcomes. The book cited 19 case studies from service-
learning projects rendered in Europe, America, Asia, and South Africa. The last section of the book delineated the
concepts of civic engagement and service-learning in which the western model of service-learning was compared with
the Social Practice model as currently implemented and sanctioned by the Ministry of Education in China. This book and
the ensuing discussions have significant and far reaching implications for higher education in China. It is the authors’
wish, that through this publication many universities in China will integrate and adopt the traditional social practice in
China with the institutionalized American model of social-service and develop a model with a feasible and distinctive
application of service-learning to the Chinese setting. Also unique to this entire series are the exploration of the
development and implementation of service-learning in response to significant cultural, governmental, political and
economic shifts in thought and need, and the responsibility of universities to respond to these historic developments. The
expansion of service-learning application in the United States has been well documented in the literature and has been
introduced to the Chinese educators and the administrators in higher education (e.g., Lin & Xu, 2011). Equally historic
and transformative has been the growth of service-learning activities in response to new governmental structures rising
from the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa (e.g., Colburn & Newmark, 2007; Moore & Lin, 2009), or the significant
reform of higher education in China (Zhang & Lin, 2011). A much more recent case in point is that the Ministry of
Education in China has made plans in fall 2013 to develop a standard certification that every province or city will use as
the benchmark for service-learning in higher education. The Chinese government has also sponsored research projects
on the roles and outcomes associated with volunteerism and service-learning in China. Through the collaborations and
interactions of scholars, administrators, community partners and institutions in the planning and holding of these
international symposia, similarities and differences in the development and implementation of service learning have been
explored between the USA model of service-learning, and developing or developed models of service-learning in other
countries. Both complicating and enhancing the richness of these discussions and papers have been cultural parallels
and intersecting concepts of volunteerism, experiential learning, internship and cooperative experiences, and
overarching societal needs for literacy, training and economic development. These events have provided an expanded
opportunity for comparison and contrast of different models of service-learning and the roles of cultural, society and
government in the response of higher education to community needs.
The opportunities provided through international service-learning programs and projects have prompted many
universities to form international partnerships which have become integral to the globalization of higher education.
Examples of these relationships include the visionary partnerships between the University of Indianapolis, USA and
Providence University in Taiwan, and between the University of Indianapolis, USA and Stellenbosch University in South
Africa. In these partnerships, the mission and goals of the institutions have been furthered by service-learning
opportunities that have promoted faculty and administration exchanges, student connections with other students and
community members, and community partner contacts. These interactions have not only furthered the pedagogy of
service-learning, but have enhanced institutional global outreach and understanding, stimulated institutional student
recruitment and retention efforts, and have demonstrated an impact on the local, regional and national economies.
Summary
The last 30 years have witnessed tremendous growth in the application of service-learning from local to international
settings. For the past 10 years, the University of Indianapolis Press, and the partners that have been embraced, has
been a significant contributor to the expanding body of knowledge that has supported and evaluated this form of
pedagogy and experiential learning. Through carefully designed and implemented national and international
partnerships, a vision for the role of service-learning in the international arena has developed that has aided the
advancement of students, faculty and partners’ world-view furthering the globalization of higher education. It is from this
foundation that the Fifth International Symposium on Service-Learning: Service-Learning Across the Globe: From
Local to Transnational looks to continue and build upon the work of past symposia.
University of Indianapolis Press & service-learning – Wiegand, Lin
5
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learning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 27-35.
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Authors:
Phylis Lan Lin, PhD, is Associate Vice President for International Partnerships and Professor of Sociology at the
University of Indianapolis. She is also Senior Vice President of Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign Languages-
University of Indianapolis International College in China. Dr. Lin has several additional titles at the University of
Indianapolis, including director of Asian Programs and the Executive Director of the University of Indianapolis Press. She
has a PhD in Sociology from the University of Missouri, Columbia. She has organized and chaired several international
conferences, including four in service-learning. She has written and edited more than fifteen books in Chinese and
English. In 2011, she co-authored Service-Learning: Theory and Practice in Higher Education. The book was co-
published by Zhejiang University Press and University of Indianapolis Press.
Mark Wiegand, PT, PhD is professor and dean of the Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences at Bellarmine
University in Louisville, Kentucky, USA. He teaches anatomy and is interested in the role of service learning and
professional development in physical therapy education. Dr. Wiegand received his degree in physical therapy from the
University of Kansas, his master’s degree from the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse and his PhD from the University of
Louisville. In 2002 Dr. Wiegand received the Outstanding Physical Therapist Service Award from the Kentucky Physical
Therapy Association, and was a Bellarmine University Wyatt Fellowship recipient in 2007 and a 2008 Louisville Health
Enterprises Network Fellow. Dr. Wiegand was the co-editor of Service-Learning in Higher Education: Connecting the
Global to the Local (2013) published by the University of Indianapolis Press. He is married to Dr. Judy Wiegand, is the
father of five adult children, and has four grandchildren.
Author Contact Information:
Mark R. Wiegand, PT, PhD
Dean, Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences
Bellarmine University
2001 Newburg Road
Louisville, Kentucky, USA 40205-1877
(502) 272-8368
9
Elements needed for service-learning in an international higher education institution
Rika Swanzen1
Abstract
With the exploration of the inclusion of service-learning (SL) as a form of community engagement (CE) in higher
education (HE), it is necessary to include the voice of the student, the lecturer, management and the organisation. These
four role players represent four parts of the HE partnership with the community (organisation) that assist with student
learning. Seven elements were identified from literature to guide the adoption of SL at an international HE institution.
Results will be shared from the first phases of an intervention research study towards the development of an in-service
training model for implementation of SL in the HE curriculum.
Introduction
In approaching service-learning (SL) in higher education (HE), numerous terminologies envelop the concept. These
concepts need to be understood to implement fully a true form of SL in a higher education institution (HEI). For Bender,
Daniels, Lazarus, Naude and Sattar (2006), CE can take many forms in HE, namely distance education, community-
based outreach, participatory-action research, professional community service and SL.
Service-learning is a course-based, credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate in an organised
service activity that meets identified community goals. Reflection is used for the student to gain further understanding of
course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility (Bringle, Phillips &
Hudson 2004:5). Community engagement (CE) is described as a collaborative process of building relationships with
community members, seen as groups of people affiliated by geographic proximity, special interests or similar situations,
with the end goal of working on issues affecting their collective well-being (Gottlieb 2009; Russell, Igras, Johri, Kuoh,
Pavin & Wickstrom 2008).
According to Furco (1996 in HEQC 2006), the numerous terms and definitions used to describe various forms of student
community service (or engagement) in higher education can be placed on a continuum between two important
distinctions. These two positions are the primary beneficiaries of the service (ie community or student) and the primary
goal of the service (ie community service or student learning). The boundaries between the forms of community
engagement, such as volunteerism, community outreach, internships, cooperative teaching programmes, and service-
learning are often blurred, but one characteristic all of them shared is that they all embrace a measure of experiential
learning (HEQC 2006).
Within CE, SL gives a balance between the learning requirements of the student and the needs of the community or
organisation with which the student is placed. This balance provided by SL forms the scope of this study, falls within SL
and builds from the assumption that SL would ensure a more equal approach to partnerships with the community,
focusing more effort on the type of engagement required by a country like South Africa. After the research design for the
study is explained, the seven elements identified from literature to be consideration in the adoption of SL within an
international HEI are described. The article ends with a discussion of the results of the study and recommendations.
Research design
In South Africa there has been a stronger national call, since the start of the millennium, for the shaping of citizens who
are culturally sensitive across a range of social contexts. Innovative educational transformation, community engagement
and a stronger social contract with society has become crucial (Naude 2011:487). Within this context the facilitation of an
increase in the adoption of SL in HE forms the rationale for the study. The planned outcome of the study is twofold. First,
the feedback from the students and organisations involved in an existing field placement unit can be used to evaluate
1 Head of Section: Child and Youth Development, School of Social Science, Monash South Africa.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
10
the unit against the service-learning elements for improvement, where necessary. Second, the feedback from the
lecturers and key management positions at Monash South Africa (MSA), together with the literature study, will be used to
design the content of an in-service training model for lecturers and unit coordinators who wish to introduce service-
learning in their curriculum.
A qualitative design is followed because the researcher is interested in an in-depth understanding of the respondents’
perceptions around SL in HE. The study falls within the intervention research (IR) paradigm, which is a form of applied
research in which the aim of the research includes primary intent of the practical application of the findings and not mere
exploration to broaden knowledge on the phenomenon (Fouche 2003). The study will build on existing theoretical
knowledge towards knowledge utilisation, which is the development of an in-service training model to help facilitate the
introduction of SL into the HE curriculum.
The very nature of SL implies a partnership, and these partners formed the respondent groups of the study. They are
students who completed the first field placement unit in the Child and Youth Development major at the end of 2012; field
supervisors from organisations where students were placed in 2012; lecturers and unit coordinators at MSA who are
willing to participate; and key members of the senior management team at MSA. A purposeful sampling method was
used, based on the premise that particular cases are chosen because they illustrate some feature or process that is of
interest, so the individual perspectives will have attributes to the universal (Strydom & Delport 2003). Targeting key
informants and making participation voluntary and anonymous through online questionnaires form the data gathering
strategy for the study.
Principles of appreciative inquiry (AI) are incorporated into the study to borrow from the focus on the dynamics and
perspectives of those involved. This article reports on the first two stages of the IR process which are the problem
analysis and project planning and the information gathering and synthesis stages. The selection of key informants (or
champions within an AI approach) and designing different questions towards four different data sets formed part of
identifying and involving the recipients and beneficiaries of the intended training programme. It also provides AI
cooperative search that leads to the creation of a clearer vision of what can be achieved. The recommendations
resulting from the study will provide more procedural elements for the intervention, characteristic of the design phase
of IR.
Identified elements for service-learning in higher education
Element one: institutional integration of CE practices
SL is a vehicle for CE and it must be planned, resourced and managed in a developmental manner that takes
cognisance of the needs of staff, students and the community without compromising the quality of the academic
provision (Bender et al 2006). After a decade of exponential growth of SL in HE, Butin (2006) found that, underneath the
surface, the annual budgets for SL offices remain low and that SL is overwhelmingly used by the least powerful faculties
and by the more vocational disciplines. It is important for the researcher to determine whether SL is sufficiently
institutionalised at MSA. The Council of Higher Education (CHE) of the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC)
guideline document provides key principles and practices identified as critical to the success of community engagement
through service-learning. At an institutional level, the integration of CE into the mission statement, policies, strategies,
collaborative partnerships, recognition as scholarly activity and resource allocation is seen as critical for creating an
institutional climate and context conducive to the implementation of community engagement as an integral part of
teaching and learning (HEQC 2006). The fact that CE is seen as part of the performance of academics shows that MSA
has integrated CE into institutional practices. The researcher explored whether targeted respondents believed the
integration is sufficient.
Element two: service-user involvement and civic service integration
The mission of MSA – in order to be locally relevant and to make a difference on the African continent – beseeches the
consideration of local issues in the endeavour to engage with community needs. The HEQC in South Africa sees
community engagement as a core function of higher education for its potential social development and social
transformation agendas (HEQC 2006). Patel (2007) adds that in the context of globalisation, civic service and
volunteering is emerging as a growing social phenomenon and field of enquiry with deep cultural roots in the African
Elements needed for Service-Learning in an International Higher Education Institution – Swanzen
11
context. Civic service is defined as an organised period of substantial engagement and contribution to the local, national
or world community, recognised and valued by society, with minimal monetary cost to the participant (Patel 2007).
Related concepts that embed SL principles into policies and programmes in South Africa are social development, service
user involvement and integrated service delivery. Social development is a “pro-poor approach that promotes people-
centred development, human capabilities, social capital, participation, and active citizenship and civic engagement in
achieving human development” (Patel 2007:13). Service user involvement encourages HEI to allow those people who
were or still are receiving social welfare services to provide input into the degree contents and assessments of students
(Engelbrecht, Pullen-Sansfaçon & Spolander 2010). This approach will inadvertently encourage community participation,
while simultaneously clarifying the needs of the community for integration into the curriculum. A practical way in which
service users can be involved is through representation on an advisory board that makes inputs into curriculum design.
Integrated service delivery or service integration (SI) is seen as the “procedures and structures that help several service
agencies coordinate their efforts to address the full range of service needs … in an efficient and holistic manner” (Burt,
Resnick & Matheson 1992).
With this second element, the researcher wants to explore whether cognisance is given by the HEI to the local context of
South Africa that requires service user involvement and the integration of services. To determine this, she asked
lecturers whether they are able to connect various organisations for the purpose of resolving problems within the
communities with which they are engaged. She also posed questions to the organisations about their level of
involvement in the planning of the engagement of students and the university.
Although relevant to an academic context, the first two elements involve more structural considerations for the
institutionalisation of SL. The following sections will consider academic learning elements, in other words the SL
elements identified from literature that relate to student outcomes.
Element three: cultural competence
MSA places a value on preparing students to be global citizens. Hudzik (in Whitsed & Green 2013:24-25) states that
“[y]ou can’t have comprehensive internationalisation without internationalisation of the curriculum”. Hudzik stressed the
need for wider inter- and intradisciplinary collaboration to assist academics in realising the development of global
engagement within their curricula. Killick (2012) argues that curriculum internationalisation involves the enabling of
students to develop attributes of cross-cultural capability and global perspectives to underpin their personal and
professional lives in a globally connected world, but more specifically how the students identify themselves among the
‘global Other’.
For the curriculum to prepare the student for global citizenship, two key points emerge. Firstly, the students need to
develop a sense of their place in the world, while discovering themselves in relation to other cultures. Secondly, students
need to develop global perspectives in a globally connected world. As an international university, MSA encourages
students to complete semesters at campuses in other countries and for curriculum design to incorporate global
concerns. The researcher explored this aspect by asking management about reasons that may encourage or discourage
students to make use of student mobility programmes and she asked lecturers whether they think the inclusion of
international content is sufficient to prepare students as global citizens. While SL does not automatically imply the need
for consideration of the preparation of a global citizen, its implementation at an international university adds this
requirement.
Element four: interdisciplinary teamwork
As highlighted in the previous section, global engagement within the curricula would require wider interdisciplinary
collaboration. The term ‘multi’ describes activities that bring more than two groups together to provide opportunities to
learn about each other, but ‘inter’ is more appropriately used when the activity enables members of the team to develop
a new interprofessional perspective (Wilson & Pirrie 2000). Lori Varlotta (2000) provides a schema through which an
interdisciplinary approach can be integrated with service-learning in the curriculum. According to her, interdisciplinary
theory provides an assortment of terms that help answer what type of ‘service text’ should be utilised in the course.
These are: partial service text where the faculty or department within the university may assign a one-time or short-term
project; full service text where they may expect students to uphold an on-going service commitment; narrow service text
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
12
where it may be required that all students work on related projects at the same agency; and broad service text where
each student works on a unique service project (Varlotta, 2000). This configuration can help unit coordinators, targeted
for the in-service training programme, to determine the level of service text integration and it can be used to determine
the extent of interdisciplinary integration through the service project.
To explore whether lecturers are aware of a framework that assists with the link between interdisciplinary collaboration
and the level of service involvement required in SL, she asked them whether they have knowledge of ‘inter-textual
integration’. This will alert her to the depth of SL literature they have knowledge of and identify a framework needing to
be included in an in-service training model or programme. She also included questions on the possibility of
interdisciplinary work in SL as well.
Element five: scaffolding experiential and integrative learning
Kronick and Cunningham (2013:147) state that “[p]urposeful inclusion of integration, reciprocity, and reflection should
make for a sound service-learning course”. The experiential learning process results in a reconstruction of experience; a
re-codifying of habits, an on-going questioning of old ideas; transforming students to help them revise and enlarge
knowledge, altering their practice; affecting the aesthetic and ethical commitments of individuals and altering their
perceptions and their interpretations of the world; and a non-competitive balancing of community engagement and
academic excellence demands (HEQC 2006:17). Dewey (1933) defined reflection as “active, persistent, and careful
consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge … [and a] mental activity that builds a bridge between the
human inner world of ideas, and the outside world of experience” (Bleicher & Correia 2011:31).
Huber and Hutchings (2004) confirm that disciplines are now less bounded and the humanities and social sciences are
engaged in lively trade of concepts, methods, and even subject matter. One of the great challenges in higher education
is to foster students’ abilities to integrate their learning across contexts and over time. Integrative capacities are desired
to develop the ‘habits of mind that prepare students to make informed judgments in the conduct of personal,
professional, and civic life’ (Huber & Hutchings 2004:1). The vocational relevance of academic learning emerges with
focus on skills and dispositions that enhance students’ ability to find and take advantage of new opportunities as they
arise. For these authors vocation tends to be the theme that links the different experiences that define an individual’s
education.
Reflective and integrative learning should help students to become self-directed and strategic learners with the ability to
transfer what they have learned into their field of practice. It is the role of the lecturer to scaffold the connection-making
learning activities and cross-cutting outcomes towards this goal (Huber & Hutchings 2004). For these authors, the
balance between the flexibility of knowledge and vocational focus finds its expression in service-learning where students
learn from both the classroom and the field. Gemmel and Clayton (2009) agree that student outcomes to be developed
through service learning are: an interdisciplinary perspective; the ability to apply learning from one or more areas outside
the discipline; the ability to identify and address their own learning needs; and transferable skills necessary for
employment and community involvement.
The researcher posed questions on experiential and integrative learning to lecturers to determine their knowledge of
these learning approaches. Questions directed at students explored whether they had the opportunity to learn through
reflection and whether the placement impacted on their understanding of their field of practice.
Element six: attention to administrative requirements
Incorporating SL aims into the HE curriculum requires administration of the logistics around placements and projects.
These practical logistics involve: consideration of assessing a wide range of student skills, knowledge and professional
attitude; monitoring regular attendance; facilitating adequate and appropriate supervision for students at the site and
adequate preparation, recognition and reward of those responsible for student supervision; registration, inspection and
insurance cover, pointing to the checking of minimal standards for placement; ensuring a safe environment with
organisational policies and procedures in place that should be available to the student with sufficient orientation; having
a curriculum with planned activities which meets the expectations and routines of the placement; adequate time set
aside for structured reflection on the service experience; having agreements in place between the organisation and
Elements needed for Service-Learning in an International Higher Education Institution – Swanzen
13
university that encapsulate all expectations; and proper and effective logistical arrangements made, including student
timetables and transport (Hobart & Frankel 2002; HEQC 2006).
Ability to give attention to the administrative implications of SL in HE was explored with lecturers and management
through questions about workload, assessment rigour, budget allocation and administrative needs towards CE
objectives. This section then concludes the academic learning elements and the discussion now moves to the
consideration of elements from the community partnership side.
Element seven: authentically sustainable partnerships
The SL movement claims to redirect HEI “outward toward public work rather than inward toward academic elitism’, and
SL is supposed to ‘foster respect for and reciprocity with the communities’ (Butin 2006:478,479). With SL initiatives being
open to criticism regarding their claims in reality, the need is highlighted to be specific and intentional about the
transaction between the university and the community. For this reason literature on CE is discussed next for its value of
outlining components of successfully collaborative university-community partnerships. Kronick and Cunningham
(2013:147) state that “[i]f service-learning is to be part of a course, the nuances will vary and the community component
of the course will have to be clearly explained to the community”. From literature on levels of engagement,
characteristics of empowerment, principles, norms and standards for CE and challenges inherent to university-
community partnerships, a list of guidelines was derived to ensure more authentic participation of the organisation or
community in the adoption of an SL approach (Russell, Igras, Johri, Kuoh, Pavin & Wickstrom 2008; Barnes, Altimare,
Farrell, Brown, Burnett, Gamble & Davis 2009; Seifer & Connors 2007):
The level of engagement should move from merely consultative and focusing on outreach, to cooperative with
informed and involved community members, to a collaborative level where the community are fully represented
and all stakeholders are mutually accountable.
The empowerment of communities and organisations will involve including the pre-program assessment; their
access to information; their inclusion in decision making; the development of local organisational capacity to
make demands on institutions and governing structures; and through insuring accountability of the HE to the
public.
Longer-term investment in a community partnership requires looking for interrelationships across systems and
to examine how each sector or organisation’s actions changes or influences the rest of the system, even though
such changes may be subtle and hard to detect.
The principles of community development to be integrated into programme strategies are: needing to be clear
on what the purposes of the engagement are before starting; valuing partnerships on all levels; agreeing on
methods of documentation, evaluation and indicators of expected outcomes; understanding the need for
flexibility to collaborate and share power at all levels; and matching the needs of activities with the time frame
and budget.
A major benchmark for partnerships between the university and the community is directly associated with
reciprocity of knowledge and resource exchange. Key components to these partnerships are the integration into
the mission of each partner; a transparent and robust process for communication, cooperative goal setting and
planning; and rigorous and regular evaluation of progress with measurable outcomes. Evaluation should include
both formal (such as Andy Furco’s self-assessment tool) and informal (such as anecdotal evidence) elements.
Structural features conducive to sustainable and authentic community-university partnerships include a
freestanding association joining community and university, and one or more university staff who serve as
‘critical bridge persons’ in the approach to CE. It also includes grounding relationships in meaningful and
sustainable research partnerships and networks.
Challenges to the creation of successful partnerships can be unclear boundaries; constant organisational,
management and programme changes; differing opinions and contradictory goals; miscommunication; opposing
priorities and concerns; and resistance and suspicion.
Principles, norms and standards for CE provide points for the benchmarking of SL initiatives to measure impact.
Questions around reciprocal communication, participation in curriculum design, measuring of impact, and clarity of role
expectations were directed to management, lecturers and field supervisors and organisations. The answers to these
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
14
questions give the researcher an idea of the intention and commitment of having authentic and sustainable university-
community partnerships as a requirement for the adoption of meaningful SL outcomes.
Discussion of results
The four respondent groups in the study with the number of invited participants that completed their group’s specific
anonymous online questionnaire were as follows: five members of the senior management team, nine lecturers, four
student graduates and no field supervisors from community organisations, despite numerous personalised invitations.
Not all groups had the same questions, as different respondents were purposively chosen for their ability to answer
questions to some of the elements.
The most significant findings to inform an in-service training model or programme for SL in HE are summarised in Table
1 and Figure 1, whereafter recommendations for the design of such a model will be provided. The responses from the
different groups are combined in the findings below.
Table 1: Findings on the 7 identified elements for SL in an international HE institution
= Structural elements = Academic / learning elements = Community engagement elements
SL element identified for literature
Discussion of findings
One: institutional
integration of CE practices
CE is integrated into the business plan of MSA and seen as an essential part of the aims of
the university and of the performance evaluation of staff. One respondent raised the concern
that it is not receiving the same priority as teaching and research.
Most felt the level of authority of the CE office at MSA is adequate to drive the CE agenda
throughout the campus, although some were of the opinion that the representation at senior
management level was not adequate and the perception of the CE office one of doubt.
Resources identified as existing for encouraging strong university-community partnerships
are: the international network that MSA is part of, academic contacts, emails (technology), a
community engagement (CE) office with existing partnerships, location of the campus, and
existing experience and knowledge within the institutions.
The resources indicated as needed were human resources (field coordinators for each school
or faculty), transport, help in formalising agreements within policy guidelines, legal contracts
with students and partners, strict entry requirements for students, lower teaching load for
academics who present these units, unbiased marking model for students, and integration
between the academics and the CE office.
One respondent emphasised that the sustainability of projects is dependent on the proper
coordination and professional nature of projects, while most agreed they can only stay
involved with the community on a long-term basis if sufficient funding is provided. Another
raised the concern that involvement may lie with the lecturer of the course and if the person
leaves another lecturer can change the focus of the unit.
Two: service-user involvement and civic service integration
No strong evidence of service-user involvement was provided, but a significant number of
respondents did think it possible to link the community they engage with to other organisations
to help solve community problems. The lack of time for maintaining relationships and a lack of
clarity of expectations and skills were identified as possible obstacles to this.
Elements needed for Service-Learning in an International Higher Education Institution – Swanzen
15
SL element identified for literature
Discussion of findings
Three: cultural competence Some of the respondents thought opportunities for student mobility (students studying abroad)
were sufficiently utilised. One questioned the reliability of students in managing their time and
skills and that this may be the reason for low utilisation.
A majority believed that global citizenship can be encouraged through student mobility
programmes. Concern was expressed that the opportunity should not just be seen by
students as a chance to travel and that global citizenship should not just mean
Westernisation, but mobility to experience a culture and perspectives different from their own.
Most did not believe that the integration of international theories into curriculum content is
sufficient to help the student develop into a global citizen. Struggles with obtaining work
permits to work in other countries were highlighted as a limitation of the transferring of
international learning into work opportunities.
Students agreed that MSA allows an experience of different cultures, and acknowledge that
this appreciation was also encouraged through their field placement. An added comment was
that this exposure gives rise to the challenge of language barriers.
Four: interdisciplinary teamwork
Respondents believed it possible to engage in cross-discipline work with regard to CE,
because community is not defined by disciplines, and overlap in disciplines within one school
(faculty) already exists.
Challenges to interdisciplinary teamwork highlighted by more than one respondent were that
academics like to do their own thing and do not always operate in teams and that different
departments will have different views. It was also noted that current methods of assessment
might cause obstacles to interdisciplinary teamwork.
Students did get exposure to other disciplines through their field placement.
Five: scaffolding experiential and integrative learning
Ideas provided for making learning more experiential were: providing more time in the field;
logging weekly activities; assessing participation and reporting; shadowing; workshops and
networking through conference attendance; creating simulated experiences; arranging field
trips; and use of peer assessments. It was acknowledged that the dynamics of SL may be
served less by a structured plan, leaving the lecturer more uncertain.
One lecturer warned that unintentional boundaries can be set by a single source of learning,
supporting the notion of using other forms of learning.
Practical ideas given by lecturers for the use of reflective activities that monitor self-
development showed knowledge of alternative modes of learning.
A majority of respondents did not foresee a threat to academic integrity with the incorporation
of CE through SL, and felt the standardisation of, and broadly consulting on, outcomes can
maintain such integrity. The foreseen implication is that it adds more administration and the
risk to successful application can be where the lecturer may not have sufficient skill or may
have a negative perception about SL. Concern was raised around the accreditation SL units
receive; how outcomes can be assessed if the student is not observed in the field; and
potential reputational risk for the university with poor performing students in practice.
Students acknowledged the use of reflection activities in their field placement unit. It was also
mentioned that having other staff available in the field was positive and the weekly
consistency of contact allowed time to develop relationships with clients.
The vocational benefit of the field placement was demonstrated by student responses,
indicating that their passion and understanding of the uniqueness, vastness, and complexity
of the profession had been discovered.
With regard to skills learned, the students believed they had learned about social
responsibility, leadership development, independent learning, collaboration and teamwork,
ethical and professional conduct, prioritising and organising skills, problem-solving ability, and
managing cultural diversity.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
16
SL element identified for literature
Discussion of findings
Six: attention to administrative requirements
Respondents understood that administration involved in an SL unit includes the marking of
portfolios, preparation prior to placements, a project plan with deliverables, clear
communication, and managing the students’ responses to new experiences.
On challenges with the implementation of SL, a number of aspects were listed: limited budget,
human resources, the safety of students, the lecturer’s perception, resistance to change,
unclear outcomes, lack of skills, students’ academic expectations, lack of standardised
experiences to assess students on, menial tasks given to students in practice, students’ view
of field work as less important or easy, time needed to find suitable partners, and the need for
more in-house training.
Students felt sufficiently oriented for their field placement and that initial uncertainty made
them responsible for their own learning (developing strategic learners). For preparation they
need to know what should be avoided and how to apply theoretical knowledge without
interference with the organisation’s compliance. One student said orientation gave a platform
to meet colleagues.
Seven: authentically sustainable partnerships
The respondents recognised the importance of strong collaboration with the community.
Some felt the partnering community gets an equal say in the goals and outcomes of the
community projects through the use of liaison offers serving in community structures, while
another stated that the community has no involvement in the academic curriculum. Another
respondent raised the concern that communities may not view projects in terms of curriculum
outcomes but rather based on benefit to the community.
For some, equal weight between service to the community and academic learning depends on
the type of internship and should be implemented on third-year level (student competence).
Others felt the academic learning must be completed first for knowledge to be gained in the
field. Some felt SL is more appropriate in vocationally oriented fields.
Only one respondent was aware of evaluation or benchmarking of the impact of community
engagement. This was done through annual reports, student assessments, performance
appraisals, a Monthly Social Inclusion Report, a Monthly Global Engagement Report and
benchmarking with other HEIs in South Africa.
Exposure to concepts around CE (to implement SL), like addressing the challenges of
effective university-community partnerships; qualities of effective university-community
partnerships; community-based participatory action research; a typology for student
community engagement (the continuum of service and learning goals), were lacking. Only
one respondent had knowledge of these.
One suggestion was to have a database with information about where to get involved and for
this even to lead to research collaboration. One respondent suggested that strict interview-
based enrolments should be applied to counter reluctance for involvement in the case of non-
performing students.
The researcher specifically asked lecturers their opinion on whether they see particular concepts as part of an SL
approach. The majority of lecturers agreed that experiential learning, reflective assessments, building cultural sensitivity,
encouraging the application of theory, integration of course material, and conducting a formal assessment of the
community’s needs are part of an SL approach. Fewer agreed that making use of storytelling techniques to facilitate the
expression of emotions and the use of advocacy skills towards the rights of community members to be part of an SL
approach. Very surprisingly nearly half of the respondents from the lecturer group said an international context is not one
of the concepts to consider in SL. Although this may be a normal response in a general setting, it does show that within
in international HEI setting the need to approach SL within an international context is not acknowledged.
Figure 1 shows the results on the level of knowledge that lecturers indicate they have about these concepts. This group
was asked whether they have sufficient knowledge to implement each of the concepts.
Elements needed for Service-Learning in an International Higher Education Institution – Swanzen
17
= Yes = No = Somewhat
Figure 1: Terms and concepts believed to be part of an SL model or approach
Conclusions and recommendations
Overall the results show that serious inroads have been made into the introduction of SL at MSA. Management
recognises the importance of institutionalising SL and is aware that more formal evaluation and benchmarking of projects
could assist with aligning budget allocation to needs. Although limited time within existing workloads were
acknowledged, the lecturers who participated in the study show interest in SL and identified needs around administrative
support and learning about the intricacies of an equal reciprocal relationship with the community. Most were in support of
and knowledgeable about the use of reflection and experiential learning and the benefit of interdisciplinary partnerships.
Key areas that can receive specific attention in the in-service training programme are: fully understanding the continuum
of student engagement, integrated learning practices; and assistance with listed logistical requirements (see Table 1).
It is recommended that an in-service training model be designed with a strong focus on guidelines around community
partnerships (alluded to in Table 1) as well as concepts identified in Figure 2. Sufficient information on successful
partnerships can guide the collaborative development of SL programmes with cognisance of the concern for balancing
standardised academic learning outcomes with the agenda of communities as the recipients of services. The programme
needs to incorporate aspects of culturally-sensitive, global civic service and sustainability. More specifically, attention
needs to be given to the development of a self-directed, strategic learners and the recognition of the vocational value of
SL and opportunities for interdisciplinary teamwork needs to be explored in more detail.
The feedback from the student respondent group showed that some of the identified SL elements were met in the field
placement unit. Experiential learning was in place, orientation was received, and the placement had vocational value.
Students could not say that they knew the needs of the community prior to placement, showing that more involvement of
the organisation/community is needed in their orientation. A small number of students responded; and one strategy to
obtain more detailed feedback from students is for the researcher to give the questionnaire to the 2013 field placement
students at the last seminar for this unit. Participation will remain voluntary and anonymous.
One major concern is the lack of responses by the invited organisations from the community, especially since questions
specific to addressing community needs, participation in goal setting and transparency in communication were directed
to this group. This could be indicative of a currently low level of involvement in the academic processes from their
perspective. Face-to-face interviews within an AI process are planned as part of the next phase of the IR study to find
other ways to open communication with organisations. It will also be interesting to know what the nature and frequency
of communication from the community is in other SL units at MSA. With the next phase of IR being early development
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
18
and pilot testing, planned opportunities for sharing the findings of this study are put in place to allow the researcher to
engage consultatively in further development of the in-service training model/programme.
Laninga, Austin & McClure (2012) urge: for the commitment by the participating higher education unit to be serious
because the needs are so diverse; for the contributory expertise and organisational structure to be comprehensive and
efficient; for the partnership to be long-term; and for the participatory, democratic process to be honoured by all
participants. This forms part of the researcher’s aim to address not only the current limitation of the study, but also the
missing element in successful SL adoption in HE, which is the missing voice and influence of the community. The
question stirred by this gap is whether a more authentic SL approach will not be more in line with the social development
principles that brought CE to the door of HE in the first place.
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21
The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of
Technology (Zhejiang University, China)
Weiliang Jin and Suyong Zhu
Abstract
The Ningbo Institute of Technology (NIT), which is part of the Zhejiang University in China, developed within its educational
system the Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS model in short) that provides a policy context, framework and
guidelines for teaching and learning at this university. Alongside NIT’s degree programme offering, it gives direction for
producing top-quality graduates with competencies relevant to the application-oriented focus of universities of technology.
Industry shapes this requirement of graduate competency and the ATAS model is a response to this, as well as to the
challenge of addressing the regional economic and social challenges of China. The model has a strong focus on the
enhancement of student ability through the cultivation of practical skills over the course of a degree programme, using
service-learning as a means to obtain this objective. The model provides guidelines to students to enhance their quality of
learning and to focus on the experience itself, as well as on reflection, evaluation and summation as required
competencies. These aspects are evaluated in terms of social responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills
and self-directed learning ability. Service-learning ideas were included in the ATAS model following collaboration with the
University of Indianapolis (UIndy) and developing educational programmes together. This paper also reports on the
successes of implementing the ATAS model, which has been widely adopted by many other institutions in China, that has
a transformative impact on students, academics and universities alike, as well as inspirational and rewarding on many
levels.
Contextual background
The Ningbo Institute of Technology (NIT), which is part of the Zhejiang University in China, was co-established by the
Ningbo Municipality and Zhejiang University in 2001. To become a leading university of technology with an applied
orientation focus, NIT had to be globally competitive and produce high quality graduates capable of addressing the
challenges of regional economic and social development. In the context of teaching and learning, this required designing
an education system that intentionally cultivate students to obtain practical skills and to produce graduates with applied
competencies to meet industry requirements. Starting from a clean slate in 2001 presented opportunities for NIT to
effectively design strategies to equip the institution to address these challenges.
NIT degree programmes were benchmarked using the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011) of
the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS). This is a standard framework used to categorise and report cross-nationally
comparable education statistics and provides three benchmarking components, including internationally agreed concepts
and definitions; the classification systems; and ISCED mappings of education programmes in countries worldwide
(UNESCO-UIS, 2012:6). The ISCED classification consists of parallel coding schemes (ISCED-P) for education
programmes and levels of educational attainment (ISCED-A). Within both schemes, nine separate levels are identified
(range 0-8); digit 1 – degree level and educational attainment), while in each level, complementary dimensions are used to
identify further categories (digit 2 – type of programme, for e.g. academic or professional) and sub-categories (digit 3 –
duration of programme). This results in the usage of three-digit coding systems to codify both education programmes and
educational attainment (UNESCO-UIS, 2012:21).
The focus on degree program classification systems is relevant for this paper. Within this classification system, tertiary
education falls within the range of levels 5-8 (main category and first digit), which refer respectively to short-cycle tertiary
education, Bachelor’s level, Master’s level and Doctoral level or equivalents. Of importance to NIT as university of
technology, is especially the second level categorisation (digit 2, code 5: professional degrees) on level 6 (Bachelor’s or
equivalent) and 7 (Master’s or equivalent). Professional programmes are coded as 65 or 75, and are designed to provide
participants with intermediate or advanced professional knowledge, skills and competencies, and best professional
practice.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
22
Application-oriented university
Talent with
practical skills
Ability enhancement
Service-learning
Task
Goal
Means
Sense of social responsibility
Specialised knowledge
Problem-solving skills
Self-directed learning ability
Apart from the benchmarking of degree programmes, and different to research-oriented universities, the universities of
technology set up their programme structure based on the techniques demanded by industry for professional Bachelor’s
and Master’s level degrees and aim to produce graduates with practical skills or competencies and who can undertake
applied research. Using these guidelines and linking industry requirements in addition to NIT’s degree offering, ensure
global competitiveness and industry linkages supports the challenge of addressing regional economic and social
challenges. Universities of technology constitute a major part of Chinese higher education today, and are also an important
feature of global higher education.
Responding to regional economic and social development challenges required NIT to develop partnerships and
collaborations that would inform its overarching institutional teaching and learning model. One such a partnership was with
the University of Indianapolis (UIndy) with widely recognised expertise in service learning. This partnership influenced the
design of the ATAS model as educational framework for NIT. Another key strategy, but more directed by the State,
required NIT to engage with industry to ensure that the institution meets industry required standards in its degree offering.
This occurs now in continuous cycles every semester where each school employs experts from industry to review the
academic offering. This results in a flexible and adaptable model that is highly responsive to the needs of industry and
conducive for ensuring that graduates are equipped with the required competencies. The remainder of the paper will now
focus on NIT’s institutional teaching and learning framework and strategy as represented by the ATAS model.
The ATAS model (Student-Ability Enhancement Model) of NIT
The ATAS institutional model of NIT focuses primarily on the enhancement of the ability of students.
Figure1:ATAS Model
In this model, shown in Figure 1, a central focus of universities of technology with an application-oriented focus is the
‘cultivation’ of students through the attainment of practical skills, which include social responsibility, specialised knowledge,
The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University, China) – Jin, Zhu
23
problem-solving and learning ability domains. Service-learning as pedagogical strategy for teaching and learning,
embedded within the ATAS model, is a major means of achieving all this. Each of these aspects will be further
Cultivation of students with practical skills
Contemporary universities are characterised as complex institutions with a whole range of focus areas and activities,
including teaching and learning, academic research, social service, cultural heritage and innovation, etc. The education
students remains, however, the most fundamental and essential task of higher education institutions, and the basis upon
which the other functions progress and expand (Jin 2012). Whereas research-oriented universities prioritise academic
research and teaching, universities of technology are required to equip graduates with specialised competencies and the
ability to do applied research. The universities of technology contribute to local society through applied research, which
turn helps to draw more local resources to the university and create more experiential opportunities for students. To sum
up, applied research therefore plays a major role in students’ attainment of practical skills.
Graduates, who have acquired practical skills or competencies, will apply their knowledge in practice, convert abstract
theories to concrete procedures or product design, and incorporate theoretical innovation within the applied research
context (Pan & Shi 2009). In recent years, with the structural adjustment and upgrading of the Chinese industry, the
demand for high-level professional personnel has grown rapidly, which also gave impetus to the requirement of higher
education institutions to produce graduates with the required and relevant competencies, which then eventually also
resulted in the transformation and structural adjustment of higher education institutions. To meet the industrial demands
well and appropriately qualified graduates, the Chinese Ministry of Education has recently encouraged the newly
universities (as in the case of NIT) and colleges to develop as application-oriented institutions that can produce such
graduates.
Enhancement of student-ability
Universities of technology help students to gain competence in their academic study, and to acquire a sense of social
responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability.
These learning accomplishments may be described as follows:
A sense of social responsibility refers to the students’ sense of responsibility as citizens towards other individuals
and society as a whole, and to their awareness of their own social rights and obligations. Universities of technology
need to carry the fostering of a sense of social responsibility throughout the education process, making sure that
students become qualified citizens who are not only responsible for themselves but also for others, their family,
their team and greater society – this is seen as a prerequisite for high-level graduates with applied competencies.
Specialised knowledge refers to the specific techniques and knowledge for certain professional fields acquired by
students in their study and training at college. Universities of technology instruct their students in specialised
knowledge and techniques via systematic teaching plans and curricula designed to meet social demands and to
ensure that students become qualified professionals.
Problem-solving skills refer to the students’ ability to solve practical problems using their specialised knowledge
and techniques. If equipped with problem-solving skills, students will, when facing difficulties, take the initiative to
look for the solution, cope with issues by applying reasonable plans, methods and procedures, and solve problems
properly and effectively by creating improvements and advantages for the individual, the team and greater society.
Self-directed learning ability refers to the students’ ability to acquire, apply and create knowledge independently
and actively. Universities should not only impart systematic and specialised knowledge to students, but more
importantly, should teach students how to explore and acquire knowledge by themselves, and how to analyse,
research and innovate, so that they might acquire and apply further knowledge to fulfil their job requirements after
graduation.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
24
Service-learning
Universities in different countries adopt different educational ideas and methods to help students develop a sense of
social responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. Chinese universities,
especially universities of technology, tend to synthesise classroom instruction and extracurricular activities or practice,
and enhance students’ comprehensive competence via laboratory training, internships and social practice. In recent
years, the educational ideas and methods of service-learning have influenced Chinese universities, and have been
promoted and introduced in some universities of technology.
Service-learning regards service as a way of learning where experience is accumulated and reflected upon, where
students’ academic performance and ways of thinking are improved, and where students’ abilities and qualities as a
citizen are enhanced (Wang S 2012). Many practices show that service-learning is an effective way to synthesise
classroom learning and community service, which emphasise the equal importance of service and learning.
Service-learning advocates learning by doing, and enhances students’ sense of social responsibility when they are
participating in service-learning activities, so that they will serve society through social activities in future (Lin & Xu 2012).
Eyler and Giles (1999), after analysing their interviews with fifty-seven students from six universities participating in
service-learning activities, found that service-learning indeed heightened students’ motivation for academic study, helped
students cope with problems from complicated perspectives, and improved students’ understanding and application of
the knowledge acquired in the classroom (Eyler & Giles 1999:80-81).
While combining educational ideas, pedagogical reforms, study tracks and community demands, service-learning
enables students to gain knowledge through this service; to heighten their sense of social responsibility and team spirit;
and to improve critical thinking, service skills and creativity, so as to equip them to become high-level graduates with
practical skills. In this way, the ideas and methods of service-learning will become the major means of universities of
technology to enhance the competence of students.
Service-learning contribution
Service-learning contributes to the progress of the university, and the training of students. Service-learning may improve
students’ motivation to study, by changing the classroom-centred study pattern and expanding the learning space; it may
change the teacher-centred pedagogical pattern, heighten the activity of students and improve their social compatibility;
it may change the school-centred training pattern, make full use of the social teaching resources, and help the
integration of teaching, research and social service so as to better fulfil the students’ development goals (Wang G 2012).
Service-learning emphasises the interaction between service and learning, enables students to learn by serving and to
serve in learning. Universities of technology stress the connection between serving and developing, believing that the
school needs to win support through social service. Service-learning not only plays an important role in the individual
progress of students, but also contributes to the overall development of the universities, in that it necessitates
universities to carry out student training and academic research to meet social demands and provide better social
service.
NIT and service-learning and experiences of the ATAS Model in practice
In the past twelve years, NIT has been exploring and practising the ATAS Model, embedding service-learning in its
educational system, and guiding its students to experience, reflect on, evaluate and summarise service-learning
activities. NIT has been improving the quality of graduates: their sense of social responsibility, specialised knowledge,
problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. Meanwhile, NIT has made significant progress towards
establishing itself as a high-level application-oriented university, and its overall strength is listed in the top position,
according to the Ranking of Chinese Independent Colleges 2013 (Wu 2013).
Application-oriented programmes and courses
NIT provides application-oriented programmes and courses based on social needs. In order to meet social demands for
graduates with practical skills, NIT adjusts its educational programmes in accordance with changes in the industrial
structure: by reducing or cancelling the enrolment plan of those programmes which are in little demand and lead to low
The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University, China) – Jin, Zhu
25
employment rates, and by adding or expanding the enrolment plan of those programmes which are in great demand and
result in high employment rates. NIT allocates additional resources and funds to programmes that distinguish
themselves by being stronger coordinated with industrial development.
NIT regularly update student course frameworks and its curriculum design as a result of the demand for specialised
knowledge and techniques. Each school employs experts from industrial enterprises as members of its Speciality
Development Committee, which holds a conference every semester. Here important issues related to how the speciality
is constructed and the curriculum designed, are discussed, evaluated, demonstrated and supervised, and feedback is
collected, so as to ensure that the training and educational plans keep pace with industrial demands. Students are thus
exposed to the most current knowledge and techniques of the related industries, which will hone them for jobs after
graduation.
Classroom instruction
NIT combines classroom instruction with service practices and has established an application-featured pedagogical
system to improve the practical skills of students. Aiming to improve students’ competence, practical skills and creativity,
NIT’s application-featured pedagogical system adjusts the teaching content, methods and forms; significantly increases
the on-campus laboratory training and off-campus practices; and synthesises the instruction of the concepts and
theories with professional and practical skills.
With a total investment of RMB160 million Yuan (US$26 million), NIT has built fifty-five laboratories regarded as
first-class in the country, among which two are the Pedagogical Demonstration Centres of Zhejiang Province and three
are the Key Laboratories of Ningbo City. NIT also collaborates with enterprises to build joint laboratories, where the
researchers from the enterprises may undertake product design and tests, and students may conduct experiments and
industrial practices. NIT has been trying to expand its practical training off-campus: to this end NIT has established
strategic collaboration partnerships with the Yinzhou District and Jiangbei District, and built practical training centres at
many enterprises and institutions to support its faculty and students to carry out various practices in the local
communities and enterprises. For example, the Journalism and English Departments carry out service-learning
programmes, namely “The Walking Journalists” (Xu 2009) and “Beyond the Voices” (Cai, Yu & Nan 2012), in which
students go to the local communities every year where they have achieved a large number of outstanding results.
NIT has established an interaction mechanism between teaching, learning and research, which synthesises applied
research, teaching reform and students’ service practice. In 2012, the total research fund of NIT reached RMB70 million
Yuan (USD11.4 million), and many excellent students participated in these research projects. Acting as research
assistants, students provided service and assistance to the research team, improved their own ability of analysis and
problem solving, while the faculty applied the latest research findings to their teaching, and provided new learning and
research cases for their students. This turned out to be a desirable interaction between the roles of teaching, research
and learning.
Students’ self-directed learning ability
NIT place emphasis on the combination of teachers’ instruction and students’ self-directed learning, as it encourages
active learning from both teachers and students activeness, and improves students’ self-directed learning ability. The
school education is thus a bilateral activity that requires both teachers’ and students’ motivation. As the organiser and
conductor of the teaching activity, the teacher plays the role of a guide who leads his or her students to find, analyse and
solve problems, and to reflect on and summarise during learning and practising. As the participant and receiver of the
teaching activity, the student needs to play an active role in learning and practising, and improving him- or herself during
the processes of design, choice-making, self-evaluation, reflection and summation.
NIT has a complete system to support its faculty members in improving their academic competence via further study or
overseas exchanges. They are required to improve innovation ability in academic research, and are encouraged to
provide service for the local communities and enterprises and to improve the application ability. Teaching skills
competitions are organised which help the faculty to improve teaching methods and results. For students, NIT provides
more self-directed learning and service practice opportunities. The students may choose their courses, adjust the study
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
26
pace according to their own needs, participate in various communities, and design and organise various social practices
and community service activities.
With school support and teachers’ guidance, NIT students have participated in various academic competitions and
received thirty-five international awards including MCM/ICM and ACM prizes, forty Asian awards and over eight hundred
awards at the state, province or city level. For example, a student team designed a “Beautiful Isle Project” after their field
survey on an island in Zhoushan in July 2012, won the first prize of the AIM International Contest and was adopted by
the local government as a real development project.
Knowledge acquisition and civic education
NIT integrates knowledge acquisition and civic education – it regards civic education as one of the important parts of its
students’ training process that enhances their sense of social responsibility. The school not only delivers the theoretical
knowledge and techniques to students, but also cultivates the students' sense of social responsibility. Graduates are
expected to be excellent professionals and qualified citizens with sound personalities. The school encourages its faculty
to include civic education in classroom instruction and extracurricular practices, to communicate with students equally
and to help students to overcome difficulties. The school emphasises the teaching of ethics and academic integrity, and
requests its faculty to be models of rigour, honesty and diligence to their students.
NIT encourages students to carry out the theme activity of “Love, Responsibility and Gratitude”, and to establish the
“Love Fund” and “Love Store”, which organise donation activities every year to help those students with financial
problems to complete their studies. Those who received the help would return their love to others and to society via
voluntary service and promise-fulfilment activities. Besides this, NIT encourages students to make use of their
knowledge and to help others and society via community service, social practice and club activities, and to learn how to
love, take responsibility and repay.
Conclusion
With the integration of service-learning concepts, the ATAS model effectively enhances students’ sense of social
responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. This has become a
successful paradigm for the cultivation of students with practical skills and has been adopted by many universities of
technology in China.
With the implementation of the ATAS model based on the service-learning approach, NIT has formed its own
characteristic mode of training students in practical skills. To date, NIT has passed out nine cohorts of over twenty
thousand graduates, who have a strong sense of social responsibility, make good use of specialised techniques and
knowledge, are able to acquire and invent new knowledge, solve real problems in their jobs, and thus are well-received
by their employers. The employment rate of NIT graduates has remained over 95% across different cohorts, and the
graduates’ satisfaction rate with NIT has reached over 90%.
NIT will keep developing the ATAS model, continually adjusting its mode of training students in practical skills, enhancing
the quality of the graduates, expanding its postgraduate education and producing more high-level graduates with
practical skills. NIT will endeavour to become an extraordinary model of the first-class application-oriented university in
China.
References
Cai L, Yu X & Nan E (eds). 2012. Beyond the Voices: Starting My Business in Ningbo. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press.
Eyler J & Giles DE. 1999. Where's the Learning in Service-learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 80-81.
Jin W. 2012. Graduate Cultivation: the Most Important Thing in Quality Improvement. China Education Daily, 5 November.
Lin P & Xu W. 2011. Service-Learning Theory and Practice in Higher Education, Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press, University of
Indianapolis Press. 221.
Pan M & Shi H. 2009. A Historical View on the Cultivation of Students with Practical Skills. Jiangsu Higher Education, 1:7.
The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University, China) – Jin, Zhu
27
UNESCO-UIS. 2012. International Standard Classification of Education. ISCED 2011. Montreal, Quebec: UNESCO Institute for
Statistics
Wang G. 2012. Civil Education and Service-Learning. Education Exploration, (10):21.
Wang S. 2012. Why Service Learning Is Necessary? The Perspective of Human Needs Theories. Journal of South China Normal
University (Social Science Edition), (1):29.
Wu S. 2013. How to Pick the University and Specialty: Guidance for NCEE 2013 (Independent College). Beijing: China Statistics Press.
Xu W, Jianming L, Chenggang L.& Yingxian Z. 2009. A Case Study of Service-Learning Theory in China: an Analysis on the
Teaching Activity of Walking Journalists. China Higher Education Research, (12):80.
29
Responsive leadership as service for curricular community engagement at South African universities: narratives from academics
CJ Gerda Bender1
Abstract
In South Africa academics have witnessed considerable changes in the higher education landscape in the period
1994-2012. The changes include the proliferation of policies, the merging of institutions, the introduction of strategic
plans and quality assurance directorates, and respectively the proliferation and non-proliferation of community
engagement (CE) initiatives and directorates. These changes are important, but they do not incorporate the analysis of
and discourse about the call for new leadership to manage these changes. The notion of CE currently has a far more
intense focus as a policy option for a society in transition, and as a criterion for transformation. Most universities' mission
statements identify CE as part of the universally recognised tripartite function of a modern university, but there is little
clarity about what the attributes of the academic leader and of the service-centred leader are expected to be in the local-
global nexus. The aim of this paper is to explore and analyse the experiences and attributes of academic leaders in
curricular CE at universities in South Africa. A qualitative, exploratory, narrative research approach was taken, guided by
an interpretive epistemology. Narrative interviews were conducted with academics in higher education whose scholarly
activities involved CE. The findings based on narrative analysis indicate that community-engaged scholars as responsive
leaders must provide a leadership based upon service – service to the university, to their discipline, to other academics,
to students and to social partners. It would be presumptuous to suggest that I have the perfect formula for responsive
leadership as service for CE at universities. I hope instead to stimulate a conversation and contribute to the body of
knowledge about reflective narrative enquiry as a methodology in CE by sharing the findings about the attributes of the
engaged academic as leader in CCE, and indicate the successes and challenges pertaining to CE at universities.
Introduction
The aim of this study and report is to explore and analyse the experiences and attributes of academic leaders in
curricular community engagement (CCE), with a specific focus on service-learning (SL), at universities in South Africa
(SA) by means of reflective narrative enquiry. This study will inform the curriculum development of an academic
programme at a comprehensive university. CCE conveys a programme-based approach to the integration of community-
based education in the curriculum of a formal academic programme. It refers to the curriculum, teaching, learning,
research and scholarship, which engage academic staff members, students and community service
agencies/organisations in mutually beneficial and respectful collaboration. Their interactions address community-
identified challenges, activities/projects, deepen students’ civic and academic learning and enrich the scholarship of the
university. CCE is an indicator of the cross-cutting Community Engagement Model and a benchmark for community
engagement (CE) (Bender 2008a; 2008b). Various teaching and learning methodologies are used for contextualising
CCE as learning activities take place in and with a community. These teaching methodologies include: community-
directed theoretical learning; service-learning (SL) (eg different types of SL: academic SL; discipline-based SL; school-
based SL; community SL; problem-based SL; capstone modules with SL); community-engaged learning (CEL); the
community engagement practical/practicum: community-based learning and the community-based project (Bender &
Hendricks 2010).
Service-learning (SL) is a pedagogy that academic staff members can choose to develop and implement in the
curriculum. As a pedagogy which is quite different from the traditional style of classroom teaching, academic
development appears to be an extremely important and appropriate area which could be used for implementing SL
(Bender 2007; Erasmus 2007). If academics feel that SL is a mandate from executive management, conflict could ensue
about who has power over the curriculum, teaching and learning. These issues indicate the importance of a well-planned
Department of Educational Leadership and Management, Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
30
and properly implemented leadership and academic development plan which emphasises an SL initiative (Bender 2007;
2008b). It is proposed that creating and developing an academy of community-engaged scholars based on an engaged
leadership framework (compare Vitae: Researcher Development Framework 2013:2) to deepen knowledge, share
methods and improve practices should become a priority for the professional development of leaders in CCE. CCE lies
at the heart of the university’s core functions and, as such, it requires an institution-wide effort, deep commitment at all
levels (academic and support services) and, in particular, leadership from the university at different levels and also from
the surrounding community. Nevertheless, attention must be given to the voice or narrative of the academic leaders in
CCE before developing a professional development programme. In this paper, I focus on the experiences of academic
leaders in CCE in order to inform the development of a module on leadership and engagement (responsive leadership)
for a postgraduate diploma in higher education.
Rationale: Leadership in curricular community engagement (CCE) and narrative enquiry
In “Pathways of change for integrating community service-learning into the core curriculum” (Bender 2007), the following
is stated regarding institutional leadership and management (in reflecting on past and current developments):
The members of Higher Education Institutional (HEI) leadership and management in my view need to persuade
themselves and others of the values and benefits of CE and CCE, by engaging with all constituencies and providing
leadership and strategic direction. CCE can be viewed as a catalyst for the on-going development and transformation of
teaching and learning, and research programmes in relation to societal needs. Engaging with communities and their
development priorities will require reflection on the existing teaching and learning, and research programmes. The vision
and mission statements of HEIs should include and acknowledge CE as a core function of the institution. CCE has to be
embedded in HEI policies and strategies, and include the desired outcomes and strategic objectives for CE and CCE. This
would allow HEIs to express the CE component of their vision and mission and give the necessary direction for
implementation (Bender 2007:133).
In recent years, almost all South African Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), for example the University of the Free
State, Stellenbosch University and the University of Pretoria, have adopted and even revised their first institution-wide
policies and strategies for CE. The legitimacy and status of CE and CCE depend upon institutional leadership and
management's commitment. I believe that effective leadership is an essential ingredient for positive educational change.
To cope effectively and creatively with the national CE trends and changes, future CCE leaders will not only need new
knowledge and skills, but will also be called upon to display a high level of intellectual, emotional and spiritual wisdom
and maturity.
Each year, universities develop or amend academic programmes, practices and policies to assist, improve and change
the academic goals. Though some of these practices are fully adopted and remain in place over many years, other
practices are trends that quickly fade away, leaving few or no traces of any value. CCE and SL have grown rapidly over
the past eight years in South Africa (SA), but questions remain about whether SL will be a sustained practice or merely
another educational trend with limited impact. Did we lose our way or where have we lost our way? The short answer to
this question is that our universities in SA have given little attention to the concept of and goals of leadership in CCE.
This is the rationale for the development of a module on curriculum leadership in a new programme for academic staff
training at a comprehensive university.
Leadership in CCE is critical because, according to some organisational theorists, universities are “organised anarchies”,
so leadership that is instrumental to an engagement agenda is paramount (Gill 2011; Langseth & Plater 2004; Huxham
& Vangen 2000). Left to their own devices, most academic staff members (and their departments) will focus their
attention on the daily preoccupations of research and teaching, satisfying “community engagement or service”
requirements with a university or faculty committee of some kind. CE, if and whether it enters their thoughts, will be left to
the dedicated institutional structure for CE. Reforming that entire mindset requires leadership, and it may come from
many sources. Whether the leadership is internal or external, engaging the university requires a particular form of
academic leadership. There is an appeal to deans, department chairs, senior academics and those who are open to new
and socially innovative ideas, who are eager to hear new voices and who are comfortable amid the often conflicting
demands of diverse communities or social partners.
Responsive leadership as service for curricular community engagement at South African universities - Bender
31
Narrative enquirers are cognisant of the audience. They will be the audience for their narrator(s), and in turn they re-tell
the stories to other audiences – their readers. Narrative enquiry begins with the researcher’s autobiographically oriented
narrative, associated with the research puzzle (reflection) (Connolly 2007). Narrative enquirers engage in the intense
and transparent reflection and questioning of their own position, values, beliefs and cultural background (Trahar 2009).
There is, therefore, great potential for using such articulation of self-awareness and reflection in and to enrich research
in CCE leadership. Though this was my conviction, I took a “narrative turn” that directs attention to questions about what
it means to interpret and experience the world (instead of explaining or predicting it, or being prescriptive/normative),
from the perspective of scholars as well as the people to be studied – the academic leaders in CCE and their discipline.
This study contributes to this emerging literature. The research question is therefore: what are the experiences and
attributes of academic leaders in CCE with a specific focus on SL at universities in SA?
Theoretical grounding: leadership and engagement
This study is grounded in the theory of leadership and engagement in the higher education context (Wall & BaileyShea
2011). The need for leadership and theoretical planning in the curriculum of academic programmes at universities is a
common thread running through higher education at a global, local and transnational level (Breier 2001; Botha 2009).
New and experienced leaders in CCE have to be familiar with the broad spectrum of curriculum theory, ranging from
behavioural to critical. Leaders in CCE have to understand fully the mirrored relationship between theory and practice
and how each can be used to mould and define the other. The role of leadership in reviewing the relationship between
theory (discipline) and practice (eg community engagement) is an important element in the future success or failure of
curriculum change and how it impacts on the integration of community engagement in academic programmes.
In the context of many universities in South Africa, engagement embraces the foundation of a partnership and the
medium of exchange between the university, the public and private sectors, and the community (ie the internal and
external community or social partners); it is embedded in scholarship that cuts across teaching and learning, and
research; it blends the university’s scientific knowledge with the experiential knowledge within the community to establish
an environment of mutual learning; it implies reciprocity, where the university and social partners (the public and private
sectors, and the community) contribute to and benefit from one another; it brings the university’s intellectual resources to
bear on the community’s developmental needs, assets and perspectives; it is a practice that enables academics to be
better scholars; enhances the learning experience for students; and multiplies the university’s local relevance to and
impact on its external social partners; and it involves actively listening to and working with all partners, reflecting the
diversity of communities – especially the partners who have seldom been engaged before – in a continuum of
engagement. The continuum refers to the many different levels of engagement that may range from passive approaches
such as the provision of information, community consultation, community representation, community participation,
involvement, coordination, collaboration and community empowerment to proactive approaches such as community
development and building (compare Bender & Hendricks 2010; CHE 2010; Langseth & Plater 2004; Boyer 1996).
Research on leadership at universities, though shifting in the course of time, still tends to emphasise traits, styles and
contingency theories to define the qualities of a good or effective leader (Gill 2011). Despite making important
contributions to leadership development, most of the traditional literature on leadership (Ospina & Dodge 2005) has
yielded few innovative insights about overcoming the challenges of rapidly changing contemporary organisations such
as universities. These theories are too management-oriented, individualistic, rationalistic, linear and technocratic in their
language and methodology (Gill 2011); instead of reflecting the post-industrial values that are more in accordance with
our times, such as collaboration and participation for mutual benefit (Farnsworth 2007). In other words, these values are
relational; display global concern and diversity; are responsive; build capacity; and advocate critical dialogue, qualitative
language and methodologies, and consensus-oriented processes (Greenleaf 2002). In the context of post-modernism,
South African academic leaders should engage with social partners and communities and move away from a reliance on
hierarchical structures, which are insignificant in a fluid organisation such as a university (Bush 2007).
Owing to the influence of narrative enquiry and research, some organisational scholars have for some time proposed the
idea that leadership should emerge from the constructions, behaviour and actions of people in organisations (Ospina &
Dodge 2005; Gill 2011). In this view, leadership occurs when one or more individuals in a social system succeed in
framing and defining how the demands of the group will be taken up and what roles, including the role of leader will be
attributed to whom (Pfeffer 1997; Ospina & Dodge 2005). In the field of education leadership studies, some scholars
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
32
describe a more collective and participative type of leadership in the collaborative processes of education such as
universities (Huxham & Vangen 2000). Others suggest that the interconnectedness of contemporary society and higher
education institutions demands a different kind of leadership to resolve public problems, one that is more collective than
the previous style of leadership (Farnsworth 2007). No empirical CCE research has been done to explore these ideas,
however. This research study for this paper was an opportunity to begin exploring these ideas by taking a qualitative,
exploratory narrative research approach, guided by an interpretive epistemology (Chase 2008; Soderberg 2003).
Methodology: narrative research
In this study, reflective narrative enquiry informed the research process. This qualitative research paradigm is focused on
discovery, insight and understanding from the perspectives of those involved. Narrative studies are exploratory and
inductive; they emphasise the process rather than the outcome (Clandinin & Connelly 2000; Chase 2008). My contention
is that stories convey meaning about leadership in CCE at universities in South Africa.
Narrative in-depth interviews were conducted over a period of two years with six academics at a research and a
comprehensive university respectively in South Africa and in the disciplines of healthcare sciences, the humanities and
management sciences, whose core teaching activities were connected to their involvement in CE. Purposive sampling
was utilised, based on the assumption that one wants to discover, understand and gain the richest insight possible. The
interviewees’ informed consent to participate in the study was obtained, and participants’ anonymity and the
confidentiality of information were assured (Merriam 2002).
I used a fluid and open interpretive interview style to allow the story line to take any direction, as each participant’s
experience of the work of leadership was captured (“tell me about your work” … “your involvement with CCE and
especially SL”; “How and when did you get involved?” “Tell me about your experiences with SL”; “Tell me about changes
at your university … about CE and SL … about CE and your discipline”; “You’ve talked about X, tell me more about it”;
“You mentioned challenges/successes … tell me about them”; “Tell me about your expectations of leaders in CE …”;
“What is your understanding and description of a ‘good leader’ in CCE?” Taking advantage of the developmental
potential of this path of research, the follow-up interview started with an invitation to reflect upon the narrative generated
from the previous interview (Soderberg 2003). In reflection about the path of research and analysis, I realised that we
(the academics and researcher) had reflexively used the experiential learning cycle of Kolb (1984) as the framework for
our interviews: concrete experiences; observations and reflections; the forming of abstract concepts and generalisations;
and testing the implications of concepts in situations (our context and working in and with communities). This is also the
theoretical framework for SL (Bender, Daniels, Lazarus, Naude & Sattar 2006). My intention was that these iterative
interviews would enhance the participants’ skills as “reflective practitioners” and enrich the narratives with new learning.
At the end of the research or learning cycle, I had six stories that reflected the ways in which the participants made
sense of the experience through leadership, providing ample information about various dimensions in the work of
leadership in CCE. The interviews were recorded in order to reproduce the participants’ original words. Member
checking was conducted so that the research participants could verify their particular contributions. Validity was also
checked by having colleagues peer-review the research procedures and determining the congruency of the findings with
the raw data (Merriam 2002). In my interviews with academics as research participants and with the re-presentation of
them, I endeavoured to be transparent so that it would be obvious where we shared similar knowledge and experience.
The researcher conducted a narrative analysis by approaching the text holistically and, by means of re-telling, the
researcher reconstructed and integrated sections of the text into four main themes (thematic analysis) and coded the
data to form descriptions and patterns across the stories (Riessman 2008).
Findings and discussion
When reflecting on the aim of this study, four main themes and three subthemes were identified during the narrative
analysis; and two themes were selected for reporting in this paper. The themes are related to the participants’ stories
about (i) their experiences as change agents, (ii) their leadership approaches, and (iii) the attributes and (iv) expectations
of academic leaders in CCE. The last two main themes are discussed in this paper.
Responsive leadership as service for curricular community engagement at South African universities - Bender
33
It is important to indicate briefly the contribution of the methodology, reflective narrative enquiry, in the field of CCE and
leadership.
Contribution of reflective narrative enquiry to CCE
Conducting reflective narrative enquiry has itself been a challenging learning experience for the narrators and
researcher, one that not only reawakened old memories of struggles, but also, for the first time, allowed us to see CCE
and SL through a new, shared lens. The six academic leaders narrated the complexity, dynamics and subtlety of their
experiences and organisational life in the context of community engagement, which can be regarded as a portrait of their
respective universities (cf Lawrence-Lightfoot & Davis 1997).
Viewing the participants in qualitative research as narrators and the interview data as stories, not only poses new
challenges but also provides new opportunities for research in CCE and SL. Narrative approaches inspire us to develop
some of the analytic sensitivities and skills of the literary critic and historian. A narrative framework gives community-
engaged scholars special access to the human experience of time, order and change, and it obliges us to heed the
human impulse to tell stories. When someone tells us a story about his or her experience, we become alert, tuned in and
curious. But this is not the only reason – perhaps not even a good reason – why we might want to use stories as the
basis for the scholarship of engagement and leadership. The real reason is that stories contain knowledge that is
different from the information we might obtain when we do surveys, collect and analyse statistics, or even draw on
interview data which does not explicitly elicit stories with characters, a plot and a development toward a resolution.
The following section illustrates each of the identified themes by including excerpts from the raw data, for example by
using P1 for indicating the direct words of Participant No. One.
Expectations and attributes of the academic leader
Responsive leadership by a service-centred leader
The findings indicate that responsive leadership and the community-engaged scholar (the participants used these terms
interchangeably) must be a leadership based upon service – service to the university, service to the discipline, to other
academics, service to students and to the greater community (P1-P6). Such a leader shows profound awareness of the
existing challenges (strengths and weaknesses) and anticipates the challenges and opportunities that are still emerging.
At its best, responsive leadership exhibits the strength to prepare a university and its academics for a period of
opportunities, challenges and innovation. The service-centred leader demonstrates integrity; transparency;
accountability; defines strategy; provides direction; influences and shapes policies and agendas; and enhances ethics
and values to guide practices (P1-P6).
Attributes and expectations of the responsive leader: an engaged scholar
The engaged scholar is one whose research, teaching and service are also tempered by a value orientation and purpose
to link disciplinary knowledge with civic knowledge in community development and building. This requires moreover that
this scholar’s reflective practices should not be carried out in isolation from others, but in collaboration with others within
and outside the academic world, and within and outside the scholar’s discipline. In pursuing the scholarship of
engagement, he/she breaks new ground in the discipline and has direct application to broader public issues; answers
significant questions in the discipline which have relevance to public or community issues; is reviewed and validated by
qualified peers in the discipline and by members of the community; work is based on solid theoretical and practical
bases; he/she employs appropriate investigative methods; disseminates the findings to appropriate academic and
community audiences; makes significant advances in the body of knowledge and understanding of the discipline, and of
public social issues (P1-P6).
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
34
Experiences as academic leader for CCE and SL
The findings on the experiences of the academic leaders (P1-P6) are as follows:
Commitment. This quality implies passion, intensity and persistence. It supplies the psychic and physical energy
that motivates the individual to serve, that drives the collective effort and that sustains this effort during difficult
times.
Empathy/understanding of others. The capacity to “put yourself in the other person’s place” (P6) is critical to
effective collaboration, building trust and resolving any differences in viewpoint. “It also requires the cultivation and
use of what is probably our most neglected communication skill: listening.” (P2).
Competence. In the context of any group leadership activity, competence refers to the knowledge, skill and
technical expertise required for the successful completion of the transformation effort.
Responsiveness. The ability to listen to the external communities and sectors (public/government and private);
alumni and community organisations.
Respect for partners. Understanding of and respect for what the external communities bring to the partnership.
Academic neutrality. Taking up difficult issues while ensuring intellectual honesty and neutrality.
Accessibility. “Finding ways to make our complex disciplines and academic practices understood by and useful to
communities.” (P4).
Integration. Teaching (of theory and link to practice) and research (application, to issues in a social context, and
dissemination of findings).
Co-ordination. Ensuring that the willing internal university partners understand what each of them is doing and is
capable of doing, before inflicting any narrow, unrelated activities on external communities.
Resource partnerships. Committing sufficient institutional resources – along with external community/social
partners – to ensure that work can succeed.
Perceptions of a good or effective leader for CCE
The experiences and perceptions of narrators/academics about what a good or effective leader in CCE is or should be
can be summarised as follows (P1-P6): an effective leader in CCE should have the following attributes: self-knowledge
and personal effectiveness: this quality means being aware of the beliefs, values, attitudes and emotions that motivate
one to seek change. It also implies an awareness of the particular talents and strengths, together with the personal
limitations, that one brings to the leadership effort. The knowledge, intellectual abilities and techniques required for CCE.
Engagement, influence and making a difference and contribution: the knowledge and skills needed to work with others
and ensure the wider impact of CCE and SL, and the knowledge and use of the standards, requirements, ethics and
professionalism needed for good community governance and organisation. The participating academics projected their
own knowledge and attributes or ways of mentoring young and upcoming engaged scholars and responsive leaders.
Challenges of engagement at universities and with social partners and communities
The participating narrators emphasised that CE, based on their experience, had not yet become the defining
characteristic of the HEI’s vision and mission: “This might be mentioned on paper but the practice tells a different story –
we are still on the community service or philanthropic level” (P1), nor “…has it been embraced across disciplines,
departments, faculties and institutions” (P6). It is “difficult work, time consuming, not being recognised in promotion,
academic awards” (P2) and stories of ‘‘community fatigue” (P1; P3; P5) were common.
Concluding reflection: relevance and meaning of the research for curriculum development
Unfortunately, like curriculum leadership, the responsive and engaged leader has no universal definition in CCE, though
its simplest attribute is a “passion for working with people and being a servant leader”. It is most commonly defined as
intellectual and emotional commitment to the university and its social partners and communities. Engagement among
academics and the external social partners in diverse communities is also linked to their personality traits: adjustment,
conscientiousness or mindfulness; altruism and agreeableness, which means that it is easy to engage the minds and
hearts of some people, but not of others. Responsive leaders as effective leaders engage other people through their
ability to inspire and their optimism. An engagement culture emerges from effective leadership, through which academics
Responsive leadership as service for curricular community engagement at South African universities - Bender
35
see how their work fits in to the “big picture”, for example through developing responsive academic programmes, linking
theory and practice. The findings of this study inform the curriculum development of the module on leadership in the
postgraduate diploma in higher education.
A collective view by the participating academics was that academic research was often criticised for taking learning from
organisations and communities without giving a return in real and practical ways. This is true in the contexts of
community-based research, where people have stated that they felt like guinea pigs for academics, and it may have
some resonance in other organisational contexts too. Academics advocate the greater use of participatory action-
oriented research to make research more applicable to leadership and management issues, and to overcome the
challenges in community engagement: participatory action theory, action research and action science. In contrast to
traditional pure or applied research, and in contrast to narrative enquiry without an action orientation, these approaches
are aimed at helping practitioners perceive, understand and act on their own environment – in other words, being
responsive leaders in CCE.
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37
An appraisal of integrating service-learning into the P3 Practice Teaching
System while grounding it in Chinese educational philosophy
Yang Jiangang1 and Cai Liang
2
Abstract
Literature has confirmed that service-learning could both facilitate the academic development of students and address
the needs of community. It therefore continues to receive sustained attention from various institutions of higher education.
In China, service-learning has historically been practised mainly as volunteering activities or social practice rather than as
a curriculum consideration. In addition, how Chinese philosophy contributes to the global development of service-learning
has not been fully recognised. Now there is a need for higher education in China to view service-learning as an integral part
of pedagogy and to articulate the connection between service-learning and Chinese educational philosophy.
This paper, taking Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University (NIT), as a case, explored how an initiative named
the P3 Practice Teaching System was structured and how it was embedded in Chinese educational philosophy by
explaining its design, the teaching approach and methodology, and what the achievements were. Based on one example
that was studied and analysed over time, the mechanism of how the P3 Practice Teaching System facilitates the integration
of service-learning was identified. During a five-year integration of service-learning into the P3 system from 2007 to 2012,
the university gained the respect of the community. What is more, students developed both academically and morally as a
result of integrated service-learning. The study demonstrated that service-learning could be successfully integrated into P3
Practice Teaching System. The curricular consideration and embedding of Chinese educational philosophy could both be
fulfilled in the system concerning the application of service-learning in China. It is hoped that the P3 Practice Teaching
System can be used as a model for the development of service-learning in the Chinese higher education context.
1. Introduction
A common challenge facing higher education across the world is to increase the sense of responsibility towards society
(Jacoby 1996; Hirsch & Weber 1999; Wegner 2008). Both educational policy makers and the practitioners in the field of
education should take note of the trend that, besides knowledge transmission, embracing the notion of community
engagement in an inherent attribute of modern higher institutions. This attribute distinguishes higher institutions as a major
driver in the new millennium to serve the community, its residents, and those who provide the service as well. Higher
education, particularly at the university level, should take an active role in responding to social needs (Dawkins 1987),
improving the quality of student experience (Hazelkorn 2012), and promoting the sustainability of personal integrity and
social development (Sterling 2001; UNESCO 2005).
The need to contribute to public service is universally central to higher education. This shared understanding emphasises
the concern of higher education for the community and others. The Carnegie Foundation (Boyer 1987) states, “A good
college affirms that service to others is a central part of education”. An ancient Chinese philosopher declares, “What the
great learning teaches is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence”
(Confucius, translated by James Legge 1893). In modern China, the ‘great learning’ still aids people in their pursuit of virtue
1 Yang Jiangang, (1959.) Doctor of Engineering, professor of Zhejiang University; vice-president of Ningbo Institute of
Technology, Zhejiang University; currently responsible for teaching management at the college, leading the teaching reform
of initiative P3 Practice Teaching System, a project of highlighting the notion of unity of theory and practice in curriculum
design.
2 Cai Liang (1974.) PhD, associate professor of Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University;Research fields:Applied
Linguistics, focusing on the integration of language learning in community service.
The authors wish to thank Dr Antoinette Smith-Tolken at Stellenbosch University, South Africa for her invaluable help in the preparation of this paper.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
38
and excellence. To this end, higher education has an indispensable role to play. Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang
University (NIT), has taken up this challenge to serve the community by embedding its education strategy in the Chinese
philosophy. A viable system to integrate service-learning is developed not only to serve the community, but to prepare
students as citizens and academic graduates.
2. The design philosophy: the unity of knowledge and action (practice)
Chinese educational philosophy has a long tradition of valuing “the unity of knowledge and practice (action)” (Warren
2002). This slogan is developed by Wang Yang-Ming, a great philosopher in Confucian tradition. He elaborates on the
theory by discussing the relationship between knowledge and action, saying, “Knowledge is the direction of action and
action is the effort of knowledge; knowledge is the beginning of action and action is the completion of knowledge” (cited in
Jung Hwa Yol 2011). Wang’s theory of the unity of knowledge and action is an evolvement of Confucian philosophy, which
maintains that the acquisition of knowledge is associated with practice. Confucius himself stresses the gravity of
knowledge in education, saying:
If you do not know your destiny (ming), you cannot be a gentleman (junzi). If you don’t know the rites (li), you cannot take
your stand. If you don’t interpret people’s words, you cannot interpret people (Confucius, translated by Eno 2010).
Meanwhile, Confucius also attaches great importance to action. He claims “To be fond of it (knowledge) is better than
merely to know it; to find joy in it (knowledge) is better than merely to be fond of it” (Confucius, translated by Leys 1997). He
advocates the bond between knowing and acting by highlighting the switch from fondness of knowledge to taking delight in
knowledge. Just knowing is not real knowledge, until it is put into practice and tested. It is practice that makes a difference
and, therefore, is the sole criterion for judging truth. This very belief lays a philosophical foundation for the tie between
service-learning and a higher education in China.
It is also worth noting that experiential education, which forms the foundation of service-learning, is a deeply rooted idea in
Chinese educational philosophy. This idea can be found in the popular saying, “I hear and I forget, I see and I remember,
I do and I understand” (cited in Katy Farber 2011:11). The saying is considered to be a classical interpretation for
service-learning in Western countries, and was attributed to Confucius for quite a long time (Knutson, 2003). Another
similar version accredited to Benjamin Franklin reads, “Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I
learn.” (Pankey & Davis 1985). This saying was incorrectly attributed to Franklin. The fact is that it was taken from another
great Chinese philosopher, Xunzi, whose original version is as follows:
Not having heard something is not as good as having heard it; having heard it is not as good as having seen it; having
seen it is not as good as knowing it; knowing it is not as good as putting it into practice. (Xunzi, translated by John
Knoblock 1990)
The fondness of the experiential education theory toward the quote lies in its interpretation of the principle of learning,
which indicates learning happens when learners are actively involved in it. Ancient Chinese philosophy holds that the
ultimate goal of education is to foster a whole person. A whole person is someone who grows to be physically, spiritually,
socially and intellectually sound, the virtue or moral perfection should be cultivated through education and experience.
Xunzi says:
The learning of the gentleman enters through his ears, fastens to his heart, spreads through his four limbs, and manifests
itself in his actions. His slightest word, his most subtle movement, all can serve as a model for others. (Xunzi, translated
by Eric Hutton 2003)
The Western belief of an intimate relationship between school and society, a belief particularly prevalent in America, was
reflected by John Dewey (1859-1952) in his educational ideas such as "education as growing", "education as life”,
“school as society", and "learning by doing" (Hongyu Zhou 2013). These ideas mark a link with the traditional Confucian
doctrine, and such a natural fit makes Dewey more acceptable to Chinese educators. Dewey’s education philosophy,
"pragmatism", is seen as a “fellow traveler” of "unity of knowledge and action" theory in China. Pragmatism, a worldview, is
not only a theory of value but also could be applied as an approach for curricular consideration. Inspired by Dewey's
pragmatism, such great Chinese scholars as Cai Yuanpei, Tao Xingzhi and Hu Shi dedicated and introduced the theory to
An Appraisal of Integrating Service-Learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System – Jiangang, Liang
39
China by applying it to practice (Zou Zhenhuan 2010). From the early 1920s to the end of the 1940s, Dewey’s educational
theory of pragmatism was widely accepted in China (Zeng Zida 1988; Hongyu Zhou 2013).
The popularity of Dewey in China, in a sense, indicated the ideological connection between the East and the West in terms
of education philosophy. The practice of Dewey’s idea by Chinese scholars in the last century still has its influence on the
current education system. Take Tao Xingzhi (1891-1946) for example. His educational philosophy stresses the
combination of knowing and acting. His practice of ‘life education’, mainly at the village-based normal school at
Xiaozhuang outside Nanjing city, can be seen as the earlier application of community-based learning in China (Tu Tang
2002). Besides the feeling of “familiar stranger” toward Dewey's pragmatism, Chinese educators were enlightened to
realise that the notions of serving and learning could be combined and incorporated into curriculum design, educational
management and evaluation. Equally important, they could be made into an effective teaching and learning approach.
3. Integration of service-learning into P3 Practice Teaching System at NIT
Among its countless definitions, Haussamen (1997:192) believes service-learning is “a new branch of experiential
education”; this idea combines traditional classroom learning with voluntary community service. In service-learning,
leaners’ socially situated learning is tied with specific academic goals. They also perform active reflection both
academically and morally. To educators in China, service-learning is first and foremost a unity of knowledge and action. It
also possesses obvious traits of curricular and moral consideration. According to Wang’s theory, the unity of knowledge
and action gives priority to moral concern. Knowledge refers to one’s conception of what morality is. Action is putting the
moral knowing into practice; it is also a response to a given situation (Yang Guorong 2009). These given situations, which
occur daily, provide people with opportunities to practise virtue.
The theory of unity of knowledge and action does not come up with a mechanism to give moral practice (service) a proper
curricular consideration, but service-learning does. According to Waterman (1997), service-learning establishes a bridge
between the local community and the outside world, providing learners with an opportunity to learn outside the classroom.
This is realised by a systematic curriculum design, instruction, academic reflection, and course assessment. In the context
of the modern education system, it is higher education that should equip students with the given situations to practise
morally good acts.
Therefore, the key to incorporate service-learning into higher education is to link service with curriculum design, making
service-learning the medium through which the truth of knowledge may be pursued. In Chinese higher education, to obtain
a degree, students are required to participate in three basic educational layers of activity. These are course, discipline, and
interdisciplinary activities. Course refers to the individual subject taken, usually specific to a ‘discipline’. Students receive
academic credit upon the completion of the course. Discipline refers to the collection of all courses; it decides how courses
are organised. The term interdiscipline refers to a major of study that involves two or more disciplines. NIT’s way to
integrate service-learning in the curriculum is in the implementation of the P3 Practice Teaching System (henceforth
referred to as the P3 system. The system refers to the practice of the theory of unity of knowledge and action in three layers.
The practice, serving as part of the work within the course, discipline and interdiscipline, embodies the students’
development of practical skills. There are four general objectives of the P3 system:
1. To improve students’ ability to apply the textbook knowledge in a real-world setting;
2. To give students autonomy and responsibility to engage in their learning environment;
3. To provide students with field experience opportunities that are lacking in a traditional classroom environment;
and
4. To enable students to link academic studies with prospective professional experience (Yang Jiangang 2012).
With the theory of unity of knowledge and action as its core, the P3 system takes into account such factors as course
objectives, learners’ academic development, community needs, and the future development of individual discipline. It
proposes a gradual, structured, and theory-based system (See Figure 1 below).
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
40
Figure1: P3 Practice Teaching System
Elements for Practice: These are the most fundamental units for the unity of knowledge and practice. Each of the
practical skills comprises many elements, and various elements have relative independence and logic links as well.
Different elements are connected through activities in various layers of the education system. Elements for practice may
show in different forms in accordance with courses; they can be found in a product model in the Course of
Industrial Design, a news report in Journalist Writing, or an impromptu speech in Communication of Art. When
service-learning is integrated in the P3 system, elements for practice are converted into being elements for service, such as
using writing for composing newsletters for the community.
Practice in Course: This refers to projects within a single course to combine the knowledge and action. It will include
many elements for practice. The teacher of the course is the designer, organiser and implementer of the project.
Practice in Discipline: This refers to projects carried out in a discipline to combine the knowledge and action. It involves
several projects in different courses and calls for a wider range of cooperation among teachers of a number of courses in
the same discipline. Coordination within a discipline is needed in such an instance.
Practice in Interdiscipline: This has a multidisciplinary characteristic. Projects on this level involve the cooperation from
different disciplines, aiming to involve students in hands-on experience and build comprehensive capacities for learners. It
is highly related to the development of a particular industry and regional economy. Greater support from the institutional
level is required in this instance (Yang Jiangang 2012).
The integration of service-learning in the P3 system: When addressing the special needs of the community, the P3
system generates a framework for a smoother integration of service-learning into its education system through a focus on
course-relevant service-learning, discipline-relevant service-learning, and interdiscipline-relevant service-learning.
4. Measures and methods
For a better implementation of the featured P3 Practice Teaching system, NIT issued several related education policies.
The P3’s successful operational system needs support systems such as teaching management mechanisms, policy
support, and system of teacher training. Within the operational framework, the notion of unity of knowledge and action is
set as a foundational concept and the course is the basic unit of the system. The framework extends the P3 system to a
wider context other than within course and discipline; this includes extracurricular activities, campus-based practice,
community-based practice and interdisciplinary competitions, eg English debates (see Figure 2 below).
An Appraisal of Integrating Service-Learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System – Jiangang, Liang
41
Outreach of P3 system
P3 system
Skills-development plan
Curriculum reform
Campus-based
practice
Community-based practice
Extracurricular activities
Institute
college
teacher
Interdiscipline Competition
Teaching
management
Policy supporting
system
Teacher training
system
student
Figure 2: Operational framework for P3 system
According to the personnel training plans made by different colleges of NIT, the P3 system should abide by the basic
teaching principles and student cognitive principles. The system stresses the curriculum development and reform in the
fields of teaching content, teaching methods, teaching facilities, and evaluation approach; it emphasises systematic
learning from the three dimensions of course, discipline and interdiscipline. The system is designed to promote the
development of parties involved, which are the institute, colleges, teachers and learners, particularly the development of
students’ creativity and problem-solving ability.
The P3 system is applied to the entire teaching set-up. The proportion of practice teaching is a compulsory requirement
any single course. Most importantly, the P3 Practice Teaching System lays a foundation for integrating service-learning in
and out of the classroom. Community service is a strategic policy held by NIT: the ability to serve the regional economy
a major criterion for measuring its overall capability. A course, tailor-made to serve the targeted community, will promote
the Institute’s capability to serve the community and eventually benefit learners and community as partners. The
service-learning programme regards courses as the basic platform for carrying out this teaching approach, and three
strategies have been applied to integrate service-learning in the education system:
1. To incorporate the project into the course as a single project;
2. To make the project an important component of the course; and
3. To develop the project as a service-learning course.
The integration of service-learning in the P3 system is greatly encouraged at NIT. It has been made an indispensable
component of teaching and administration. Students’ service-learning experiences are a consideration for their academic
awards. Teachers’ participation in service-learning programmes, either by instruction, organisation or management, are
included in the appraisal system. Community partners are encouraged to cooperate with the Institute to launch specific
service-learning programmes. For effective integration of service-learning, NIT has set up various community service
platforms to promote the triad of production-learning-research cooperation. A learning community consisting of the
Institute, colleges, teachers, students and community partners has been formed, resulting in the establishment of a
connection with the regional economy.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
42
5. Achievements of service-learning at NIT
The P3 system at NIT is a practice and emphasis is placed on the theory of unity of knowledge and action, aiming to help
students to ‘go for the goal’. The primary benefit in terms of students is to develop a greater competitiveness in the job
market and get them ready for a smoother transition in their future career. When service-learning experience is
integrated into the curriculum design and education system holistically, it will not only improve students’ social
competence in a competitive work environment, but also help the Institute to deepen their function of serving the
community.
5. 1. Achievements of service-learning
After five years of practice (2007-2012), the following five aspects can be seen as the achievements concerning the
integration of service-learning in theP3 system:
1. The development of the P3 theoretical system itself;
2. The introduction of the P3 system into 30 different courses;
3. Improvement of students’ problem-solving ability in terms of serving the community;
4. Great development of teacher professionals and their capability for teaching, researching and social service;
and
5. The improvement of students’ employment quality.
In the following section, an example will be discussed concerning the integration of service-learning at NIT, namely
“Beyond the Voices” from the English major, which was implemented according to the P3 system for integrating
service-learning into curriculum design.
5.2 Case study: “Beyond the Voices”
5.2 .1 General introduction
The empirical research, “Beyond the Voices”, is a service-learning programme that originates from the School of Foreign
Languages. In accordance with the P3 system, the researchers incorporated course objectives related to students and
community partners, designed the programme, and conducted classroom teaching, academic reflection and evaluation.
The theme-centered project was implemented on course level Pc level (Figure 1). The students in the course interviewed
expatriates or foreign-funded enterprise managers, generating individual written reports on the basis of their
service-learning experience.
5.2 .2 Methodology
The study included 66 students. Of these, 33 students were taught using a service-learning approach and students
attended the service-learning programme, “Beyond the Voices”. These students were named the treatment group. The
other 33 participants in the control group attended a regular English major course: “Specialty Practice One”, in which
students were taught in a traditional way. All participants completed a series of questionnaires during and after the
experimental implementation of the course so as to compare the outcome of the teaching modes.
5.2 .3 Outcomes of the research
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed in the data analysis. Data were collected from the
questionnaires, participants’ diaries, participant reports, and teacher’s observation logs. Multivariate statistical analyses
were conducted to process the data collected to guarantee a more efficient examination concerning the efficacy of
integration of service-learning in English teaching in the Chinese context. It was found that:
1. Service-learning as a teaching methodology advanced students’ linguistic development. The pre-test and
post-test in the treatment group showed there was a remarkable improvement in language learning and
application (see Figure 3 below).
An Appraisal of Integrating Service-Learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System – Jiangang, Liang
43
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
1 2 3 4
P1 Post
P1 Pre
Figure 3: Pre-test and post-test in treatment group
2. Participants in the treatment group were found to gain greater development in all the 22 multi-skills compared,
among which decision-making ability, and ability to adapt and explore achieved significant growth (see Figure 4
below).
Independent samples test
Figure 4: Independent samples test
3. The treatment group achieved greater development than the control group with regard to learning motivation
and learning strategies.
Levene’s test
for equality of
variance
t-test for equality of means
F Sig t df Sig
(2-tailed)
Mean
difference
Std error
difference
95% confidence interval of
the difference
Lower Upper
P2C
Equal variances assumed
Equal variances not
assumed
.622 .433 3.821 64 .000 -8.72727 2.28399 -13.29006 -4.16448
5.776 37.626 .000 -8.72727 2.28399 -13.29006 -4.16448
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
44
Compared to the control group, significant growth was found in intrinsic motivation for the treatment group. Significant
growth was also found in the service-learning approach in terms of learning strategies. One participant discussed the
group preparation for the upcoming interview as follows:
The greatest efforts of our team today were put on getting prepared for the questions, which will be asked by us in the
interview. We gathered and put forward different ideas. Debates were unavoidable. However, it did not affect our
motivation. On the contrary, it united us and filled us with tremendous enthusiasm (cited in Cai Liang 2012).
5.3 Further discussion
Back in 2008, to develop students’ speaking ability in authentic situations, the course designers initiated a
service-learning project, “Beyond the Voices”. The project had been integrated within the language classroom in three
models. Model One was to incorporate it into an English course as a single project. Model Two was to make the project
an important component of the course. Model Three was to establish the project as a service-learning course. The
purpose of the above-mentioned empirical research was just to glance at the integration of service-learning in the P3
system. After five years of practice, the programme has developed into a comprehensive service-learning intervention.
Local expats in Ningbo city are defined as the beneficiary community. The programme will start with a well-structured
interview with Ningbo expats, and in the second step, the participants in the “Beyond the Voices” project will work with
them to compose their China stories. The third step will be a community-based forum, in which local expats will be
invited to provide their suggestions to improve the city’s international image. The fourth step is to create a new
service-learning programme to help local expats with their work and life in the city, for example, organising cultural
exploration activities or providing Chinese learning classes.
In the past five years, about 1 000 local expats from more than 50 countries participated in the service-learning project,
“Beyond the Voices”. About 1 800 course participants visited more than 70 foreign-funded enterprises. Based on their
interview and investigation, members in the service-learning project compiled a series of reports and books, namely My
Ningbo Dream (2011); Starting My Business in Ningbo (2012); Chinese Learning, I Am on My Way (2013); and Yiwu,
Here I Am (2014).
The service-learning project, “Beyond the Voices”, was acknowledged publicly, being reported by over 100 newspapers
and being honoured by the Ministry of Education in China. The diverse cultural and intercultural exchange in China
offers a precious opportunity for the spread of community-based projects as part of a teaching methodology or authentic
learning context. These projects provide the students of English as a second language an authentic language
environment. The students’ use of language in a real context has been improved in terms of their practical skills such as
communication and writing skills, their motivation to learn both Chinese and English, together with the cultural exposure,
has been dramatically stimulated.
The recent development of the programme works on the deeper integration of service-learning into the course, gradually
getting students involved in foreign-related service consultation, and the introduction of foreign technology to local
enterprises. To help foreigners improve their Chinese conversational ability, a special service-learning project,
“Complimentary Chinese Course”, was set up. Students are encouraged to give expatriates one-on-one lessons on daily
Chinese dialogue, Chinese business terms and the Chinese culture. The course was reported to be the first of its kind
ever held at a Chinese university. For the students in the service-learning programme, the complimentary Chinese
courses have given them an opportunity to participate in social services, improve cultural exchange and promote
education for international understanding. Courtney Cruzan, an American, says:
There is so much meaning behind traditional Chinese stories, similar to the classic western fables I grew up with. I would
be more lost with the limited professional instruction if it wasn't for the complimentary Chinese language program at the
Ningbo Institute of Technology. I am very grateful for the tireless efforts of the designer, for establishing the program and
the patience and dedication of my tutor, Rita,谢谢您们!(cited in Cai Liang 2012)
6. Conclusion
Service-learning makes it possible for individuals and institutions to fulfil their missions and social responsibilities in a
reciprocal way. This learning approach offer learners the opportunity to solve problems in the learning process and it
allows institutions the opportunity to satisfy community needs. Teaching activity in the P3 Practice Teaching System
An Appraisal of Integrating Service-Learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System – Jiangang, Liang
45
embodies NIT’s commitment to community and stresses its full participation in community. The integration of
service-learning in the course, discipline or interdiscipline all highlight the importance of experience in acquiring
knowledge and fulfilling social responsibilities. Service-learning programmes of different courses spring up like bamboo
shoots. “Beyond the Voices” is just one case of the many. Based on the integration of service-learning into the P3
Practice Teaching from 2007 to 2012, Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University, puts forward the following
ideas for the application of service-learning in the context of Chinese higher education:
1. To further explore Chinese educational philosophy and its relationship to service-learning. The theory of unity of
knowledge and action, the philosophical basis for service-learning in China, should be articulated;
2. To guarantee the implementation of service-learning programmes in pedagogy, universities at various levels
should have dominant roles to play in making relevant supporting educational policies;
3. To strengthen the academic correlation of service-learning, programmes should be integrated into curriculum
design;
4. To stress the social significance of service-learning, programmes should be carried out in the form of
theme-centred activities;
5. For positive interaction with public service sectors, service-learning programmes should be designed to address
particular needs of local community;
6. To promote learner’s learning motivation and learning strategy, individual learning experience should be
highlighted in service-learning programmes;
7. For a better communication effect, service-learning programmes should actively interact with mass media; and
8. For the establishment of a service-learning community in a broader sense, parties involved in the
service-learning programmes should be invited to create diverse subjects.
In the past five years, the implementation of the P3 Practice Teaching System validated the commitment to society and
proves service-learning a rewarding trip to followers. In addition, authentic interaction with the community helps learners
to achieve academic and moral growth. In general, the integration of service-learning compensates for weaknesses in
traditional classroom teaching. It is therefore believed that community service in higher education in China through
service-learning deserves further exploration as it holds a promising prospect.
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47
Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage: Four constructed studies into service-learning
Scott Shall
Abstract
The last two decades have witnessed a significant expansion in the role assumed by architects within fringe settlements
around the world. Whether their acts are couched as humanitarian architecture, design as activism, public interest
design, community-based design or service-learning, they have tested the limits of contemporary architectural practice,
prompting practitioners so engaged to rearticulate the stance assumed, and, transitively, the identity of the architect
when operating within these situations. Questions naturally followed: When the architect operates within these situations,
most of which are quite removed from his/her experience, is it best to assume the mantle of insider – to become
immersed in the context of inquiry by adopting the customs, dress and language of the partner community and slowly
draw out a useful engagement from within? Or is the architect better situated as an outsider, an instigator, tasked with
provoking the actors already in the drama to engage these situations? Methodologically, should the architect operate as
an engineer, carefully analysing the present facts of the situation and offer an expedient address based upon a carefully
calculated inventory of materials, methods and supports? Or, should the architect operate as a bricolIeur, constructing
small scale, iterative engagements out of the materials, methods and resources at hand? Does this response shift when
engaging in situations construed as local? The projects described within this work are part of an on-going series of
constructed questions to this end. It started with a small design-build project constructed seven years ago on the
outskirts of a small Romanian town and ending with a virally propagated network of educational devices designed on the
streets of Bolivia. The works described within the paper and proposed by this abstract will span a range of practices
commonly used by the architect when attempting to address the pressing concerns of those living in fringe conditions,
both local and international.
INTRODUCTION
This paper will set out a series of four projects, each of which describes a distinct design and construction process. This
shift in process results in a necessary shift in professional position, requiring that the protagonist, in this case the
architect, move from the position of immersed expert to blatant provocateur, engineer to bricolleur, agent to interloper.
The purpose in presenting this range is not to advocate for a specific stance, nor to present a declaration of best
practices for a socially responsive design. Rather it is to present a range of possible methodologies and identities, each
of which has specific utility and limits within the situations faced by the humanitarian artist, architect and advocate. The
situations found in fringe settlements are obviously not a universal; thus to work well within these settlements requires
that each designer soberly engage the potentials and limits offered by the myriad practices available and determine an
appropriate role for each.
Image 1: communalPLAY: A playscape for abandoned children, Oradea, Romania. 2006
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
48
communalPLAY: A playscape for abandoned children, Oradea, Romania. 2006
Partners: The International Design Clinic, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, and the Agape House.
Identity: Bricolleur-Contractor. Popularised by: Rural Studios [http://www.ruralstudio.org/]
In 2006 a team of 12 students, representing two disciplines, and one faculty member travelled to Oradea, Romania
where they worked with local craftspeople to design and build a playground for abandoned or at-risk children (Image 1).
In preparation for this experience, the team worked diligently before leaving to uncover a method of working with
commonly discarded materials. However, upon arriving in Oradea, the team quickly discovered that the fruit of this
labour had little value in Romania. The Romanian culture, having endured years of poverty, discarded little that might be
of later use. This made it virtually impossible to find scraps, even in the smallest quantities. Sensibly, the team quickly
abandoned their initial stand and worked to find a new tectonic approach based upon the materials at hand.
The answer to their search was found in an unlikely place. A few days after arriving in Oradea (time having been spent in
failed attempts scavenging), the team discovered that a local business had excess topsoil it would send for the cost of
transport. Having no idea how this material would be used in the design response, the team nevertheless jumped at the
opportunity and asked to have as much topsoil as possible. Then, as the piles of dirt accumulated on the site, the
members of the team adopted the role of bricolleur (Levi-Strauss, 1968), playing with their newly acquired resource to
invent a more fitting tectonic approach. These efforts not only gave birth to the elaborate play landscape required by the
client, but a new method of working. Rather than design for scrap, the team would dedicate its efforts to uncover that,
which could be obtained for the cost of transport. Then, as the trucks delivering rocks, pebbles, or broken bits of
concrete rumbled to the site, they would invent ways to use their newfound treasures to create the environment
requested by the client.
Although the approach was somewhat presumptuous (generally speaking, the team had no idea how they were going to
use the materials prior to their arrival) and did lead to some inefficiencies in the construction process (as the design
shifted to accommodate previously unknown materials), it nevertheless proved successful on several fronts, allowing the
group to complete not only the play area requested by the client, but a massive overhaul of the entire site. Unfortunately,
the insight earned through the design process – new material use, new tectonic approaches, and new programmatic
relationships – remained largely attached to the site. For, like the work of Rural Studios and other humanitarian
designers who function as bricolleur-contractors, the range of the designed insight is proportional to that held by
confluence of resources and conditions found within the initial situation. If said confluence is limited to the specific
project, as is often the case, then the offered work will have similarly limited range.
The manner in which Andrea Oppenheimer Dean describes the work in the introduction to Rural Studios: Samuel
Mockbee and an Architecture of Decency positions well the manner, and limits, of the architect’s contribution when
operating in this manner: praising the “use of indigenous building techniques and donated, salvaged materials” and the
manner in which the forms of the building seem to “spring from the local vernacular”, while largely ignoring the ability of
these lessons to be transferred to other contexts (Dean 2002:7-9). These accolades, which correctly praise the direct link
between materials, form and the specifics of the individual project, also function as a tacit condemnation of the ability of
the work to adopt different situations. The processes used by the bricolleur-contractor are inherently linked to the ability
of the designer to redeploy creatively the specifics of the given context; the innovations that result are inherently tied to
both assets – the creativity of the designer and the specifics of the context – and are thus limited to a single use.
Fortunately, the role and impact of Rural Studios, and indeed many university-sponsored design-build endeavours, are
not limited to the physical construct:
The impact of the Rural Studio has been profound, not least on the students who attended it. Living and working in rural
Alabama, Mockbee, and later Freear and their students, immerse themselves in the community. This exposure of mostly
middle-class students to extreme poverty is also considered part of the learning experience … which manages to instil
students with an understanding of the social responsibilities of the profession. It also teaches students valuable skills of
working in teams, with real life situations and gives them a sense of purpose. (Awan 2011:193-4)
Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage – Shall
49
Image 2: movingSCHOOLS for Migratory Peoples, Mumbai, India. 2008
movingSCHOOLS for Migratory Peoples, Mumbai, India. 2008.
Partners: The International Design Clinic, Temple University, DY Patil School of Architecture and Mumbai Mobile Crèches (MMC) Identity: Collaborative Activist. Popularised by: Design Corp [https://designcorps.org/]
In the summer of 2008, a forty-person team representing two countries, eight universities and six disciplines travelled to
Mumbai, where they worked with local activists, artists, day labourers and others to redesign the educational centres run
by Mumbai Mobile Crèches (MMC), an Indian non-profit that provides education and health programmes for children
living on the construction sites of Mumbai (Image 2). During this five-week project, this multidisciplinary team of students,
artists, architects and designers forged a collaborative effort with a people who spoke a different language, had different
customs, and carried different values to address the complex and fluid set of programmes, sites, and communities
engaged by our client. To work well within this dynamic, the team knew that the value of the offered work lay less in its
quality as isolated creative actions and more in its promise as progenitors of future evolution. Thus, the team focused
upon creating a design infrastructure that would harness the momentum offered by the project’s more persistent
conditions to inspire unpredictable regenerations of the work. This resulted in a bottom-up design process that prioritised
small, concise moments of clarity over large-scale design gestures. The resulting work quite naturally varied widely and
included a 99-rupee ($2) water filter made from a standard sweater storage bag, silver-sided tarp and four grommets, a
portable earth wall, and a kid-sized, educational free space fabricated by using techniques offered by the city’s many
autorickshaw upholsterers (Image 3). To evolve these small-scale acts, our team immersed the work into the rigors of
the given environment, allowing the conditions of its eventual home to apply pressure to each design action: those ideas
anchored upon key principles quickly proved their mettle, garnering greater attention, while those that needed additional
tenacity sought out strategic unions with other proposals through either a symbiotic merger or a complete consumption.
A Darwinian approach emerged, one that would compel our team to judge the value of their work not as a static product,
but as an open, evolving movement – a hybrid address of education that would allow our international partners to
possess and evolve the proposed strategies in a meaningful way for years to come.
Image 3: movingSCHOOLS for Migratory Peoples, Mumbai, India. 2008. Final Work
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
50
These successes, however, were overshadowed by a profound limitation of the work. Although the offered works were
practically tested by, and theoretically tied to, the most persistent conditions faced by the partner community, they were
primarily viewed as a one-time instigatory act. Thus, despite the fact that each work successfully addressed key needs
expressed by the host community using only locally available and undervalued materials, methods and resources, it
evolved little once those responsible for the initial work returned home. In this place, brilliance and creativity are in
service to ownership and vestment, a point Jose LS Gamez and Susan Rogers raise in Expanding Architecture: Design
as Activism:
If our political engagement is to move beyond “tiny empowerments” and toward systematic change, we must find a way to
move out of the cacophony of a million voices and toward the harmony of a choir that obtains its power from collectivity.
What is needed is an architecture of change – an architecture that moves the field beyond the design of buildings and
toward the design of new processes of engagement with the political forces that shapes theories, practices, academics,
policies, and communities. (Bell 2008:19)
Image 4: projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the Public Sphere [USPS], various locations. 2009-present
projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the Public Sphere [USPS], various locations. 2009-present
Partners: The International Design Clinic, Temple University and the AIA Centre for Architecture.
Identity: Instigatory Creative Agent Popularised by: Architecture For Humanity [http://architectureforhumanity.org/]
Inspired initially by a call to exhibit creative work designed as a response to the conditions found in the fringe settlements
of India, this work is best understood as the first act of a long-term inquiry into the exhibition of socially responsive
architecture within the rather insular context of the gallery (Image 4). Entitled projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the
Public Sphere, this action used hundreds of projectionMAIL [small], a $3 projection system with a range of over 10’-0”, to
reframe the act of exhibition into a more mutable point of exchange, using the projected image to offer patrons a myriad
of perspectives on the aforementioned work. To point, rather than present the work through a singular view of the
experience or the design conclusions, projectionMAIL dedicated one projector to every image taken as a part of the
design experience, including those offered by the children living in the fringe settlement, the teachers responsible for
educating them and the designers tasked with rearticulating the environment in which this exchange took place. The size
and weight of these projectors, as well as the nature of the projected image, allowed patrons to cultivate new overlaps
between these perspectives and their own, convergences which both reflect and rearticulate the relationship between
the work, those viewing it, and, invariably, those responsible for re-creating it. So that this movement might expand to
include publics, spaces and time periods not offered by any single exhibition, patrons to both the physical space of the
gallery and a parallel online event were invited to propose alternative venues for the work by ‘stealing’ one (or more) of
the boxes and taking it to (what they believe to be) a more suitable location (Image 5).
Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage – Shall
51
Image 5: projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the Public Sphere [USPS], various locations. 2009-present
Once repositioned on a new site, the projectionMAIL [small] used simple graphics to communicate clearly its intent to the
now-expanded body of contributors, stimulating them to [re]position the work into unknown contexts, [re]project the
image onto unanticipated surfaces, [re]purpose the box (through graffiti or the substitution of images) to new ends and
[re]present their movements, insights and photos to a growing body of online contributors. The trans-personal
experience thereby created brought together acts of transition and alienation, and fantasy and translation, compelling
those engaging with the work to trade the position of voyeur (gawking at another, exotic experience) for one that is more
personal (building one’s awareness of ‘projecting’ onto a foreign culture offering), interactive (interaction between the
given image and the creative potential of the spectator) and expressive (specifically related to their own experience as it
relates to the Indian experience). The translation of the work thus becomes both relational to the original context and
self-relational, creating a critical awareness of one’s own position vis-à-vis the site of the observed. In so doing,
projectionMAIL offers not a project, but an infrastructure through which others might stimulate a new set of negotiations
between the structures offered by the work described by the images and those inherent within new sites, programmes,
and publics. Like the work featured in the 2007 exhibition and publication, Design for the Other 90% (Bloemink 2007),
projectionMAIL thrives because the designers realised that “by actively understanding the available tools, desires, and
immediate needs of their potential users – how they live and work – they can design simple, functional, and potentially
open-source objects and systems that will enable users to become empowered, self-supporting entrepreneurs in their
own right” (Bloemick 2007:5). This allowed projectionMAIL, unlike the project that inspired it (which was somewhat
limited by a lack of vestment), to be, by virtue of the act of stealing, owned by others. As a result, it continues to
propagate and expand today, years after its inception.
Image 6: VENDINGeducation, La Paz, Bolivia. 2010-present
VENDINGeducation, La Paz, Bolivia. 2010-present
Partners: The International Design Clinic, Temple University (2010), Lawrence Technological University (2012), Universidad Catolica Boliviana,
Espacio Creativo Cultural (ECC), Teatro Trono, and Fundacion Nuevo Dia. Identity: Researcher-Instigator
Popularised by: Napster [http://napster.com]
In the summer of 2010, a team of students, educators, artists and designers travelled to La Paz, Bolivia, where they
partnered with Bolivian non-profit Creativo Cultural Espacio and began a collaborative design effort with kids working on
the streets of La Paz (Image 6). The chief purpose of this effort was to generate new, street-based versions of education
that more adequately fit the unique lifestyle of the children. The response, unlike current school systems which demand
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
52
that the kids choose between working (and thus eating) or pursuing their education, allowed each child to pursue
learning in a manner congruent with his/her schedule, circumstances, lifestyle, experiences and interests.
To create a foundation for this street-based educational system, our team first engaged in a rigorous, two-year
assessment of the lifestyles of these children using both traditional research methods and more radical investigative
acts, including a series of architectural instigations and registers. Installed within the Bolivian streetscape over the
course of several years, these small, simple event- and space-making devices were designed to provoke, measure and
react to the responses of both the children and others who might one day occupy, possess, or evolve a street-based
educational system. The readings gained through these constructions set in motion an iterative, design-based
investigation that made clear, using both indirect and direct observational techniques, the relevant conditions at hand,
paving the way for larger and more complex iterations of the work.
As new teams and partners entered into the discussion during the summers of 2011 and 2013, this design process
coalesced into a proposal for an educational system based upon the potentials (in terms of architecture, distribution,
mutability, transportability, and programmatic elasticity) and costs (finance and personnel for the educator, time and
travel for the learner) offered by the existing network of vending architectures within the Bolivian streetscape:
VENDINGeducation_EXTRA SMALL used postcards to introduce, and viral marketing techniques to offer key
educational concepts and core skill sets at very little cost to either the educator or learner; VENDINGeducation _SMALL
distilled education into components that can fit within the small boxes carried by the Lustrabota, or Shoe-Shine Boys, of
La Paz, creating micro-educational events throughout the city; VENDINGeducation _MEDIUM, adjusted education to the
module of the handcart, offering more predictable and detailed educational events throughout the week; and
VENDINGeducation _LARGE, created micro-schools within the architecture of a mobile vending booth, offering a light-
duty centre of education within key neighbourhoods.
More importantly, as the work gained size and complexity through its relationship with existent and emergent situations,
it also gained notoriety, and, in the process, cultivated new sites, new partners and new opportunities. During the
summer of 2013, when a team of 14 students, faculty and creative professionals (representing six universities and six
disciplines) travelled to Bolivia, these unanticipated sites and partnerships resulted in several new creative movements,
each of which has a high degree of local vestment and, thus, a high likelihood for growth (Image 7). Five of these
movements are described below:
1. vistaOCULTA – Using the high-quality images taken by children, most of whom work the streets of La Paz as a full-
time vocation, in street-based photography, members of the 2013 team developed a postcard business with local
vendors and non-profit agencies. Aside from showcasing an underground perspective of the city, this business
channels tourist dollars to the children offering said perspective and the agencies dedicated to helping them: one
third of the proceeds from the sale of each card goes to purchase two new cards, another third goes to the free-trade
store selling the item, and the final third goes to the agency helping the child (artist) who took the photograph. Over
the next ten months, those involved in this work will chart the success of each card, cultivate new partners and
prepare for an expansion of this work during the summer of 2014.
2. ECC packaging – Espacio Creativo Cultural (ECC) sells handcrafted puzzles to support its activities. Unfortunately,
when selling in La Paz, ECC cannot charge enough to truly offset the cost of production. To address this, a graphic
design student with the 2013 team developed a branding and packaging campaign, including an online site to
support internet-based shopping, so that the ECC might sell these products to consumers in America and Europe
and increase the price charged for each product by a factor of 4 to 5. This translates to an over 300% increase in the
profit margin for this non-profit – money that will go to support and expand the initiatives of ECC within Bolivia.
3. REshelf – The main building used by ECC is a single room, within which this non-profit holds meetings, hosts
performances, runs classes and stores all the materials necessary for its street-based educational activities. The
amount of material stored in this area compromises all other functions. To address this, a civil engineering student
and a student studying mathematics worked with the ECC leadership to develop a new shelving system based upon
discarded fruit crates and high-strength rope. The resulting system discretely and securely stores more material
within a much smaller area, providing more room for the myriad other activities of this non-profit. Just as importantly,
it does so using accessible materials and methods of construction, which will allow future volunteers to expand this
system to the entire facility.
Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage – Shall
53
4. agriART – Gusto, the only five-star restaurant in Bolivia, has a mission to educate Bolivians about locally grown
foods, provide culinary education to students in fringe settlements and to develop new, locally supported business
opportunities. An environmental graphic student with the 2013 team developed artwork celebrating the local
foodstuffs used within the high-profile meals offered by Gusto. Patrons to the restaurant may purchase these
artworks, with 100% of the proceedings going to support the non-profit endeavours of agriART, including a non-profit
cantina that the 2014 team will help to develop.
5. park-in-a-cart – Teatro Trono is a much respected group of performance artists who have operated for decades in El
Alto, a fringe settlement of La Paz with over 1.2 million people. Although they have remarkable facilities and
programmes, they had never been able to acquire the land, owing in large part to its cost, required to build outdoor
parks and venues for performance. In response, four members of the 2013 team (one faculty member, one architect,
a student studying ethnography and a student of architecture) worked with this non-profit to develop park-in-a-cart –
a mobile platform for deployable parkscapes. Over the next nine months, Teatro Trono will deploy this work, gaining
insight crucial to developing new versions of this work in 2014 as well as another long-standing project idea: a mobile
culinary institute for El Alto.
Image 7: VENDINGeducation, La Paz, Bolivia. 2010-present
CONCLUSION
The situations found within the built environment, whether they are welcome or unwelcome, are the by-products of a
complex amalgam of factors too myriad to be solved by any single entity (Lasky 2010). The architect, who has no
jurisdiction over the most influential of these factors – including those related to communication, territory and distance –
is particularly ill equipped to affect meaningful change in such a complex matrix (Foucault 2002:367). This naturally
promotes those practices of the architect, and creative humanitarian that are based, not upon assumption, but response.
At times, this understanding will be discovered through embracing the offered work; and at times, this understanding will
be found within the (often illegal) commandeering and hybridisation of the offered work. Either way, at its core,
architecture of this place is not validated by popular consensus. Regardless of whether the work is embraced, hijacked
or destroyed, the chief accomplishment of architecture will always be the investigation of condition (a response to
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
54
articulated unknowns) over the proclamation of self (a proclamation of assumed knowns). To quote Kate Stohr, co-editor
of Design Like You Give a Damn:
Will the era of the twenty-first century be remembered as the golden era of socially-conscious design? The answer will
likely depend on the willingness of architects and designers to reach beyond the design community and its traditional
audience – to humbly venture into the communities in which they live, listen to the needs of their neighbours, and offer their
services.
As demonstrated through the variance in the approach and utility of the four works described above, the manner of this
humble address matters greatly.
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55
Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA Operations Management class
Johan Jordaan1
Abstract
An MBA programme is designed to teach practising and prospective managers general management skills. During the
second year, a typical MBA programme would cover different functional management modules such as Marketing
Management, Financial Management and Operations Management. The management of both product and service
organisations is included in the Operations Management module. Since most students do their MBA part-time, they are
often divided into study groups consisting of between three and eight students, and their semester marks are a
combination of individual assignments, group assignments and examinations. The use of management principles in
community organisations therefore fits well in an MBA programme.
In this paper I describe a project where study groups in an MBA Operations Management class were told: Undertake a
community project and give feedback on which Operations Management principles you have used in the project.
An overview follows of areas where service-learning projects have been carried out that could have a bearing on an
MBA Operations Management service-learning project and the benefits that were experienced during these projects.
From documented service-learning projects I then extracted important elements necessary for successful service-
learning projects. Practical difficulties to look out for are also identified and measures that can be taken to ensure the
success of a service-learning project are discussed. The implemented Operations Management service-learning project
referred to above is then discussed and a comparison is made between this project and the success criteria for a
successful service-learning project. I conclude by describing the outcomes of this project and the learning points from
this project for future projects, and how these learning points may be built into a subsequent service-learning project. A
recommendation for further research is that an accurate instrument should be found or developed to assess the success
of service-learning projects on MBA level.
Introduction
Service-learning makes a difference! McDaniel (1994) calls service-learning one of the college classroom’s megatrends
of the future, because of the quest for excellence, accountability, community benefits, self-fulfilment and information
generated. Steiner and Watson (2006:433) call service-learning the vehicle to achieve value-based objectives. The
benefits and value of service-learning for students, faculty and the community have been documented by many
researchers (Lester, Tomkowick, Wells, Flunker & Kickul, 2005:290; McLaughlin 2010:115; Godfrey, Illes & Berry,
2005:311; Mocsa, Agacer, Flaming & Buzza, 2011:50; Rosenstein, Ahsley, Gupta & Ulin, 2008:54).
An MBA programme is designed to teach practising and prospective managers general management skills. The
programme spans most aspects of management. During the second year a typical MBA programme would cover
different functional management modules such as Marketing Management, Financial Management and Operations
Management. The management of both product and service organisations is included in an Operations Management
module. Since most students study for their MBA part-time, they are often divided into study groups consisting of
between three and eight students, and their semester marks are a combination of individual assignments, group
assignments and examinations. The practical use of management principles in community organisations therefore
dovetails well with an MBA programme.
This paper describes a service-learning project carried out by an MBA class at a business school. In this paper I
describe a project where an MBA Operations Management class was simply told: Do a community project and prove
which operations management principles you have used in the project. Each study group in the class had to make
contact with a community organisation of their choice to act as community partner.
1 Business School, Northwest University, South Africa.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
56
Through a brief theoretical overview of service-learning in business education, and more specifically in MBA teaching
and operations management teaching, the requirements for a well-designed service-learning project are highlighted. I
conclude with a description of the specific service-learning project and a comparison of the actual project with these
requirements. The successes and challenges experienced during this project, as well as the pitfalls in this design, are
also described in this paper.
The purpose of the paper is to share my experiences with those practitioners who would like to attempt service-learning,
but do not know where to start. This paper could just guide you through the initial rough waters.
Literature overview
At the start of the project I was curious as to whether a service-learning project is fit for an MBA Operations Management
class. A literature search produced a number of projects related to business education, MBA and Operations
Management, where service-learning was used as a teaching approach. Service-learning projects have been
documented in the fields of engineering (Dukhan, Schuack & Daniels 2008:30), project management (Brown 2000:54),
and ethics (Weber & Glyptis 2000:355; Boss 1994:183). Service-learning was used to good effect in website and
business plan creation (McLaughlin 2010:115), project management (Brown 2000:54), and marketing (Klink & Athaide
2004:153).
Ayers, Gartin, Lahoda, Veyon, Rushford and Neidermeyer (2010:27) listed possible disciplines where service-learning
projects may be implemented in the field of business. These were: accounting, finance, marketing, management (eg
fundraising) and economics (eg business modelling, identifying market niches and determining how best to fill them).
Applications of service-learning in an MBA course covering the areas of strategy, leadership, marketing, small business
consulting and integration between subjects were investigated by Godfrey et al (2005:311). They found that the biggest
benefit of service-learning is the integration between the subject matter taught in different modules that takes place
during such a project. Andrews (2007:22-23) summarised service-learning applications in MBA courses in the areas of
leadership, strategic management and project management, whereas Crossman and Kite (2007:160) focused on
communications skills in their service-learning project.
However, empirical evidence of service-learning in an Operations Management MBA module is still scarce, compared to
other disciplines. Most scholars refer to service-learning projects in undergraduate Operations Management teaching,
rather than in MBA classes. Maloni and Paul (2011:103) used service-learning in an undergraduate Operations
Management class to teach forecasting techniques, and mention that one of the biggest challenges in the project was
the increased workload on the students. They suggested that the ideal team size is four members, given substantial
lecturer or tutor involvement. Bush-Bacelis (1998:26) lists a few typical service-learning projects such as website design,
designing various kinds of letters and brochures, revising operations manuals and drawing up job descriptions. Fish
(2007:70) also describes an Operations Management service-learning project where students had to do a product plan
for a non-profit organisation.
The value of service-learning
The value of service-learning has been documented repeatedly in all disciplines. Agnello V, Pikas B, Agnello AJ & Pikas
A. (2011:4) found that 67% of students rated working on the real-life, hands-on projects as the most effective learning
method. Lester et al (2005:290) found that all stakeholders in a service-learning project described service-learning as a
“value-added” experience. McLaughlin (2010:115) recorded students’ perceptions on service-learning and lists major
benefits: hands-on experience, career enhancement and beyond-the-classroom teaching. Yet again, the students’
experiences were overwhelmingly positive. Brown (2000:54) reports that MBA students consistently rated the community
service project management course as one of the best they had ever taken. Harland, Herman and Ambrose (2008:5), as
well as Yates and Ward (2009:113) also documented overwhelming positive reaction by all parties concerned. Dipadova-
Stocks (2005:345) names an important benefit of service-learning: to prepare future or current managers for the
responsible exercise of authority.
Harland et al (2008:5) found a statistically significant positive change of attitudes of MBA students towards the
community in the long-term. Dixon (2010:53) describes changing attitudes of students during the course of her Project
Management module taught by service-learning as pedagogical approach.
Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA operations management class - Jordaan
57
Important elements necessary for successful service-learning projects are comparatively summarized according to authors in the table below.
Table 1: Steps for successful service-learning projects described by different authors
Important steps by
all authors
Hagan (2012:627) Ayers et al (2010:58) Bush-Bacelis
(1998:22)
Rubin (2001:16)
Do needs
assessment
Identify the need for
service
Identify student and
scholarship outcomes
Form partnership Select client Secure a community
partner
Students decide on a
project in conjunction
with community
organisation
Form teams Form teams
Student assessment Written proposal by
students (graded by
lecturer)
Presentation of
proposal
Proposal presented to
class for feedback
(graded by lecturer)
Planning Team work plan Plan and manage the
process
Plan and design course
around project
Team progress
reports including
reflection
Team progress reports Facilitate reflective
student learning through
the process
Halfway through project,
written and oral
progress report
Reflect, analyse and
deliver
Presentation to
community/partner
Present to client
Self-evaluation Peer/self/ team
evaluation
Final written and oral
report (also graded)
Perform assessment
and evaluate success
Feedback from
community/partner
Feedback from client to
students
Institutionalise a spirit of
service-learning
Table 2: Success criteria for service-learning projects as listed by Papamarcos (2005:330) and supported and expanded upon by other scholars
Papamarcos
(2005:330)
Other practitioners
commenting on this
Specific contributions of other practitioners
Decide on
definition for
success
Chen & Chuang (2009:90) Decide on student learning before onset of project
Krause (2007:627) Outcomes should be in curriculum and should include supervision,
assessment and research
Base project on
sound theory
basis
Chen & Chuang (2009:90) First cover the theory
Brown (2000:54) Service-learning becomes practical application after theory is covered
Ensure proper Rubin (2001:16)
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
58
Papamarcos
(2005:330)
Other practitioners
commenting on this
Specific contributions of other practitioners
structure in
project
Yates & Ward (2009:111) Detailed rubrics to students identifying requirements at each point during
project
Hamilton & Klebba (2011:4) Planning of projects prevents failure
Reflection Godfrey et al (2005:321)
Ma, Zhu, Nan & Yu (2012:3544)
Osman (2011:151)
Rubin (2001:16)
Tied to course objectives, personal commitment from faculty,
practitioners should continuously improve and reflect, and community
should be engaged in the reflection
Pre-empt practical
difficulties
Anger & Hachard (2011:55) Difficult to monitor large number of groups
All projects are not equally complex
Necessity to assess performance distorts the work
Difficult to assess value-add of projects
Brown (2000:54) Bad planning, logistical inefficiencies, over-use of resources, projects
tend to snowball (‘scope creep’), visionless subcontractors, bad
diplomacy, communication with client, excessive use of email
Measuring success of service-learning projects
There is a fair amount of consensus that a successful service-learning project impacts three areas: Student learning
takes place (Osman 2011:152; Chang, Anagnostopoulos & Omae, 2011:1087; Dukhan et al 2008:30), attitudes change
regarding community projects (Sandaran 2012:122), and it makes a real difference to the community (Brower 2011:74;
Lattanzi, Campbell, Dole & Palombaro, 2011:1519; Richards & Novak 2010:50; Dukhan et al 2008:30). In terms of
learning, the biggest benefit reported is integration between subject matter from different modules (Gaster 2011:20),
especially in MBA courses (Harsell & O’Neill 2010:30; Govekar & Rishi 2007:8).
Dukhan et al (2008:30) found that negative attitudes towards community service decreased significantly during their
service-learning project. Kenworthy-U’Ren (2003:122) describes an MBA service-learning project where success was
defined in terms of three issues: a comprehensive research report, grounded in research; a measurable outcome for the
community; and a set of verifiable connections with non-profit organisations.
Research objectives
The project that is described in this paper is an experiment at introducing service-learning into an MBA programme. The
primary objective of the paper is to determine from this project the attributes that need to be built into a service-learning
project on a larger scale to really add value to students, to the community and to the business school. This is done by
describing a service-learning project, analysing the results against the attributes of a successful service-learning project
in literature and, from that, describing some elements that need to be built into a service-learning project in future to
improve learning and to make a bigger difference to the community.
The project design
The design of the project came as a knee-jerk reaction to a strategy session at the business school shortly after study
guides were compiled. At that stage the participation mark for the course had already been set as: individual assignment
(40%), group assignment (40%) and class tests (20%). This participation mark counts 40% towards the final pass mark,
with the examination making up the remaining 60%. A community project (counting for half the class test mark) was
included as an experiment and the assignment was given to the 16 study groups in the class. The brief of the
assignment was: “As a study group, contact a community organisation of your choice and during the course of the
Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA operations management class - Jordaan
59
semester, carry out a community project with/for them. At the end of the semester you have to supply a two-page report
stating which operations management principles you have used, plus an (unlimited length) photo journal and
testimonials by the community or community organisation. During the last contact session you must present your project
to the rest of the class and answer questions they pose. You will receive marks for three issues: operations management
principles used, the impact on the community and your presentation to the rest of the class”.
Outcome planning: The intention of the project was to show a very diverse group of MBA students that operations
management principles affect each and every one of them in some way. The opportunity to make a difference in
the community in doing so was originally regarded as a bonus for the students and a valuable experiment for the
business school, with the added benefit of public relations value for the business school and the university. An
additional benefit was that the projects were actually making a difference in the community, although this was not
the original intent of the assignment.
Theoretical basis: Being an MBA group, the directive that they received marks for the operations management
principles used during the project should have been sufficient instruction to guide them towards perusing the
subject matter while planning and carrying out the project. At MBA level, self-study is emphasised at best. Also, the
projects were done during the same semester that the theory was taught, so that by the end of the semester the
theory had been covered.
Team size and structure: No structure was supplied in the original briefing. During the first lecture after the
introduction, students were supplied with a one-page document giving directions for structuring their project
correctly. Study groups are part of the usual MBA structure: Study groups have between 3 and 8 members, and are
formed at the beginning of the year, preceding the commencement of the Operations Management module.
Reflection: This was included in the form of the report-back session at the end of the semester. Students were
also invited to bounce their ideas and successes of the project off each other on a Facebook page that I opened for
the class. However, the Facebook page had exactly one hit during the semester. Halfway through the semester, a
mid-project report-back session was arranged during the lecture time.
Measuring impact: During the launch of the project no mention was made of measuring the impact of the project
on either the students’ perceptions, on their learning or on the community organisation and the community in
general.
Expected problems
Constraints were expected. The first, and probably the biggest, was the ratio of effort to reward. As an experiment, the
maximum marks the project could carry accounted to only 4% of the final pass mark. It was expected that some students
would regard this as insignificant and hence choose to spend very little time on the community project, although this did
not happen. Secondly, some study groups were geographically dispersed, communicating via email or Skype, rather
than face-to-face. Thirdly, being employed full-time, mostly in management positions, and studying MBA part-time, time
to spend on a community project would be severely limited.
Results
Project selection: Most projects went to local child care or church organisations. Two of the 16 groups selected
organisations that are running a ‘business operation’ parallel to supplying aid to the community. These two groups
could demonstrate the use of operations management principles in their projects more easily than the other groups.
Needs identified: The common needs of the community organisations were reported by the study groups as being
proper management systems, funding, organisational structure, optimising operations, a well-designed supply
chain and project management.
Type of projects: The first opportunity that most community organisations assumed was a possible source of
funding. Some of the groups subscribed to this idea and designed their projects around sourcing of funding. Other
contributions were analysing and optimising internal operations, sourcing of financial accounting software and
training in the use of the software, improving capacity utilisation and facility layout, reducing waste, planning
fundraising efforts and projects using project management principles, and setting up a business plan.
Extent of using operations management principles: Most groups had some element of operations management
principles in their execution, although the tendency was to divert into other management disciplines and especially
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
60
into the actual fundraising. This was not necessarily seen as a failure, since operations management is a discipline
that interfaces closely with most other business disciplines, and the effect of integration of subject areas was seen
as a positive spin-off.
Assessment: The portfolios were graded based on the original briefing: operations principles used and difference
made to the organisation. This counted 50% of the mark for the project, and was graded by the lecturer. During the
last contact session each group had five minutes to present their project to the class. Each member of the audience
(all the students and I, the lecturer) completed an assessment form and assigned marks to each presentation. In no
case did the average mark awarded by the students differ from the mark that I assigned by more than 5%. The
presentations were videotaped so that I could get a second opinion by another lecturer, should the students’ marks
be vastly different from mine. The students’ average mark for the presentation made up the second 50% of the
mark for the project. This was well received by the students.
Feedback by organisations: In all cases the projects were extremely well received by the community
organisations, as judged by their testimonials. The beauty is that 60% of the students indicated that their
involvement with the community organisations continued beyond the project.
Positive feedback by students: There was overwhelming positive feedback that the students had learned much
about the application of Operations Management in diverse organisations. Comments like “… I never thought this
would be so valuable to my personal life …” and “… this was really an enlightening exercise …” abound.
Negative feedback by students: There was general consensus under the students that the project took
proportionally far more time and effort than the 4% of the pass mark that it was worth. Students also commented
that one semester was too short to really delve into a community project and make a real difference, but this was
largely due to the fact that many groups did not get into their projects immediately, which was probably a result of
the loose definition of the projects.
In summary it can be said that the project was a mixed success: Some of the 16 individual projects that were undertaken
really used applied Operations Management knowledge; others did so to a far lesser extent. All the initiatives included
some knowledge from other MBA modules, and hence the project achieved a high degree of integration between
different modules. In terms of value to both the students and the community organisations the response was
overwhelmingly positive.
Conclusions
Outcome planning: The learning outcomes of the project did not really materialise, mainly because the project
was so loosely defined. Future projects need to be defined in greater detail in terms of what kind of community
organisation to select, what kind of input is expected from the students, and what kind of learning needs to take
place.
Theoretical basis: Since the students did not have the theoretical foundation at the beginning of the project, it
delayed the actual start of the individual projects to halfway through the semester. Future projects need to be
structured so that the level of theory that students have at any given stage is applied to the community
organisation.
Structure: The lack of structure was evident from the beginning to the final reporting opportunity. Future projects
need to be far better structured.
Team size: The size of the different study groups, ranging between 3 and 8 members, seemed to work well.
Reflection: This was included in the report-back sessions halfway through the project and at the end of the
semester. The Facebook page that was started for the purpose of sharing ideas was not utilised at all. The report-
back session halfway through the semester forced many teams to get their projects started.
Measuring impact: The impact was ‘measured’ by a testimonial from the community organisation. This could be
improved in future through a more scientifically accurate measurement by giving the representative of the
community organisation a questionnaire to complete.
In summary, this project was a simple case as a starting point for someone who wants to implement service-learning
without any prior experience.
Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA operations management class - Jordaan
61
Changes made to the Operations Management module as a result of the service-learning project
The contribution of the service-learning project has been increased to 40% of the semester participation mark (16%
of the final pass mark) of the module. This is the maximum allowable figure, since the rest consists of individual
contributions and an examination.
A list is being compiled of community organisations that are running some kind of business or agricultural venture
in parallel with their community involvement. Students will have to select an organisation from this list (or an
organisation that complies with the criteria from which this list has been compiled). This will ensure that the
organisations and the students can really benefit from using Operations Management principles.
The whole module has been remodelled on the basis of the service-learning project. When the different topics of
the syllabus are covered, the study groups must submit a report to the community organisation and to the lecturer
on that topic and also be prepared to present it to the rest of the class. An example is the chapter in the particular
textbook on product or service design, where the groups could supply the organisation with a suggestion for a new
product or service, derived through the scientific product or service design process. It is envisaged that not all
groups would be able to present during every contact session, but I shall ensure that they all get equal opportunity
to present. This could possibly change the halfway review into a proper reflection session.
A questionnaire has been designed for measuring what students expect from the lecturer and the subject before
the start of the project and to what extent these have been met at the end of the semester. This is presently being
redesigned to include issues such as the benefit of the module to the community organisation, how the students
experience the service-learning project and to what extent learning took place during the project.
If a service-learning project is driven from one module only, one of the biggest benefits that can accrue, namely
integration between subjects, is virtually eliminated. In the project described in this paper, a mark was given for
integration with other subjects. Continuing this practice should promote inclusion of aspects from different subjects.
The peer assessment of presentations would be continued. It seems to provide good feedback to the team
presenting as well as guidance to those who do the assessment.
A final comment: Recommendations to lecturers considering adopting a service-learning approach to their teaching and learning
The beauty of this approach is its simplicity: The groups have absolute autonomy about the type of project, the scope of
the project and the geographical location where the service-learning project is performed. Some of the projects could be
done wherever the need arises: whether local or international. The shortcomings experienced during this specific project
need to be taken into account, though. Most important, where there is a will, there is a way. Should you want to venture
into service-learning, just do it!
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Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy
Mea van Huyssteen
Angeni Bheekie1
Abstract
The primary aim of the service-learning programme at the School of Pharmacy at the University of the Western Cape is
to produce patient-centred, socially responsible pharmacy graduates, who are sensitive to social injustices in the South
African health care setting. Social responsibility forms part of the social obligation scale (Boelen, Dharmasi S & Gibbs T.
2012:181), which can be used to measure an academic training institution’s status based on how well their education,
research and service activities are addressing the priority health concerns of the community, region and/or nation.
Similarly, a series of changes has been suggested to dismantle the silo effect between health services and academic
training institutions which is aligned to transformative learning and interdependence in health education (Frenk, Chen,
Bhutta, Cohen, Crisp, Evans & others,2010:1923-1952). In South Africa, social responsibility has been equated to the
African philosophy of ubuntu, roughly defined as ‘shared humanity’ (Kwizera & Iputo 2011:649), a contrast to Western
practice.
In terms of the students of the School of Pharmacy, service-learning comprises three practical components: the service
experience, guided group reflection and individual reflective report writing. During the service experience, students are
expected to provide health services that appropriate their current knowledge, skills and pharmaceutical scope of practice
to underserved communities in Cape Town through public health or educational facilities. Thereafter, group reflection
sensitises students to feelings of dissonance which arise during these experiences. The individual reflective report
further describes and analyses the experience and subsequently interprets it through the lens of ubuntu, which serves as
a preamble for personal and social transformation.
The explicit incorporation and analysis of the concept of ubuntu has spurred engagement from students that has been
intimately revealing of their African identity and persona. We envision that by embedding ubuntu in daily service and
learning practices, socially accountable citizens can be cultivated.
Introduction
The primary aim of the service-learning programme at the School of Pharmacy at the University of the Western Cape
(UWC) is to produce patient-centred, socially responsible pharmacy graduates who are sensitive to social injustices in
the South African health care setting. Social responsibility forms part of the social obligation scale (Boelen et al
2012:181), which can be used as a grading system to measure how well an academic training institution’s education,
research and service activities are “addressing the priority health concerns of the community, region and/or nation they
have a mandate to serve”. This has initially been developed around medical education, but can be extrapolated to other
healthcare disciplines where service and learning interface in the health system. Within this larger context, a series of
system-wide changes has been suggested to dismantle the silo effect between health services and academic training
institutions which is aligned to transformative learning and interdependence in health education (Frenk et al
2010:1923-1952).
One of the primary problems we identified was that our teaching content is not well enough contextualised within our
own setting. In Pharmacy specifically, many of the textbooks are written in the United States of America or United
Kingdom, which may not always address issues pertinent to the South African context and thus makes it hard to
translate in terms of labels and practices. This gap in relevance becomes glaringly evident when students are attempting
to make sense of their service experiences.
We decided “to explore how African cultural values may occupy a more central position” (Beets & Le Grange 2005:1198)
in our service-learning programme with specific emphasis on ubuntu. Ubuntu is the summary of the meaning of the
1 University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville, Cape Town, South Africa.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
66
isiXhosa proverb from southern Africa: ‘Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu’ which means ‘A human being is a human being
only through its relationship to other human beings’ (Marx 2002). Our purpose is to overlay service-learning principles
with those of ubuntu to intensify the African authenticity of service-learning. In this way we hope that such a framework
can facilitate greater ownership and engagement from the students to enable deep learning. In the next section of this
paper we describe how the philosophy of ubuntu connects with social accountability and how it became central to the
way in which we approach and engage with transformative learning in an attempt to maximise the learning that can be
derived from service-learning experiences.
Theoretical grounding
Social accountability at its utmost is the most desirable level of social obligation (Table 1) compared to the lower levels of
social responsiveness and social responsibility, respectively. In short, a socially accountable training programme is
contextualised based on health determinants and the health system, and tends to produce socially accountable
graduates who are change agents. Community-based programmes produce socially responsive graduates
(professionals) having specific competencies to address people’s health concerns. Community-oriented programmes
generally produce ‘good practitioners’ based on implicit identification of society’s health needs and are socially
responsible (Boelen et al 2012). The reason for this distinction becomes clear when measuring the degree of
engagement of the values on which social accountability is based, which include equity, relevance, quality and cost-
effectiveness (Boelen & Heck 1995:5). The more explicit the engagement of all these values, the higher the measure on
the social obligation scale.
For the purposes of this discussion, equity and relevance mirror mostly the service-learning goals and how they relate to
the South African setting, which in most cases is exemplified by social inequality. As defined according to social
accountability, equity inhabits a central position as it strives towards the ideal of high-quality health care for all people.
From South Africa’s historical landscape of inequality, establishing relevance in health care is challenged as the voices
of underserved communities are marginalised, making it difficult to identify and prioritise problems which should be fast-
tracked. Kwizera and Iputo (2011:649) have linked social responsibility as it applies to medical training to the African
philosophy of ubuntu. Equity and relevance can be applied in the way ubuntu fosters an appreciation of the intrinsic
value of what it means to be human, which is espoused through nurturing good relationships (interdependence) between
people (Venter 2004:151). The fundamental aspect that ubuntu values, is an individual’s interdependence rather than
independence that is highly esteemed in Western society.
In essence, ubuntu refers to “a positive ethical/moral way of going/being in relation with others” (Venter 2004:152).
Rampele (2012:76-79) concurs and translates ubuntu as ‘beingness’. She illustrates this by contrasting it with ‘having’.
She notes that ‘having’ has become a symbol of power and worth in post-apartheid South Africa and writes: “we seem to
have gravitated towards becoming a nation that has reduced ‘being’ into ‘having’”. Tutu (2011:22) agrees by arguing that
a person can be affluent in material possessions but lack ubuntu, if devoid of intrinsic values. He concludes that: “ubuntu
teaches us that our worth is intrinsic to who we are” (Tutu 2011:24). Biko (1978:55) proclaimed that one of the most
fundamental aspects of African culture was the importance attached to man (people); he referred to a ‘man(people)-
centred’ society.
Biko’s (1978:58) comparison of Western and African cultures is defined in terms of responding to problems. He argues
that the Westerner is geared to use a problem-solving approach following logical analyses, whereas the African
approach is that of situation-experiencing. In other words, he holds that Africans tend to experience a situation rather
than face a problem. This difference applies to how learning is translated at the tertiary level. The African ‘way’ tends to
lend itself more naturally/easily to transformative learning theory, because it is an internally (being-) centred approach
and not an external (‘having’) approach which is more synonymous with Western thinking.
It is almost uncanny how well transformative learning translates the personal experience as described by Biko into the
learning environment. Frenk and colleagues (2010:1951) contrast transformative learning with the informative and
formative levels of learning traditionally accepted to create a health care professional (Table 1).
Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy – van Huyssteen, Bheekie
67
Table 1 Comparison between the levels of learning, objectives, social obligation scale level, outcomes and activities pharmacy students engage during service-learning
Level of
learning
Objectives Social obligation
scale of pharmacy
school
Graduate attribute Activities
Transformative Leadership attributes Social accountability Change agent Contextualised: Dialogue, share
passion, opinions & innovative ideas
in practice, collaborate, reflect on
experiences
Formative Socialisation &
values
Social
responsiveness
Professionals Community-based: Ethics, moral
values during consultations &
interaction with patients, community
health workers, nurses and doctors
Informative Information & skills Social responsibility Experts Community-oriented: Stock
management, pharmacotherapy,
supervised dispensing and patient
group education
Adapted from Frenk et al (2010:1951) & Boelen et al (2012:181)
Transformative learning has been defined as: “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference – sets of fixed
assumptions and expectations – to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, reflective and emotionally able to
change” (Mezirow 2003:58). The transformative learning process ultimately teaches a person to think autonomously
(Mezirow 1997:8) and as such is a very personal process of becoming more critically reflective of the assumptions we
base our beliefs on as well as the assumptions of others. By creating and analysing this awareness one is able to
synthesise a more discriminating and open attitude towards others and the environment. Critical reflection is thus an
important skill to master in the transformative process (Mezirow 1998:186). Tools that can be used to stimulate the
process include identifying and analysing critical incidents and exploring the resultant discomfort to extract meaning from
the experience – pedagogy of discomfort.
Rationale for research and relevance to overall theme “Service-learning across the globe: from local to transnational”
The essence of the research can be summarised by the question: How can we change our service-learning programme
in order to encourage our students to engage with it at a deeper level?
In the rest of this paper we illustrate how the philosophy of ubuntu has guided and in many ways facilitated the
adaptation of our service-learning programme to the global mandate to change pharmacy education into a
transformative and interdependent experience.
Methodology
The Service-Learning in Pharmacy (SLiP) programme of the School of Pharmacy was initiated in 2001 (Bheekie et al,
2011:2546). It evolved from a final (4th) year programme only, to one which includes 3rd, 2nd and 1st year students.
When looking at the overarching framework of the SLiP programme, ubuntu is contextualised with other similar African
values which include batho pele (people first) and khomanani (working together). The latter two are symbolic of South
Africa’s approach to transformation of the public health service. Each of these African values is entwined within the
fundamental principles of social accountability and service-learning (Table 2).
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
68
Table 2 Undergraduate service-learning and social accountability framework with envisaged pharmacy graduate attributes (adapted from Bheekie et al (2013))
Year
of
study
African
value
Social
accountability
framework
Service-learning
principle
Reflection
theme focus
Service
focus:
address
theory-
practice gap
Learning outcome
1st Ubuntu Equity Reciprocity
Interconnectedness
Being Self-discovery,
individual-
focus
Leader
2nd Batho pele Quality Compassion Having Patient-
centred
Expert
3rd Khomanani Relevance Diversity
Teamwork
Doing Community /
‘group’ of
people
Professional
4th Ubuntu
Batho pele
Khomanani
Efficiency Justice Being
Having
Doing
Population-
based
Leader
Expert
Professional
Partnership is the principle which forms the basis of service-learning and social accountability. It is thus not depicted in the table, as without it the
table will not exist.
In terms of the student, SLiP comprises three practical components, namely the service experience, guided group
reflection, and individual reflective report writing. During the service experience, students offer pharmaceutical and
health services appropriate to their current knowledge, skills and scope of practice to underserved communities in public
health and educational facilities in Cape Town. The School’s established partnership with both the Department of Health
and the City of Cape Town municipal health services forms the bedrock for students’ service-learning experiences.
Additionally, the first-year students were introduced to school health, which was coordinated with the assistance of the
Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit at UWC. In keeping our focus on ubuntu, we elaborate on the first- and
fourth-year students’ experiences. First-year students were sent to a primary school in a high-prevalence drug abuse
and gangster community. They were tasked to engage with groups of learners about the social determinants of health,
specifically to find out which determinants mostly affected these learners. Fourth-year students spent a week working in
the pharmacy of a public health facility under the supervision of a pharmacist. Their main tasks were assisting with stock
control and dispensing of medication to patients.
After these experiences, students are required to attend group reflection sessions (in their year groups). At the start of
group reflection, academic facilitators inform students that they are in a safe space and they are encouraged to share
experiences which tend not to resonate with their own beliefs, morals, values, expectations or practices, thus unveiling a
place of personal discomfort. During this process, we point out that reflection is not a comfortable process and for
authentic learning to emerge it is necessary to question their frames of reference. They are also reminded that in
reflection, there are no right or wrong answers and that we value whatever answer they put forward. After teasing out
some of these feelings, students are divided into small groups tasked with analysing a specific reader relative to their
personal experiences. A reader may be an extract from a book or article, short enough to be read in a space of 5 to 10
minutes and focuses on a specific reflection theme. Two of the five readers are specific to ubuntu (Rampele 2012:76-79;
Tutu 2011:22-23). Using the ubuntu philosophy as a reflection theme, students can unpack tacit knowledge that is learnt
from observation, reflection and self-awareness. Through the lens of ubuntu the feelings of dissonance are magnified,
analysed and interpreted. This preliminary analysis prepares the students for framing their reflective reports.
The individual reflection report further distils learning. We use critical incident reports (Branch 2005:1063) as a tangible
starting point to identify and contextualise the internal tension that usually accompanies significant experiences. The
reflective report is structured in such a way that the students first identify and contextualise the incident. The next step is
Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy – van Huyssteen, Bheekie
69
to analyse critically why they think this incident was significant to them by honestly examining their current frame of
reference and linking it to past experiences. Then the students need to reframe the incident by measuring it against the
reference frame of ubuntu in order to interpret and construct meaning from their service experiences. Finally they have to
synthesise a new frame of reference that they can incorporate, or not, for their next service-learning experience. In this
way, students re-condition themselves to think in a more inclusive manner, guided by a shared set of values. The goal is
to give students the opportunity to repeat these learning cycles as many times as possible during their undergraduate
study to systematically work towards becoming more socially aware and accountable.
Outcomes
In this section we share quotes from first- and fourth-year students’ individual reflective reports that are illustrative of how
they interpreted the ubuntu theme relative to their personal experiences (2013). Three independent assessors marked
the reports using a reflection rubric. Reports were ordered according to total marks allocated for each group of
assignments, of which every tenth report was selected to be scrutinised for quotes. This section has been arranged to
describe students’ learning in terms of our service-learning framework and illustrates how the philosophy of ubuntu
interconnects/unifies the service-learning principles.
The service-learning principle of reciprocity is illustrated by the emphasis ubuntu places on an individual’s obligation to
appreciate the intrinsic value of other people. The following quote from a first-year student illustrates the realisation that
there is something to learn from any person, no matter how insignificant they are judged to be by society:
For as long as I can remember, I thought it is impossible for an elder to learn something from the young ones. The SLiP
experience for me is a turning point to see and analyse situations in a different perspective. It also taught me to listen and
respect everyone’s ideas about certain topics regardless of their age.
Another first-year student realised his own intrinsic value (being) and illustrates the responsibility he internalised to live
this in a proactive way to the rest of the world:
One of the important aspects I came across during the occurrence was that one should never underestimate his/her
abilities. Once you don’t believe in what you are doing no one will. It all starts within before it gets acknowledged from the
outside world.
The way in which reciprocity gives meaning to interconnectedness is described by a fourth-year student who explains it
in terms of the health care team:
We as pharmacists are part of a team of health care providers and we are the last link in the chain. Therefore we cannot
work individually and achieve the best possible results for the patient.
The next service-learning principle is compassion which has been listed as one of the spiritual attributes connected to
ubuntu, such as, among others: generosity, hospitality, sharing and caring (Tutu 2011:22).. The following critical incident
as described by a first-year student seems to embody the attribute of compassion:
… my saddest incident involved a certain learner whom whilst other learners where busy answering all the questions, …
she on the other hand was rather quiet. A clear indication of her either personality/character or a reflection of her
upbringing displayed in terms of low self-esteem. … I believe we as students made a huge mistake of having a laugh when
she gave a wrong answer (obviously unaware). For someone who has been quiet for the better part of the session, when
she decided to finally open her mouth and speak, the 1st answer is way off line and instead of being [mature] about it...we
ended up laughing with [the] other learners. A site I must say discouraged her not to ever speak again… I’ve learned that
our uniqueness make every situation different from the other as some of my colleagues were [focused] on how responsive
and participative the learners were, I was seeing a completely different dimension throughout the session.
Teamwork, that is fostered by service-learning can be linked to ubuntu by virtue of the relational aspect it esteems,
especially that of interdependence. A fourth-year student describes ubuntu in terms of this awareness as realised
through observing pharmacy staff working together:
Taking this incident and connecting it to the ubuntu (humanity) principle was quite difficult. Ubuntu or rather humanity
means to me that an individual or society to be able to show and express kindness, charity, compassion, sympathy,
cooperation, teamwork and mercy to others. The incident that I witnessed/experienced was more connected to the
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
70
cooperation and teamwork part of my understanding of humanity. So therefore the actions/behaviour of the staff of the …
pharmacy had a sense of ubuntu.
The principle of teamwork, especially in South Africa, brings to the surface the concept of diversity, which is further made
explicit by our history of inequality. The following quotation illustrates so clearly the learning process of a fourth-year
student trying to connect his critical incident through the lens of ubuntu to his socio-cultural background and adapt it
according to a more inclusive awareness:
I strongly feel that I should change my perception of my life compared to that of others, I should not be so close minded
about issues, I should realise that not every person is the same and that I should stop expecting and comparing other
people to [myself]. I should bear in mind, that we all grow up differently with different backgrounds and therefore I should
accept people the way they are and the way they decide to look after their body.
The principle of social justice is continually discussed in terms of inequality that students are exposed to in underserved
communities. A first-year student elaborates:
He lives in … and his cousin was a gang member. This thirteen year old was exposed to gang violence and everything
else that comes along with gangsterism. They knew exactly where to obtain these drugs and how much it costs, that
personally was aggravating and disappointing at the same time, why would one expose innocent children to this type of
conditions? They have their whole life ahead of them. These circumstances will have a detrimental effect on all their future
endeavours. He’s merely a kid but he has smoked weed, cigarettes, drank beer and even witnessed his own cousin
partake in gang fights. This to me was astonishing as he was so young! I had an interesting conversation with him and it’s
actually scary for me personally because at that age I was so ignorant but these kids, they are a lot more informed and
aware of all the dangers that comes with the territory. After our chat I realized how privileged I am as I was not exposed to
these kinds of circumstances and I gained a certain sort of admiration for all these kids.
Finally, coming back full circle, reciprocity is key to social responsibility, service-learning and the profound relational
aspect ubuntu teaches. This can be summarised in the following quote of a fourth-year student where he crystallises his
learning:
Today I know that being competent is not denoted by being independent.
In conclusion, the explicit incorporation and analysis of the ubuntu philosophy has spurred engagement from students
who have intimately revealed their African identity and persona. We envisage that by embedding ubuntu in daily service
and learning practices, contextually relevant discourse is elicited that could be instrumental in cultivating socially
accountable citizens. It is clear that by interconnecting the principles of service-learning with the philosophy of ubuntu,
we can highlight the synergy of interdependence (reciprocity) to direct transformational learning, thus bringing us closer
to realising the global mandate to transform health education. The next step would be to have students translate ubuntu
into similar concepts emanating from their own cultures.
References
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delivery. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 5(23):2546-2557.
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accountability. Poster presentation: FIP World Congress, 31 August - 5 September. Dublin, Ireland.
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Marx C. 2002. Ubu and Ubuntu: On the dialectics of apartheid and nation building. Politikon: South African Journal of Political
Studies, 29(1):49-69.
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Mezirow J. 1998. On critical reflection. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(3):185-198.
Mezirow J. 2003. Transformative learning as discourse. Journal of Transformative Education, 1(1):58-63.
Rampele M. 2012. Conversations with my sons and daughters. Johannesburg, South Africa: Penguin Books. 224.
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Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the following contributions, with thanks: The provincial and local Departments of Health
and the City of Cape Town Municipal Health Services for providing on-site facilitators and facilities for the service
experiences; Ms Damaris Kiewiets at the Community Engagement Unit (UWC) for coordinating the community forum for
our service-learning programme; Ms Irene Fredericks at the Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit (UWC) for
coordinating and facilitating first-year students at a primary school in Cape Town; the principal and staff of the primary
school; Dr Kene Obikeze who co-facilitates the service-learning programme; and Ms Inecia Galant who does all the
coordination with partners and student administration.
73
Community-academic service-learning programme models for success and sustainability
Catherine E Crandell, 1 Gina Pariser, Mark R Wiegand and Joseph A Brosky Jr
Abstract
In the past two decades, there has been growth in community-academic service-learning (SL) programmes and
initiatives addressing complex community health problems. This has been in response to a number of factors including
but not limited to access to health care services, an aging population with chronic health conditions, and rising health
care costs. While these SL programmes can initially be mutually beneficial to community and academic institutions, there
are challenges to the sustainability of these programmes. Critical factors for sustainability have generally focused on
institutional roles and include policies supporting SL, meaningful curricular integration of experiences, and balancing
faculty commitments of service with teaching and scholarship (Vogel, Seifer & Gelmon 2010). Our SL experiences
validate these sustainability factors through institutional and programme mission statements that reflect our commitment
to community engagement, and are integrated within the programme curriculum and support the triad of the traditional
faculty workload. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to describe two SL models addressing the role of physical
therapists providing primary care in the community; and to present and discuss the critical factors associated with
sustaining community-academic partnerships. Both models are implemented in racially diverse and medically
underserved urban areas. Community challenges to supporting sustainable partnerships include scheduling and
developing a sense of trust and permanence between the academic institution and community partner to promote ‘doing
with’ and not ‘doing for’. These challenges have been minimised through curricular modification that resulted in SL
supporting and enhancing existing educational objectives. Additionally, collaborative scholarship between the community
partner organisations and institution has served to facilitate programmatic research productivity and a sense of alliance
from the partner. Stakeholder satisfaction and programme outcomes that support faculty productivity and institutional
mission suggest this SL model supports long-term programme sustainability.
Introduction
Service-learning (SL) is a structured learning experience incorporating community service with specific learning
objectives, academic preparation and critical reflection to provide students with opportunities to think about the larger
societal context in which the service is provided (Seifer 1998). Reflection is a key component of SL because learning
takes place through a combination of thought and action, reflective practice, theory and application (Jacoby 1996).
Service-learning is a pedagogical method utilised in undergraduate and graduate education and has several purported
benefits for all stakeholders involved.
There are many important attributes and features characterising SL and these include: it is developed with a community;
it is reciprocal in nature; it extends learning beyond the classroom; it fosters civic and social responsibility; it presents
real-world situations; it incorporates guided/directed reflection; it is a framework for leadership development; it cultivates
a sense of caring for others; it identifies and addresses community needs; and it is credit-bearing (Jacoby 1996; Seifer
1998; Gupta 2006; Community-Campus Partnerships for Health 2006). These distinguishing features differentiate SL
from volunteerism, clinical clerkships or preceptorships, and field experiences. Curricular integration and reciprocal
learning with community partners are key elements of SL not contained within volunteer service experiences.
Volunteerism is not typically connected to classroom instruction and may or may not address unmet community needs.
Clinical internship training and field study experiences are student-focused and have minimal emphasis on community-
identified needs.
Service-learning is considered a high-impact educational practice that provides student opportunities to apply classroom
learning to real-world situations and reflect on those experiences (Kuh 2008). In addition, SL is a way for students to
‘give back’ to the community and to develop important life skills, including citizenship and leadership. Service-learning in 1 Catherine E. (“Kate”) Crandell, PT, DPT, MDiv, Assistant Professor & Associate Director of Clinical Education, Bellarmine
University. [email protected].
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
74
graduate health professions education is uniquely positioned to engage the academy with the community, enhance
professional development, promote citizenship and support clinical internship and field education training through
supervised practice. In addition, SL provides an opportunistic framework for development of critical thinking,
collaboration and communication (Friedman 2011).
In general, SL in undergraduate education has received greater attention compared to graduate education. In 1998, the
Health Professions Schools in Service to the Nation (HPSISN) Program performed a multi-site, multi-year study to
evaluate the effectiveness of SL in health professions education. The HPSISN study also promoted curricular reform to
help prepare future health professionals to work effectively in the changing health care delivery system. The subsequent
HPSISN Evaluation Report suggested SL was an effective method to influence student attitudes toward service as a
health professional and provided faculty with a meaningful connection between learning and meeting community needs
(Gelmon, Holland & Shinnamon 1998).
Since the HPSISN Report, there has been increased attention on SL within health professions education. In a grounded
theory approach, Reynolds (2005) examined the benefits and educational outcomes of SL in the overall educational
preparation of student physical therapists. The study by Reynolds suggested that SL course experiences could create
opportunities for students to develop competencies to complement traditional clinical education training. Brosky, Duprey,
Hopp and Maher (2006) examined student physical therapist and community partner perspectives and attitudes
regarding SL experiences and reported positive student responses to SL in furthering their professional development.
Crandell, Wiegand and Brosky (2013) examined the role of SL on the development of professionalism in Doctor of
Physical Therapy students and suggested that SL experiences had a positive impact on the professional core value
development and expression in these students.
While these SL programmes are mutually beneficial to community and academic institutions, there are challenges to the
long-term sustainability of these programmes. Service-learning is a time-intensive educational pedagogy and requires
substantial institutional and community support for success and long-term sustainability. Critical factors for sustainability
have generally focused on institutional roles and include policies supporting SL, meaningful curricular integration of
experiences, and balancing faculty commitments of service with teaching and scholarship (Vogel et al 2010; Village
2006). In addition, guided or directed reflection has been shown to support SL success and sustainability (Village 2006).
Another critical factor to achieve mutual success and long-term sustainability of SL experiences is intentional application
of Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships (Community-Campus Partnerships for Health 2006). These
guiding principles promote an equitable community-academic partnership that is mutually beneficial for all stakeholders
involved.
Recently there has been growth in community-academic SL programmes and initiatives addressing complex community
health problems. Community-academic collaborations are a creative means for tackling complex societal problems in the
United States associated with aging populations, increasing poverty rates, uninsured, and rising health care costs.
Maintaining these partnerships requires a commitment to address barriers and challenges associated with effective
implementation of SL experiences. Service-learning that is an ongoing requirement in academic curricula is one way to
build sustainable community-campus partnerships. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to describe two SL models
addressing the role of physical therapists in the community in the area of primary care; and to present and discuss the
critical factors associated with sustaining these partnerships.
Service-learning and the Bellarmine University Doctor of Physical Therapy Program
The Bellarmine University (BU) Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) Program has an integrated SL thread within its
curriculum, including course experiences with specific learning objectives, academic preparation and critical reflection.
Course assignments and experiences include: provision of pro bono services; self- and peer-assessment of professional
behaviours (May, Kontney & Iglarsh 2010); end-of-semester Reflection Papers; Community Partner Engagement
Projects; and active engagement in specific state and national professional advocacy events. Student provision of pro
bono services is the centrepiece of the SL course series with students providing progressive primary physical therapy
care in on- and off-campus Service-learning Clinics (SLCs). The BU DPT Program has four SLC sites and students are
assigned to each of the four unique service locations. The BU DPT SL thread includes five courses in SL; four of which
Community-academic service-learning program models for success and sustainability - Crandell, Pariser, Wiegand, and Brosky Jr
75
include pro bono patient management activities and end-of-semester Reflection Papers; and one SL course that is
foundational for establishing community partnerships and facilitating student community engagement projects.
In an attempt to promote physical therapy access for medically underserved residents in Louisville, Kentucky, the BU
DPT Program developed and implemented SL outreach utilising Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships
(Community-Campus Partnerships for Health 2006). Three community-academic partnerships were formed to address
community-identified needs and to focus on professional core values emphasising social responsibility and altruism
(American Physical Therapy Association 2000). A second feature of these community-academic partnerships was the
opportunity to provide pro bono services in an autonomous practice environment in a state with full, direct patient access
for physical therapy services. Two of these models provide an opportune framework for BU DPT students to engage with
the community through faculty supervised pro bono patient/client management activities and are presented here.
The first partnership is located in a faith-based community centre in a medically underserved, low-income urban area.
This community-academic partnership was established through a student-directed Community Partner Engagement
Project that included a community-identified needs assessment for the utilisation of and a geographic analysis of
accessibility to physical therapy services. Within this faith-based community centre, students provide faculty-supervised
physical therapy primary care to adult clients with musculoskeletal complaints and multiple co-existing medical
conditions. This partnership formally began in 2010 and this SLC remains an active part of the local community today.
The second community-academic partnership is housed in a federally-funded community health centre serving a racially
diverse, low-income population with a high prevalence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease and mobility limitations. This
interprofessional health promotion SL programme, Active Steps for Diabetes, was developed through partnerships
between academic programmes within the University (physical therapy, nursing, and exercise science) and two
community entities: the local public health department and a community health centre. The emphasis of Active Steps for
Diabetes is empowering volunteer participants to manage their diabetes actively. This biweekly, 11-week programme
includes three essential components: ‘knowing your numbers’, which involves reading and understanding blood glucose
levels, age and mobility-level appropriate exercise, and diabetes education. Since 2007, this SL partnership has
provided on-going community-based research, while at the same time addressing the medical needs of this community.
In 2011, this partnership expanded to include nursing and exercise science faculty and students and continues to
provide interprofessional care to local residents.
Reflections on impact
Both community-academic partnerships have demonstrated increased client utilisation each academic year. These two
partnerships have had an impact on nearly 200 participants. The Active Steps for Diabetes programme has been shown
to improve client blood sugar, cardio-vascular fitness, mobility, self-care and management behaviours (Pariser, Gillette,
DeMuro & Winters 2007).
End-of-semester student Reflection Papers suggest an overall positive response to participation in these SLC
partnerships. Selected examples of student comments include:
“I was able to grow as a professional because I was able to utilize my critical thinking skills.”
“Being involved this semester at the [off-campus Service-learning Clinic] allowed me to see how important
communication is.”
“When I get my PT [physical therapy] license, I’m going to continue to do pro bono service.”
“During my time at Active Steps I learned and saw first-hand how physical therapy can play a key role in the care of
people with diabetes.”
“I thoroughly enjoyed being a mentor to my first-year student. We have to be teachers and instructors to not only
our patients, but those around us in the clinic and I think this mentor position allowed us to grasp the importance of
this characteristic even more.”
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Service-learning in the BU DPT curriculum serves a variety of important purposes that support curricular outcomes
such as:
Strengthening the classroom-clinic connection
Supervised professional skill practice without clinical productivity constraints
Faculty-student and student-student mentoring and collaborative learning
Practice engaging as a “reflective practitioner” (Shepard & Jensen 1990:571-572)
Support of clinical internship training models
Modelling professional community engagement
Provision of pro bono services consistent with professional core values (American Physical Therapy Association
2000)
Fostering a sense of civic and social responsibility (Gupta 2006)
Broadening of students’ worldview
The SL benefits to community partners include: actively attempting to address healthcare inequities; provision of
healthcare services based on community-identified needs; provision of quality, evidence-based care; and mutual
enhancement of each party’s mission.
Service-learning also provides institutional benefits such as increased visibility that facilitates ‘town and gown’ interaction
between the community and the academy and fulfilment of university and departmental missions.
Faculty involved in SL also benefit from these unique community-academic experiences in several ways: SL supports
the triad of faculty workload and allows for community-based research, focused service and enhanced pedagogy; SL
provides opportunities to mentor and participate in collaborative learning with students through the intentional blurring of
lines between teacher and learner; and SL provides reflective practice and core value support for faculty and
students alike.
The economic impact of the BU DPT SL course experiences on the local community has been significant. Over the past
nine years of community engagement, over $500 000 of in-kind pro bono services have been provided by the BU DPT
Program to the greater Louisville community.
Challenges to success and sustainability
There are many challenges to success and long-term sustainability of service-learning. Time, institutional resources,
recognition of faculty efforts through promotion and tenure decisions, faculty inertia, and ability to document the impact of
SL on community partners and student learning all affect long-term viability of SL.
Vogel et al (2010) estimate that it may take between 5 and 10 years to develop successful and sustainable SL
programmes. Successful SL programmes require significant investments of faculty and student time. In addition, there
are significant time demands on professional graduate students and active student engagement is critical to long-term
sustainability.
Competing priorities place stress on resources for many institutions. Overall institutional commitment to SL and faculty
through workload recognition and promotion/tenure decisions are important considerations for faculty ‘buy-in’ to support
long-term faculty support of SL. Additional SL programme support may be achieved through institutional and foundation
grants; however, this endeavour presents additional time demands on faculty.
It may be necessary for faculty to learn a new paradigm of scholarship through implementation of community-based
research to increase scholarly production. This investment will require that faculty become comfortable with a ‘first
among learners’ philosophy that allows the faculty and students to collaborate on learning with the community partner as
a ‘guide on the side’ rather than faculty serving as the ‘sage on the stage’.
Perhaps one of the biggest challenges is to establish graduate health professions SL education outcome measures of
student learning and impact on community. Student outcome measures will help to substantiate SL pedagogy and may
also promote long-term sustainability of SL course experiences. Community impact outcome measures will validate the
importance of community-academic collaborations addressing complex societal problems associated with our aging
Community-academic service-learning program models for success and sustainability - Crandell, Pariser, Wiegand, and Brosky Jr
77
population, rising poverty, and rising health care costs. Perhaps, in addition to improving the health of our communities,
evidence of continued involvement of graduate students in the health professions beyond graduation validates the
importance of SL.
In addition to institutional challenges to SL sustainability, there are sustainability challenges to community partners.
Some of these challenges include: development of the community as an equal rather than a dependent partner;
scheduling of services and developing a sense of trust and permanence in the academic institution that promotes a
‘doing with’ and not ‘doing for’ partnership. With the BU DPT SL experiences, these challenges have been minimised
through curricular modifications that resulted in SL supporting and enhancing educational objectives. In addition, the BU
DPT SL course series is supported by university and departmental mission statements. Finally, collaborative scholarship
between the partner and institution has served to facilitate faculty productivity and a sense of alliance from the partner.
Discussions on SL sustainability have often focused on the contributions of the academic partner to the relationship triad
(partner-student-university) (Vogel et al 2010; Village 2006). Often overlooked are the factors that contribute to the
community partner remaining in an SL collaborative relationship. Community-Campus Partnerships for Health (2006), in
its Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships, alludes to the community partner role by stating “The
relationship between partners is characterized by mutual trust, respect, genuineness, and commitment”, but how is that
relationship furthered by the academic institution? When the community partner comes to trust that the academic partner
is in it for the long haul, there is a shared responsibility to providing for the clients of the organisation. This mutual trust
strengthens the partnership and promotes collaborative efforts to meet community-identified needs and academic
learning objectives.
The two community-academic partnership models presented have remained viable for several years largely owing to
institutional support, committed faculty and students and a mutual trust and commitment to providing for the clients of the
community agency. In addition, the community partners have reciprocally referred clients to one another in order to best
meet the health care needs of individuals served. Adopting and emulating the Principles of Good Community
Partnerships has facilitated the success and sustainability of these community-academic partnerships.
Conclusion
The programme outcomes related to the tenants of academic institutions and faculty commitment (service, teaching,
scholarship), as well as positive responses from the students, faculty, community partners and participants, suggest our
SL models are beneficial for all stakeholders and promote success and long-term sustainability.
Our SL experiences validate these sustainability factors through institutional and programme mission statements that
reflect our commitment to community engagement, are integrated within the programme curriculum and support the triad
of faculty workload.
The BU DPT Program incorporated curricular SL in 2004 and the on-going impact of the community-academic
partnerships has been significant. The estimated value of in-kind pro bono physical therapy services provided to the
Louisville community exceeds $500 000 and these two partnerships have impacted positively on the health of nearly 200
individuals. The fact that these two community-academic partnerships have continued for the past several years is a
testament to sustainability.
References
American Physical Therapy Association. 2000. Professionalism: Physical Therapy Core Values [Online]. Available:
www.apta.org/Professionalism/ [2013, 30 August].
Brosky JA, Deprey SM, Hopp JF & Maher EJ. 2006. Physical Therapist Student and Community Partner Perspectives and Attitudes
Regarding Service-Learning Experiences. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 20(3):41-48.
Community-Campus Partnerships for Health. 2006. Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships. [Online]. Available:
www.depts.washington.edu/ccph/principles.html#principles [2013, 31 August].
Crandell CE, Wiegand MR & Brosky JA. 2013. Examining the Role of Service-Learning on Development of Professionalism in Doctor
of Physical Therapy Students: A Case Report. Journal of Allied Health, 42(1):e25-e32.
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1 September].
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Education: Concepts and Practices. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 3-25.
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DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities Publications.
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[Online]. Available: www.marquette.edu/physical-therapy/documents/Professionalbehaviorsstudentselfassessment.pdf [2013,
9 September].
Pariser GL, Gillette P, DeMuro M & Winters S. 2007. Active Steps: Outcome Measures of a Program for People with Diabetes and
Impaired Mobility. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy, 30(3):147.
Reynolds PJ. 2005. How Service-Learning Experiences Benefit Physical Therapist Students’ Professional Development: A Grounded
Theory Study. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 19(1):41-54.
Seifer SD. 1998. Service-Learning: Community-Campus Partnerships for Health Professions Education. Academic Medicine,
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Village D. 2006. Qualities of Effective Service Learning in Physical Therapist Education. Journal of Physical Therapy Education,
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Adopters. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 17(1):59-76.
About the Author:
Catherine “Kate” Crandell received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Community Health Education at Purdue University, a
Bachelor and Master of Science degree in Physical Therapy from Washington University, a Master of Divinity degree
from Louisville Seminary and a post-professional transitional Doctor of Physical Therapy degree from Shenandoah
University. Currently, Crandell is Assistant Professor and Associate Director of Clinical Education at Bellarmine
University Doctor of Physical Therapy Program. Her teaching and clinical practice has focused on adult outpatient
orthopaedics. Crandell has a special interest in service-learning, community-campus partnerships, cultivating civic-
minded graduates and scholarship on engagement.
79
Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership: Making change happen!
Maura MacPhee, 1 Margo Paterson, Maria Tassone, David Marsh, Sue Berry, Lesley Bainbridge, Marla Steinberg,
Emmanuelle Careau and Sarita Verma
Abstract
Rationale for research: The Canadian Interprofessional Health Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC) is a multi-institutional
partnership whose goal is to develop, implement, evaluate and disseminate an evidence-based collaborative health
leadership programme. In 2012 the CIHLC proposal was chosen by the Institute of Medicine Board on Global Health as
one of four innovative collaboratives from an international competition of academic institutions around the world. This
paper describes evidence from four arms of research.
A scoping review of peer-reviewed literature explored collaborative leadership attributes and behaviours. A systematic
literature review located existing health leadership programmes, competency-based frameworks and pedagogical
strategies. A curriculum inventory of Canadian leadership programmes for health students and professionals identified
existing programmes with collaborative leadership curricula. Key informant interviews with stakeholder groups, such as
Canadian senior leaders in interprofessional education, revealed their perspectives on collaborative health leadership
development.
A synthesis of common thematic findings was used by the CIHLC team to develop a conceptual framework for the
leadership programme. The framework suggests that intersections of leadership competencies, values-based principles
of enactment and pedagogical strategies will result in complex systems transformation. Core leadership competencies
are related to the transition from self-leader development to collaborative leadership development. Major pedagogical
strategies include blended learning modalities and a community-engaged service-learning project. Community
engagement and social accountability serve as the over-arching principles of enactment. A Canadian pilot programme is
planned for 2014. Participants will actively demonstrate their acquired leadership competencies by engaging with
stakeholders in community settings to collaboratively identify, plan, implement and evaluate a service-learning project of
significance to the population health of their community. Underserved populations will be the communities of interest.
Our assumption is that this unique programme will result in effective health systems change. We believe that this
programme, once tested within a Canadian context, will be globally adaptable.
Rationale for research
The Lancet Commission (Frenk, Chen, Bhutta, Cohen, Crisp, Evans. et al 2010:1923-1958) released a report on health
professional education for the 21st century that proposed a number of education reforms to better meet rapidly changing,
global health needs. The reforms included adoption of a new set of professional competencies, such as interprofessional
teamwork, collaborative leadership, community engagement, social accountability, and change management within
complex systems. The reforms also recommended pedagogical strategies, such as service-learning, for developing
these new competencies.
The Institute of Medicine (IOM) Board on Global Health recently selected university collaboratives from four countries
(Canada, India, South Africa and Uganda) to develop leadership programmes based on the Lancet Commission
recommendations. The purpose of this paper is to describe the work of the Canadian Interprofessional Health
Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC), a collaborative comprising academic faculty leaders within schools of medicine,
nursing, public health and programmes of interprofessional health education from five major public universities. The lead
organisation of CIHLC, the University of Toronto, is partnered with Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Queen’s
University, the University of British Columbia and Université Laval to develop, implement, evaluate and disseminate an
evidence-based collaborative health leadership programme within a three-year period. The first part of this paper will
review the research methodologies associated with leadership programme development. The second part of this paper
will provide a conceptual framework for the programme with brief descriptions of key leadership competencies, principles
1 Full details at the end of the paper.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
80
of enactment and major pedagogical strategies depicted within the schematic. The key components of leadership
programme design will also be presented.
Methodology
Four arms of research were employed to better understand the concept of collaborative health leadership and to
determine what competencies and pedagogical strategies have been associated with successful collaborative health
leadership development. These four research approaches included a scoping review of the leadership literature; a
systematic literature review of existing health leadership programmes; an inventory of Canadian leadership programmes
for health students and professionals that include collaborative leadership curricula; and key informant interviews with
relevant stakeholder groups, such as senior Canadian leaders in interprofessional health education and healthcare
administration. The research approaches from each evidence source will be summarised.
The leadership literature scoping review
An initial literature search was conducted with search terms that included “healthcare leadership” and “collaborative
leadership”. Using the Summon multidisciplinary search engine from the University of Toronto, there were over 72 000
initial hits. Honing terms, such as “collaborative leadership” AND “healthcare” AND “change” were used to narrow the
field to 1 142 articles published after 2000. To scan these articles’ titles and abstracts effectively, key concepts in the
CIHLC working definition of “future collaborative change leader” were used to narrow the number of pertinent articles to
183 journal articles. Two dozen theoretical texts were also located that examined or theorised directly about collaborative
leadership. The grey literature was explored using Google Scholar and popular publications, such as Harvard Business
Review and other known sources for white papers, such as the Canadian Health Services Research Foundation
database. Some frequently cited sources were Raelin (2011:195-211) and Snell and Dickson (2011:183-195). These
sources served as “nodes” for additional grey literature searches.
The health leadership programme literature systematic review
A systematic literature review of peer-reviewed journals was conducted to identify current health leadership programmes
and competency-based frameworks and pedagogical strategies associated with these programmes. Six databases were
searched with the key search terms “collaboration”, “leadership”, and “education”. A total of 2 119 article abstracts were
retrieved and reviewed independently by two research associates. To be included in the final review, the paper had to be
an education-based programme or intervention with explicit objectives related to health leadership and detailed content
with respect to competencies, learning activities, delivery mechanisms and evaluation methods. There were 250 articles
in the final review with 73% of them published between 2007 and 2012. The majority of articles were from the United
States (65.6%) followed by the United Kingdom (14.8%), Canada (6.8%) and Australia (6.5%).
The Canadian health leadership programme curriculum inventory
An online search was conducted to locate health-related programmes and courses offered through Canadian universities
and national health associations with collaborative leadership content. Although schools of specific health disciplines
were targeted (eg nursing, medicine, public health, physiotherapy), schools of business and management were included
if they had content related to collaborative leadership or leadership in healthcare. Online browsing strategies included
the use of the Google Search Engine. Inventory data were organised in a spreadsheet according to education level,
course type, target audience (career stage and profession), course duration, course requirements and the presence of
collaborative leadership components. Thirty programmes were identified with collaborative leadership content. A second
phase of the inventory was a semi-structured online survey that was sent to contacts of the thirty programmes with
collaborative leadership content. The survey was used to gather more detailed information, such as programme
definitions of collaborative leadership and specific competencies related to collaborative leadership. After a series of
reminder e-mails, 11 responses were received.
Key informant interviews
A purposive sampling methodology (Patton 1990) was used to identify potential interviewees from relevant stakeholder
groups that included senior Canadian leaders in interprofessional health education and healthcare administration, and
Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership – MacPhee, et al
81
international thought leaders in health and leadership. Interviewees were asked to define collaborative leadership and
suggest critical competencies associated with it. They were also asked to identify existing examples of collaborative
leadership programmes and pedagogical best practices. Thirty-four interviews were conducted in English or French by
trained research associates using a prepared script. Research associates independently coded transcribed interviews for
common themes.
Outcomes
Although each of the four research approaches had specific objectives and foci, once all the data were collected and
analysed, the CIHLC faculty recognised that evidence from the four arms of research could be presented as a synthesis
of recurring themes with respect to how collaborative leadership is defined and understood, why collaborative leadership
is important, and how collaborative leadership contributes to transformative health system change. A fourth theme
addressed the availability and nature of current collaborative leadership educational opportunities. These four thematic
outcomes from the CIHLC final synthesis report are presented below.
The concept of collaborative leadership
Collaborative leadership appears frequently in the leadership and health literature, but it is not well defined. It often refers
to practices that engage staff or stakeholders in collective activities, such as collective problem solving and decision
making (Battilana, Gilmartin, Sengul, Pache & Alexander 2010:422-438; Bolden 2011:251-269; Chreim S, Williams BE,
Janz & Dastmalchian 2010:215-236; Kramer & Crespy 2011:1024-1037). Similarly, the curriculum inventory and the key
informant interviews did not yield a common definition for collaborative leadership. Common core competencies were
identified through the four evidence sources, and they are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Core competencies associated with collaborative leadership
Co-creating a shared vision
Attending to and monitoring group processes
Solving problems collaboratively
Communicating: specifically engaging and listening to
diverse perspectives
Managing and resolving conflict
Busting silos, connecting and building communities
Understanding the environment and context
Building and leading teams
Displaying humility
Displaying emotional intelligence
Building relationships
Acting in an adaptable, nimble way
Being clear about intended outcomes
Asking generative ‘wicked’ questions
Taking risks
Being socially accountable
Being self-aware
Using evidence to make decisions
Collaborative leadership is needed
The scoping review and key informants, in particular, emphasised the need for a new, collaborative model of leadership.
The scoping review highlighted a shift away from the individual leader to a shared perspective of leadership,
“collaborative leadership” (Browning, Torain & Patterson 2011). This shift towards collaborative leadership has been
influenced by the complexity of today’s healthcare systems and rapid globalisation. Complexity science and the study of
complex adaptive systems have shown that non-linear, unpredictable environments are rich sources of innovation that
require local interaction and adaptation, particularly among individuals with different frames of reference (Martin &
Learmonth 2012:281-288; Senge, Smith, Kruschwitz, Laur & Schley 2008). Rather than one leader making centralised
decisions, the potential of complex systems is maximised through shared power and decision-making within the
collective (Abel, Roi, Nair, & Lannquist 2013). Collaborative leaders “do not necessarily lead collaboration, they lead
collaboratively” (Rubin 2009).
Collaborative leadership contributes to transformative health system change
The foundation for transformative health system change is a new, values-based focus on social accountability (eg
patient-centred care, the social determinants of health) that requires new leadership. Within healthcare systems, for
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82
instance, patient-centred care is gaining the attention of health administrators: financial sustainability is no longer their
sole consideration. In fact, care provision based on patients’ needs and expectations are associated with enhanced
systems performance (Bergeson & Dean 2006:2848; Kerr & Hayward 2013:137-138). The following statement by one
key informant illustrates the link between collaborative leadership and recent transformative health system change:
… in the last 10 years, the focus, if you were the CEO, was on success of your organization. So when you heard a CEO
talk, it was about fiduciary responsibility … What I have seen over the past short period of time [is that] the board of
governance and focus of leadership in the healthcare systems is sustainability and fiduciary as one piece, but it is about a
social contract and social consciousness that I think underpins collaborative leadership.
Dedicated educational opportunities are limited
The systematic review of leadership programmes and the curriculum inventory showed that the length of leadership
training options varied widely from several hours to one year, and it was not clear, from the evidence, if longer
programmes were more effective than shorter ones. Delivery format also varied widely, with the findings indicating that a
blended learning model with face-to-face activities and e-learning delivery formats were most popular. Programme
participants favoured working together in action-learning or service-learning project teams on challenges of significance
to their organisations or communities, and coaching and mentoring supports complemented these learning activities.
Despite a recognised need for collaborative health leaders, no existing leadership programmes were dedicated to
collaborative leadership development. The systematic literature review of leadership programmes found that nearly 80%
of the programmes documented within the 250 articles were related to traditional leadership approaches, typically an
individual leader with strong influence over others. Approximately 89% of health leadership courses were also directed at
specific professions, such as nursing and medicine, suggesting a uni-professional approach to leadership development.
These findings were echoed in the curriculum inventory and the key informant interviews. The peer-reviewed literature
and the curriculum inventory also showed that where courses or programmes offered content related to collaborative
leadership, there were no rigorous evaluation approaches in place to determine outcomes or best practices.
Developing an evidence-based collaborative health leadership programme
Figure 1 is a conceptual framework of the key leadership competencies, principles of enactment and pedagogical
strategies associated with the CIHLC collaborative health leadership programme. These conceptual components are
based on the synthesis of the four sources of research evidence. Throughout the programme development process, this
framework will evolve.
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83
Figure 1. CIHLC programme conceptual framework
Principles of enactment
The central circle of the conceptual framework is meant to emphasise the importance of the programme’s principles of
enactment: community engagement and social accountability. These principles will intersect or be threaded throughout
the leadership programme. The CIHLC uses the World Health Organization (WHO) medical schools’ definition for social
accountability: “The obligation of medical schools to direct education, research and service activities towards addressing
the priority health concerns of the community, region or national that they are mandated to serve. The priority health
concerns are to be identified jointly by governments, healthcare organizations, health professionals and the public.”
(Boelen & Heck 1995:3). This definition highlights the importance of truly engaging with the community to identify
comprehensively and address effectively the complex health issues of that community (Lasker & Weiss 2003:119-139).
This definition draws attention to the responsibility of health disciplines to society – a new paradigm that depends on
collaboration with others (WHO 2007). Community engagement is intertwined with social accountability and service-
learning, and it is considered a necessary component of public health improvement. Community engagement has been
the driving force behind well-known healthcare initiatives related to smoking cessation, obesity, cancer and heart disease
(CDC 1997). The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention definition for community engagement is “the
process of working collaboratively with groups of people who are affiliated by geographic proximity, special interests, or
similar situations with respect to issues affecting their well-being” (1997:9). An important principle associated with
community engagement is that all the stakeholders involved will have their own unique perspectives, values, beliefs and
norms and that interactions with the community should seek to increase empowerment (Minkler & Wallerstein 2008).
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Leadership competencies
The core leadership competencies in the CIHLC programme will reflect the transition from self-leader development to
collaborative leadership. Leadership development begins with self-awareness and personal reflection (Reichard &
Johnson 2011:33-42; Roberts, Dutton, Spreitzer, Heaphy & Quinn 2005:712-736). Strategies associated with self-leader
development are found to produce higher levels of performance and work effectiveness (Houghton & Yoho 2005:66-83).
Self-leader competencies serve as a foundation for the development of other-awareness and relational competencies
that are associated with effective team building and teamwork (Decupyer, Dochy & Van den Bossche 2010:111-133).
Collaborative leadership competencies incorporate basic relational skills and offer sophisticated approaches for nurturing
stakeholder relationships; building coalitions and promoting shared problem solving and decision making (Weber &
Khademian 2008:334-349). Collaborative leadership is most closely aligned with the principles of social accountability
and community engagement (Rubin 2009), and it is considered a necessary component for successful transformative
change within complex health systems (Hernandez, Eberly, Avolio & Johnson 2011:1165-1185; Lord & Hall 2005:591-
615). There is some evidence that growth in leadership competence is associated with greater moral reasoning and
integrity (Day & Harrison 2007:360-373).
Pedagogical Strategies
Two major pedagogical strategies will be used to develop leadership competencies and ensure that the principles of
enactment are integrated within leadership content. A blended learning approach will be used to maximise effective
transfer of knowledge and knowledge application. Blended learning combines traditional face-to-face instruction with
computer-mediated and online instruction. Blended learning is a very popular training approach with documented
improvements in efficiency and flexibility of training. Online delivery and online reusable training materials yield
significant savings for organisations (Bonk & Graham 2012).
The other major pedagogical strategy is service-learning, a method by which participants learn together through
thoughtfully planned and coordinated service that is designed to meet community needs in the community and with the
community. Community encompasses those individuals or groups (ie stakeholders) who are committed to building
relationships and working collaboratively for the betterment of the community (Butin 2010). Service-learning is typically
coordinated between an institution of higher education and the community, and it has been successfully used with
healthcare students, such as medical students, to foster a sense of social accountability, promote better cultural
understanding, and develop “participants in the world” (Brown, Heaton & Wall 2007:1; Olney, Livingston, Fisch &
Talamantes 2008:133-147; Wilcock, James & Chambers 2009:84-90).
In the CIHLC programme, the service-learning project will go beyond the traditional model used in fieldwork education.
To promote collaborative leadership development actively, the CIHLC service-learning project is envisioned as a
community-engaged project where interprofessional participants in the leadership programme will work in teams with
community members in response to community-identified needs. A community-engaged service-learning project will be
the means by which leader participants and community stakeholders learn to value each other’s unique approaches to
health and well-being of the community.
Next steps
A pilot programme is being planned for the period January to September 2014. Participant recruitment will focus on
health leaders who have the potential to influence change at an institutional level. The literature indicates that executive-
level leaders have broader spheres of influence and more decision-making power within their institutions (Abel et al
2013:1-33). Table 2 provides an overview of the pilot programme design. Key components are based on evidence from
the four research sources with adaptations for the Canadian context (eg participants must be Canadian citizens). Space
is limited to describe these components, but programme details will be posted on the CIHLC website at: http://cihlc.ca.
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Table 2. Proposed collaborative health leadership programme design
Components Details
Participants Executive-level healthcare leaders (preferred enrolment as teams)
o Eligibility criteria:
5-8+ years of healthcare leadership experience
Prior successful completion of project work with measurable outcomes
Canadian citizen
Sponsor support Institutional and community support
o Letters of support from participating institutions and communities o Contractual agreements (under development)
Content delivery Online learning management systems
5 modules
o 4 in-person modules o 1 online module
4 intersessions between modules for project work
Service-learning
project
Community-engaged
o Underserved populations (eg frail elderly, aboriginal peoples)
Values-based
o Social accountability o Community engagement
Team-based
o Interprofessional teams (minimum of 3 different professions) o Up to 5 participants per project team
Evaluation Developmental process evaluations
o Evaluation coaches for project teams
Summative evaluation
o Kirkpatrick 4-level framework for professional development evaluation1 o The Training for Health Equity Network evaluation framework for socially accountable
health professional education2
Accreditation University accreditation
o Continuing Education and Development Program/University of Toronto
1 Kirkpatrick DL. 1998. 2 The Training for Health Equity Network. 2011.
Conclusions
The purpose of this paper has been to provide an overview of the sources of evidence used by the CIHLC team to
develop a collaborative health leadership programme. The synthesis of evidence from four arms of research was used to
develop a conceptual framework that could be tested in a diversity of contexts globally to support the development of
collaborative leadership initiatives. This paper also identifies pedagogical and design components associated with
exemplary leadership programmes cited in the literature. The unique features of the CIHLC programme are: its
systematic approach to building on successively complex leadership competencies; the incorporation of values-based
principles of enactment; and the use of two innovative and contemporary pedagogical strategies. One major pedagogical
strategy of this programme is the community-engaged service-learning project. To determine the effectiveness of the
programme on participants, stakeholders and communities, and to support programme improvement, expansion and
sustainability, a developmental process evaluation approach will be used. The future goal of the CIHLC is to offer and
expand the availability of this unique collaborative leadership programme globally. Although the piloting of this
programme will take place within a Canadian context, further research will be needed to determine the applicability and
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
86
adaptability of the programme for supporting transformative health systems change across cultures, contexts, and
countries.
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Authors and affiliations
Maura MacPhee RN, PhD Associate Professor, University of British Columbia School of Nursing
T201-2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T2B5
Ph: 1-604-822-2891 E-mail: [email protected]
Margo Paterson OT, PhD Professor Emerita, School of Rehabilitation Therapy
154 Albert Street, Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L3N6
E-mail: [email protected]
Maria Tassone BScPT, MSc Director, Centre for Interprofessional Education, University of Toronto
Toronto Western Hospital, 399 Bathurst Street, Nassau Annex, Toronto, Ontario M5T 2S8
Email: [email protected]
David Marsh MD
Associate Dean, Community Engagement
East Campus, NOSM
Email: [email protected]
Sue Berry DipPt, BA, MCE Associate Professor, Division of Clinical Sciences Northern Ontario School of Medicine West Campus 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Caaa P7B5E1 Ph: 807-766-7454 E-mail: [email protected]
Lesley Bainbridge BSR(PT), MEd, PhD Director Interprofessional Education | Faculty of Medicine Associate Principal | College of Health Disciplines The University of British Columbia | P.A. Woodward Instructional Resources Centre (IRC) 400 – 2194 Health Sciences Mall | Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3 Ph: 604 822 1712 | Fax: 604 822 2495 E-mail: [email protected] | @chd_ubc
Marla Steinberg PHD, CE Evaluation Consultant Adjunct Professor, University of British Columbia School of Population and Public Health 3037 West 13th Ave, Vancouver BC V6K 2V1 Ph: 9604 736-3890 E-mail: [email protected]
Emmanuelle Careau OT, PhD Assistant Professor, Rehabilitation Department, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, Canada Researcher, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation and Social Integration, Québec, Canada E-mail: [email protected]
Sarita Verma MD (Senior author) Professor of Family Medicine Deputy Dean, Faculty of Medicine Associate Vice Provost, Health Professions Education University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine 500 University Avenue Suite 390 Toronto, ON M5G 1V7 E-mail: [email protected]
89
Interprofessional education and practice: two community-based models
Firdouza Waggie and Nariman Laattoe1
Abstract
The development of interprofessional education undergraduate curricula at some higher education institutions shows
promise in relation to the transformation of health professions education in South Africa. Interprofessional education and
practice were conceived as a means to improve quality of care by bringing together the health and social professions to
learn and work collaboratively in teams. This was further aimed at overcoming negative stereotypes and understanding
and valuing the role of the different professions. Various models of interprofessional education have been developed,
each incorporating an array of interactive learning methods. Through this paper, we aim to add to current thinking
around the transformation of health professions education by showcasing the development and lessons learnt of two
distinct models of interprofessional education offered in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (FCHS) at the
University of the Western Cape (UWC) in order to assist other higher education institutions in their own process of
creating interprofessional curricula. Recommendations include the need for a common framework for interprofessional
education and practice; ‘ownership’ of the notion of interprofessional education by academics; and the strengthening of
institutional structures and logistics to support the implementation of programmes to advance interprofessional education
and practice.
Introduction
The Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (FCHS) at the University of the Western Cape (UWC) holds the view
that negotiated partnerships with selected entities is critical to the success of an interprofessional, community-based
module and this has led to the identification of sites in both rural and urban communities so as to develop more
structured opportunities for interprofessional education in the FCHS. A formalised partnership with Theewaterskloof
Municipality (TWK) involving three rural communities, Grabouw, Caledon and Genadendal (59, 100 and 135 km from
UWC, respectively) was concluded in 2007. Mitchell’s Plain, situated about 17 km from the university, was identified as
the urban community site and a partnership was formed with the Western Cape Department of Health in 2006. These
sites, with their immense health and socioeconomic challenges, offer a contextual reality and an opportunity for an ideal
service-learning experience.
This paper, which follows a descriptive narrative design (Brandon 2012:106) showcases the development and lessons
learnt by way of two distinct models of interprofessional education and practice in the FCHS at UWC. The paper aims to
share these models with other higher education institutions that may be in the process of developing or reviewing
interprofessional education curricula. The narrative will provide a description of two models for interprofessional
education and practice. This will be followed with a description of each module, including objectives, teaching and
learning approaches, and organisation of each module. The paper will conclude with lessons learnt and
recommendations.
Conceptions of interprofessional education and practice
Future health professionals often begin their training with a stereotypical view of their own field and those of others
(McNair 2005:456-464; Pollard, Miers & Gilchrist 2004:346-358; Oandasan & Reeves 2005:21-38; Hoffman & Harnish
2007:e235-e242). They are socialised through immersion in the representations and culture of their own profession,
limiting opportunities to develop interprofessional collaboration skills. Lack of knowledge about basic concepts of
collaboration and issues facing other professions, coupled with limited teamwork skills, and lack of understanding of the
role of each profession can hinder effective collaboration between professionals (McNair 2005:456-464). Preparing
future health and social care professionals to collaborate with each other is likely to foster this ability (Walsh, Gordon,
1 Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit, Faculty of Community and Health Sciences, University of the Western Cape, South
Africa.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
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Marshall, Wilson & Hunt 2005:230-237; Carlisle, Cooper & Watkins 2004:545-552; Dumont, Briere, Morin, Houle & Iloko
2010:395).
There are varied understandings and interpretations of the concept of interprofessional education and practice both
within and across a broad spectrum of health and social care professions and geographical locations. This underscores
and demonstrates the varied characteristics of the terms (Barr 1998:181-187). The World Health Organization (WHO)
describes interprofessional education as
an approach to teaching and learning that brings together students from two or more professions to learn about, from and
with each other in service of enabling effective collaboration. Its goal is to improve health outcomes through the education
of a collaborative, practice-ready workforce that is prepared to respond to local health needs (WHO 2010).
Furthermore, interprofessional practice is defined as “When multiple health workers from different professional
backgrounds work together with patients, families, carers and communities to deliver the highest quality of care” (WHO
2010).
The Interprofessional Education Collaborative Expert Panel (2011) promotes the idea of a unifying concept for
interprofessional collaborative practice and supports the definition that states
the process by which professionals reflect on and develop ways of practicing that provides an integrated and cohesive
answer to the needs of the client/family/population …. It involves continuous interaction and knowledge sharing between
professionals, organized to solve or explore a variety of education and care issues all while seeking to optimize the
patient’s participation… Interprofessionality requires a paradigm shift, since interprofessional practice has unique
characteristics in terms of values, codes of conduct and ways of working. These characteristics must be elucidated
(D’Amour & Oandasan 2005:9 cited in Interprofessional Collaborative Expert Panel 2011).
It is argued that interprofessional education facilitates the acquisition of core competencies by means of an
interdisciplinary team and it is reported that educational institutions are developing their own modified competencies to
suit their individual programmes (CIHC 2007). Four interprofessional core competencies domains and the associated
core competencies have recently been developed after a comprehensive review of interprofessional competency content
in national and international literature and among health professions education organisations and educational institutions
in the United States. These domains are: 1) Values/Ethics for Interprofessional Practice; 2) Roles and Responsibilities
for Interprofessional Practice; 3) Interprofessional Communication Practices; and 4) Interprofessional Teamwork and
Team-based Practice.
Bridges, Davidson, Odegard, Maki & Tomkowiak (2011:6035) view interprofessional education as a collaborative
approach to develop healthcare students as future interprofessional team members, and their viewpoint is based on an
understanding that interprofessional teams best address complex health and social challenges. In an attempt to define
interprofessional community-based practice, the authors of this publication developed the following working definition for
interprofessional community-based practice: “opportunities that arise when two or more health professions meet in a
community service-learning environment with the intention to work collaboratively on the challenges confronting
communities”.
As mentioned earlier, the focus of this paper is to highlight two distinct models for interprofessional education and
practice at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa. Each model is described in detail below. Module content
is attached as Appendix 1.
Model 1: Interdisciplinary Community-based Practice Module
This interdisciplinary module was conceptualised in 2001, at a workshop organised by Community Higher Education
Services Partnership (CHESP), which was established in 1998 by the Joint Education Trust to provide direction and
support for embedding community engagement in South African higher education. The workshop resulted in the
formulation of a proposal to integrate this interdisciplinary module into the undergraduate health professions curricula in
the FCHS as an exemplar module and was approved by the UWC Senate for formal implementation in 2004.
Interprofessional Education and Practice – Waggie, Laattoe
91
The aim of the module is to develop a deeper understanding of students’ roles as individual health professionals and
their role within the interdisciplinary health team in addressing individual and collective needs of a community. The
specific objectives are listed in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Interdisciplinary Community-Based Practice Module objectives
By the end of the module, students should be able to:
Demonstrate an in-depth knowledge and skill when working with communities in a community setting.
Demonstrate a comprehensive depth of knowledge about the role and responsibilities of the various professions that contribute
to the interdisciplinary practice in a community setting.
Demonstrate an in-depth knowledge of the identified problem through understanding basic concepts such as pathophysiology,
epidemiology, and legislation relevant to service provision through an independent literature review.
Demonstrate the knowledge and skills needed to practise from an interdisciplinary perspective through developing and
implementing a comprehensive interdisciplinary care plan in a collaborative manner.
Teaching and learning approach
The ICBPM is an innovative interdisciplinary module located within a community setting. Using service-learning as the
pedagogical approach allows the students to experience structured learning that combines community service with
preparation and reflection. Students not only provide community service but also learn about the context in which the
services are provided, the connection between the service and their academic course work, and their role as health
professionals and citizens. The ICBPM is unique in the sense that, whereas students practised traditionally in discipline-
specific domains, this module provides an opportunity for students to practise in a structured, collaborative and
interdisciplinary manner within a community setting.
Module organisation
The learning depends on the presence of two or more disciplines that are placed in the community site at a particular
time. The learning site selected has to reflect the area's unique health, social and economic needs, including geographic
and cultural barriers, and limited availability of services. The module includes a theoretical and service-learning
component (Appendix 1).
Students spend between 4 and 7 weeks in the community setting. The module is delivered on one day per week, with
the theoretical component taking place in the morning and the service-learning component in the afternoon when
students work in their interdisciplinary teams. An hour is allocated for groups to plan their afternoon service-learning
session. Group members also use this time to discuss and understand the problem that they are dealing with. The
students are directed towards relevant information regarding the identified need.
The ICBPM was designed to meet discipline-specific, interdisciplinary and personal goals through the development and
implementation of an interdisciplinary intervention care plan. The module involves the collaboration between the
departments in the FCHS, the service providers and community agencies within that particular community, and is based
on a partnership model where all stakeholders have input and play a role in the module. The module is reviewed each
year based on stakeholders’ input and student evaluations.
Figure 1, below, illustrates the ICBPM model using three disciplines as an example. The model can be replicated with a
minimum of two disciplines.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
92
Figure 1: The Interdisciplinary Community-based Practice Model
Model 2: Interprofessional Community-Based Practice
The overall outcome for the Interprofessional Community-based Practice (ICBP) programme is to provide students with a
theoretical understanding of working interprofessionally, which would assist them to develop knowledge and skills to
work collaboratively in various settings. Table 2 illustrates the learning objectives of the programme.
Table 2: Interprofessional Community-Based Practice objectives
By the end of the programme, students should be able to:
Describe their roles and responsibilities in relation to other professions.
Recognise and observe the constraints of their roles, responsibilities and competence and be able to perceive needs in a
wider framework.
Recognise and respect the roles, responsibilities and competence of other professions in relation to their own.
Work with other professions to effect change and resolve conflict in the provision of care.
Work with others to assess, plan, provide and review care through case studies.
Facilitate interprofessional case conferences and team meetings.
Enter into interdependent relations with other professions whereby all students realise that they are mutually dependent on
each other when working towards the same goals.
Programme design and content
The ICBP programme consists of four sessions and the content includes: defining interprofessional education and
interprofessional collaborative practice; defining roles and responsibilities of various disciplines in a team; values and
ethics for interprofessional practice; and teams and teamwork. The programme was designed around the core domains
for interprofessional collaborative practice as identified by the CIHC and various teaching and learning approaches are
utilised to meet the objectives of the programme. A facilitative approach is used to “tease out previous learning and help
students ‘make sense’ of experiences in relation to real world events” (Gregory 2002 as cited in Banning 2005:2). A
ICBPM
Physiotherapy
Occupational Therapy
Nursing
Discipline-specific Projects: * clinical practice at * community health centres
Discipline-specific Projects: *health promoting schools *special needs education
Discipline-specific Projects: *health promotion *aged, stroke *TB *home-visits *home-based care
Collaborative Projects: * HIV/AIDS * disability empowerment * nutrition * wellness programmes
Interprofessional Education and Practice – Waggie, Laattoe
93
Socratic method is adopted whereby both facilitator and student are responsible for driving the interprofessional agenda
through discussion. The facilitator asks probing questions to create the platform for discussion and to uncover the
current values and beliefs of the student participants (Ross 2003:1). A didactic approach is also employed to convey
short, factual and theoretical concepts to students to contextualise interprofessional collaborative practice both locally
and globally.
Thus a variety of learning activities is used and includes: icebreakers to simulate working together in a non-threatening
manner and to foster team-building among the students; small group discussion to encourage the students to unpack
their own ideas to gain confidence in speaking and presenting information logically, and to allow them to get instant
feedback from others (Walton 1997:459-464); formal theoretical input to stimulate discussion or consolidate information
presented by students; case studies to allow real-world scenarios to be brought into a teaching environment, as it helps
students to develop interpersonal skills and foster team-working (Romanowski 2009); and incorporating emerging
technologies like video clips which would focus on a specific principle or concept highlighting a focal key issue (Adams &
Hall 2009:93-14). This programme, too, is reviewed on the basis of stakeholders’ input and student evaluations.
Programme organisation
An interprofessional facilitator facilitates the ICBP programme at the various service-learning sites. The role of the
facilitator is to meet with students from the various professional programmes to explore interprofessional team
collaboration; to provide support for interprofessional education; to assist in the identification of learning opportunities; to
evaluate interprofessional teamwork; and to facilitate interprofessional competency acquisition.
Lessons learnt
The resistance of academic staff to participate in interprofessional programmes can to a large extent be attributed to
their lack of knowledge of the current trends within health professions education, where curricular transformation has
become an imperative if the university seeks to pass out relevant health professionals. Owing to the logistical difficulties
in bringing various departments together into an integrated programme, another key lesson learnt is that a variety of
options allows more students the opportunity to participate in interprofessional activities. Although an interprofessional
curriculum is offered at a first- and second-year level through the delivery of core interdisciplinary modules, students may
not, at a first-year level, understand the complexities of either their own profession or that of others. It is, however,
important to develop a common framework at this stage of their education that would describe a best practice model for
interprofessional interaction (Bridges et al 2011:6035). It became evident that interprofessional collaboration among
students will not occur automatically and that a facilitator to drive the process is essential. It is important for institutions to
form structures to facilitate and support interprofessional education. Furthermore, interprofessional programmes should
be integrated into the mainstream curriculum including the students’ service-learning or fieldwork experiences and
should not be seen as an ‘add-on’, as this is unnecessarily stressful for students and faculty staff, causing resistance to
the programme. Lastly, commitment from university administration, faculty and leadership is required to champion the
effort it takes for the development of an interprofessional curriculum.
Recommendations
There are a number of factors that influence and are crucial to the successful delivery of interprofessional education and
practice.
Commitment. It is imperative that administrators, lecturers, clinicians, heads of departments, and deans are all
committed to interprofessional education. In addition, staff should be role models of the appropriate and
required interprofessional behaviour expected from students.
Staff development and competency. Continued development of all staff involved in interprofessional
education is required in order to ensure relevant and appropriate teaching and learning practices.
Timetabling. A commitment to interprofessional education at all levels implies that the faculty will consequently
adjust existing timetables to accommodate the interprofessional curriculum at all year levels.
Resources. The delivery of interprofessional curricula, especially within the context of a service-learning
approach can be heavily resource dependent. The authors recommend that various models be offered as this
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
94
allows for as many departments as possible to participate. It is useful to note, that an ideal period for an
effective interprofessional programme would be between four and seven weeks.
Acknowledgement. Student participation should be rewarded through certificates, awards or credits.
Acknowledgements:
The authors wish to acknowledge the work of Violet Adonis, Interprofessional Community-based Facilitator, and Gérard
Filies, Service-learning Co-ordinator.
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Appendix 1: Module content
Interdisciplinary Community-based Practice Model
Theoretical Component
Session 1: Who’s who in the team?
During this session, students are oriented to the learning outcomes and what is expected of them during the ICPBM.
During the first session activities are geared towards students getting to know each other, being introduced to concepts,
importance, definitions and values of interdisciplinary education and practice, service-learning and team work.
Session 2: High performance teams
In addition to a lecture on High Performance Teams, this session uses group discussion, a small group experiential
exercise with role play and debriefing, and paired interviews; and it introduces students to a model used intentionally to
create and sustain high performance among a group of people that must work together to accomplish their shared goals.
Session 3: Interdisciplinary education
The aim of interdisciplinary education is to provide students with a deeper understanding of professional relationships
and interactions with other healthcare professionals. By learning together, it is envisaged that the professions would
work more effectively together and thereby improve the quality of care for clients/groups. This session introduces
students to the concept of interdisciplinary education and practice; it is an interactive session of a lecture, group work
and feedback.
Session 4: Tools for sustainable community health service provision
This session uses lectures and group discussion to introduce students to the Asset-based Community Development
(ABCD) framework as a strategy for sustainable community-driven development.
Session 5: A model of interdisciplinary practice in a rural community.
Service providers and practitioners working in the community are invited to share their experience of interdisciplinary
practice in their context.
Session 6: Introducing service-learning concepts
During this session students are introduced to the service-learning components using Yoder’s 2006 Framework for
Service-Learning; service-learning concepts; and clinical practice such as the theoretical underpinning teaching
approach used during this module. This session will be an interactive session using group work, lectures and feedback.
Session 7: Introducing reflective practice
Students are introduced to the purpose and importance of reflection during the service-learning experience. This session
will also serve as an interactive session using different teaching strategies such as lecture, group or paired work, as well
as feedback.
Session 8: Presentation of a reviewed article
Students’ independent literature reviews are presented to the interdisciplinary team for discussion.
Service-learning component
The following seven-step, interdisciplinary service-learning framework was developed as a guide for students to navigate
their way in working in interdisciplinary teams in a community setting with the ultimate goal of improving healthcare.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
96
Step 1: Orientation and situational analysis
Students are first oriented to the learning outcomes and what is expected of them. During this step students get to know
each other and are introduced to the concept, importance, definitions and values of interdisciplinary education, practice
and teamwork. The community profile needs and priorities are reviewed. The students also engage with the community,
services or agencies regarding the priority needs.
Step 2: Identifying an issue for interdisciplinary practice
After the orientation, the students are given some time to reflect on their own personal learning needs and the findings of
the situational analysis, and share and record their findings and impressions with their group. Each student shares
her/his experience of working in their various settings or projects within that particular community. In addition, students
share their discipline-specific goals and intervention plans for their clients or projects in detail. Collectively the students
identify a specific problem that they encountered in the community and which they think could be best addressed by the
interdisciplinary team. Examples of identified needs might include hypertension; diabetes; HIV/AIDS; tuberculosis;
malnutrition; foetal alcohol syndrome; and obesity. The groups and/or individuals in the community are identified.
Students visit the groups/individuals to conduct an initial assessment. Students are also directed to additional readings
and literature related to the identified problem. Normal group functions and roles are applied (facilitator, scribe,
rapporteur, etc). This is an important step that contributes significantly to achieving the educational outcome of designing
an interdisciplinary care plan.
Step 3: Develop objectives and indicators
After conducting the initial assessment, students get together to discuss their findings and develop interdisciplinary and
discipline-specific objectives. Furthermore, students have to develop associated indicators using the following template:
No. Interdisciplinary team objectives Indicators
1
2
3
No. Discipline-specific objectives Indicators
1
2
3
Step 4: Developing an interdisciplinary care plan
The students collectively discuss and reach consensus on an interdisciplinary care plan that would best address the
needs of the individual/group. Students are also reminded to identify, utilise and include all community assets as
resources in their interdisciplinary care plan. The plan has to be appropriate, sustainable and integrative and the
students complete the following template to assist them with recording the interdisciplinary care plan.
Objectives What (activity) Who (team/individual) How (methods) When
(date, time, venue)
1
2
3
Step 5: Implementation
Students identify the role and responsibility of each discipline within the team with regard to the identified need. The
academic supervisor provides the students with supervision and academic support. During this step, students work as an
interdisciplinary team to execute their plan. A record of the intervention is kept using the following template:
Interprofessional Education and Practice – Waggie, Laattoe
97
Date Team leader Discipline Intervention Comments Recommendation/s
Step 6: Evaluation
Students conduct re-assessments to monitor and evaluate the progress of the individuals and groups.
Recommendations are made to service providers for follow-up and monitoring.
Step 7: Feedback
Students are given an opportunity once again to reflect on the interdisciplinary practice, highlighting the successes and
challenges of the experience. The students also meet the interdisciplinary academic facilitator to discuss their work and
experiences. The facilitator provides guidance and support. The students furthermore complete a module evaluation to
evaluate the impact of the module on their learning and professional development, the module content and outcomes
and logistical arrangements.
Interprofessional community-based practice
Session 1
The first session is essentially an introduction and overview of the programme as well as an opportunity for the students
to get to know the facilitator. The learning outcomes for the first session are: 1) Awareness about other professional
roles/resources; 2) Appreciation of assessment processes (when dealing with individuals and groups of people); 3)
Collaboration and teamwork in developing a care plan; and 4) People-centred teamwork.
Session 2
The second session focuses on: 1) Value of different roles/schools of thought; 2) Identifying individuals' transfer of
interprofessional learning to their practice setting; and 3) Changes in reciprocal attitudes or perceptions; and 4) How
professional practice can enhance the quality of care.
Session 3
The third session emphasises: 1) Knowledge and skills to deliver collaborative people-centred practice; 2)
Interprofessional relationships should be interactive with shared team goals and leadership; and 3) Changing learners’
views on the learning experience and the value of interprofessional education.
Session 4
A case study is used as an activity to facilitate teamwork among the students.
99
A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education
Lizane Wilson1
Abstract
The importance of community engagement (CE) as one of the three pillars of higher education (HE) alongside
teaching/learning and research has gained considerable momentum. Higher education institutions (HEIs) in South Africa
are increasingly challenged to elevate the status of their teaching and to raise their levels of CE. This also pertains to the
area of postgraduate education, which points to the need for a close relationship between teaching/learning, CE and
research. These three components were unattached and fragmented within the postgraduate programme at a South
African University which formed the focus area of this study. The postgraduate programme consisted of a teaching
component structured into credit-bearing short courses, a research component and a practicum component. Within the
practicum students had to do a certain amount of hours in communities and the main focus was on student learning. The
main aim of this study was to develop a contextualised and integrated framework for community-engaged teaching,
learning and research within the postgraduate programme. The current status of CE within the postgraduate programme
was first determined by a self-administered questionnaire which was completed by students and lecturers. Data were
then generated through semi-structured interviews with lecturers from different national as well as international HEIs and
two focus groups with current students and lecturers. Main themes were identified by means of a content analysis.
Based on the empirical data obtained and linked to literature perspectives, an integrated curriculum framework for
community-engaged teaching, learning and research was developed. The framework was established through the
conceptual interpretation of theoretical data as well as the empirical data generated. The study was contextualised within
the South African higher education system.
Introduction
Higher education institutions (HEIs) in South Africa are increasingly challenged to elevate the status of their teaching
and to raise their levels of community engagement (CE). This also pertains to the area of postgraduate education, which
points to the need for a close relationship between teaching, learning and research. This study therefore focused on the
development of a contextualised and integrated curriculum framework for community-engaged teaching, learning and
research.
Rationale for the research
During the past number of years universities worldwide, including universities in South Africa, were challenged to move
beyond the ivory tower image, as this symbolises institutions removed from the realities of society. In order to change
this perception, universities were challenged to bridge the gap between higher education and society, and to partner
actively with communities in order to become engaged institutions and facilitate equity (Akpan, Minkley & Thakrar
2012:1; Bender 2008:1154).
In South Africa, HEIs were collectively challenged by audit and accreditation criteria, national policies and commissions
to strengthen the commitment between South African HE and the public by elevating the status of teaching and raising
CE to a level well above the current one of public service (Alperstein 2007:59; Bender 2007:127; Bender 2008:1154).
The publication of the Education White Paper 3 by the Department of Education (DoE) (1997), laid the foundation for
community service to become a core part of HE in South Africa and led to the proliferation of CE as one of the three
pillars of higher education, alongside teaching, learning and research (DoE 1997). Within the South African context, CE
is defined as follows by the Glossary of the Higher Education Quality Committee's Criteria for Institutional Audits (HEQC
2004:15):
1 Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, North-West University, Potchefstroom. Email: [email protected].
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
100
Initiatives and processes through which the expertise of the higher education institution in the areas of teaching and
research are applied to address issues relevant to its community. CE typically finds expression in a variety of forms,
ranging from informal and relatively unstructured activities to formal and structured academic programmes addressed at
particular community needs (service-learning programmes).
CE has been established to benefit and enhance the position of HE by bringing forth new knowledge through research
and by improving teaching and learning processes (Bernardo, Butcher & Howard 2012:189). Many HEIs responded to
the challenge of increased CE by applying their teaching, research and expertise to local, regional and national problems
(Barker 2004:124; Macfarlane 2007:53; O'Meara, Sandman, Saltmarsh & Giles 2011:84). Barker (2004:124) and
Macfarlane (2007:53) agree that the expertise of universities needs to be connected and applied to community needs
through the integration of teaching and research as well as the integration and application of scholarship which includes
reciprocal practices in the production of knowledge. Mwaniki (2010:410) emphasises that CE needs to be recast as a
core function of universities into mainstream academic discourse.
CE is, in the criteria for institutional audits (HEQC 2004), proposed as one of the sub-areas for inclusion in the quality
assurance mechanisms of HEIs. This created an impression that it is regarded as an appropriate mechanism for
strengthening the social commitment and social responsibilities of HEIs. Currently, there is a widespread and formal
promotion of CE in universities (Kruss 2012:2). Albertyn and Daniels (2009:410) emphasise that although universities
have different missions, cultures, histories and community contexts, CE needs to be infused in the teaching, learning
and research cultures of HEIs in South Africa to facilitate the manner in which institutions decide to embrace CE. The
core functions of universities are described in many sources as teaching and learning, research and CE (or by similar
concepts that may vary among individual institutions). The concept of CE seems, therefore, to encompass different
forms of engagement (Lazarus 2007; Lazarus, Erasmus, Nduna, Hendricks & Slamat 2008) within particular institutional
models (Bender 2008) and appears to strive towards integrating the three core functions of HEIs.
Ward (2003) states that many research intensive universities still focus on research, de-emphasise teaching and have a
conceptualisation of service that often has nothing to do with CE. Moore and Ward (2010:44-45) found that what is often
missing is that the careers of academic staff are portrayed and built around an integrated approach to teaching, research
and service emphasising community-university engagement. Bednarz, Chalkley, Fletcher, Hay, Le Heron, Mohan &
Trafford (2008:89) emphasise that it is crucial for CE to be seen by both academic staff and students as an integral and
important component of the curriculum, linked with learning and teaching activities and providing an important form of
experiential learning.
Fourie (2003:5) underscores the value of the integration of service-learning and research by stating that an integrated
approach to community service is powerful because it recognises and builds upon what is most distinctive about
universities, namely scholarship and critical inquiry which pursue knowledge, truth, insight and understanding.
Greenbank (2006:109) draws on the work of Boyer (1990) and argues for a broader definition of research, greater
recognition of the role of service and the integration of teaching, research and service as interconnected scholarly
activities. Ward (2003) also calls for the integration of teaching, research and service to meet institutional demands for
research and to engage with community needs. Bernardo et al (2012:187) write that CE in HE is often described in terms
of a cluster of activities which include service-learning programmes and research that address specific social, economic
and political needs.
The mode of teaching/learning, research and service was also challenging within the postgraduate programme, in which
this study was conducted. This was due to the fragmented nature of the programme's core functions, namely teaching/
learning, research and service. Hence, the aim of this study was to determine the current state of CE in the postgraduate
programme and to propose a contextualised and integrated curriculum framework for community-engaged teaching,
learning and research. The main research question that was formulated for this study was: What would constitute a
contextualised and integrated curriculum framework for CE within the postgraduate programme?
The research methodology
An interpretive paradigm with a single case study research design was used to address the main research question, to
gain in-depth knowledge about the proposed topic and to assist in solving the problem at hand (Denscombe 2007:36;
Fouché & Schurink 2011:320-323). An explorative literature review (Delport, Fouché & Schurink 2011:302) on South
A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education – Wilson
101
African and international literature on CE, HE and curriculum design provided a frame through which the research topic
was viewed. The literature review was also used during data analysis in order to compare themes and categories that
emerged from the empirical data (Creswell 2009:30-31; Yegidis & Weinbach 2009:21). Multiple data collection methods
and sources were used in the data gathering process. In the first phase of the study, semi-structured questionnaires,
which were completed by current students as well as lecturers in the programme (Delport et al 2011:167), were used in
order to determine the current state of CE within the postgraduate programme. During the second phase, semi-
structured interviews (Denscombe 2007:177; Greeff 2011:351-352; Nieuwenhuis 2007:87) were conducted with lecturers
from national and international HEIs that presented postgraduate degrees with a CE component. This was done to
determine current curriculum frameworks and the content of other CE models. In combination with the above-mentioned
questionnaires and interviews, and towards the end of the data-collection stage, focus groups (Denscombe 2007:178;
Greeff 2011:360-375; Nieuwenhuis 2007:87) were conducted with current registered students and lecturers in the
postgraduate programme in order to involve them actively in the process of developing a curriculum framework.
Purposive sampling (Berg 2009:50-51) was used to find participants for the semi-structured questionnaires, interviews,
as well as the student focus group, while convenience sampling (Ritchie & Lewis 2005:81) was used to obtain
participants for the lecturer focus group. The data analysis was guided by qualitative content analysis (Creswell
2009:238). Data triangulation was enhanced by means of various data-gathering methods to promote the
trustworthiness and credibility of the data (Denscombe 2010:136, 297; Schurink, Fouché & De Vos, 2011:420).
Ethical aspects
All prescribed ethical guidelines were adhered to before, during and after the research. Informed consent was obtained
from all participants and information communicated included the voluntary nature of their participation, possible risk
factors, factors which may cause discomfort, the expected benefits of taking part in the research, their right to withdraw
at any stage of the research without having to give reasons for doing so and that all information shared with the
researchers would be considered confidential and anonymous.
Findings and discussion
In order to overcome the identified problem and based on the findings of the study, a proposed framework was
developed for CE within the postgraduate programme. The framework was developed from the research findings and is
demonstrated in the next section. As the first phase of the research focused on determining the current state of CE
within the postgraduate programme, this will be discussed first after which the new curriculum framework will be
presented.
Current state of CE within the postgraduate programme
Teaching/learning, practicum and research represent the three core functions of the postgraduate programme, as
illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Current state of CE within the postgraduate programme
Teaching/learning
The results from the student questionnaires indicated that it seemed as if the teaching/learning and practicum were
integrated to some extent, but not the research. The empirical data indicated that the involvement in communities
provided the students with the opportunity to apply theory to practice and added to their professional and personal
growth. Structured opportunities for reflection used in the modules and practicum evidently led to the enhancement of
their sensitivity towards the community, and increased awareness of social responsibility. This provided them with the
Teaching/learning Community Research
Practicum
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
102
opportunity to gain a better understanding of the module content, and it gave them a chance to make connections
between service and the module work. In addition, it also broadened their appreciation of the discipline.
Practicum
The practicum was situated in the community and represented CE within the postgraduate programme. From the data it
seemed that CE was seen within the postgraduate programme as being equal to the practicum of the students and
represented the service function of the postgraduate programme. The focus of the practicum was mainly to provide the
students with hands-on experience to enhance their learning and understanding of issues relevant to their field of study
and the achievement of learning outcomes. The data also suggested that the students were the primary beneficiaries
and not the community.
Communities
From the data obtained it appeared that the role that communities play was not apparent. The involvement of the
students and lecturers offered some benefits to the community and there was some focus on social responsibility, but
only on certain levels. Results from both questionnaires (students and lecturers) indicated that involvement could be
more beneficial as only a very small group gained from the interventions. However, there was no indication of really
addressing the needs of the community or even determining their needs before involvement. The results indicated that
only a few community partners could be identified but the long-range goals and needs for developing and implementing
CE activities were not defined. From the data it seemed that, within the postgraduate programme, the forming of
partnerships is not a priority. There appears to be irregular contact with community partners.
The organisational climate and culture of the lecturers presenting the postgraduate programme is seen as highly
supportive of CE, but they need to be encouraged to participate more in scholarly activities in order to promote
community engaged scholarship. The data showed that academics play a key role in the communities. The involvement
of academics was defined as work that the lecturers themselves do in their own time to see clients, or their involvement
at local schools.
Research
The students indicated that they feel overwhelmed with the research and struggled with academic writing skills. From the
data obtained from both students and lecturers, it showed that research within the postgraduate programme, is not
currently integrated with teaching or the service component. Most of the student participants indicated that they were
able to identify their research problems from their involvement in the community.
A new proposed framework is presented in the next section. The two-way arrows in both Figures 1 and 2 indicate the
exchange relationship between the core functions.
Proposed framework for CE
The proposed framework was developed from the research findings and is depicted in this section. CE, within this
framework, consists of service-learning, community-based research as well as the rendering of expertise to
communities. Please see Figure 2.
These activities are situated within the postgraduate programme as well as within the institutional environment of the
South African university. Curriculum and programme development as well as the contextual role players form part of this
framework.
A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education – Wilson
103
RECIPROCITY
PARTNERSHIPS
Service-learning Community-
based research
Expertise
Community engagement
Figure 2 Proposed framework for CE
Service-learning (SL)
The practicum currently represents CE within the postgraduate programme and can be described as an internship.
Internships are viewed as one extreme in the range of definitions of community-engaged learning (Furco 1996). The
data obtained from the lecturers at the different HEIs indicated that CE is structured differently and is implemented as
projects, interventions, teaching-based CE, community engaged research, work-based experience and research.
Several of these participants also identified the practicum and internships as CE and included interaction with different
groups from outside the community, field-based learning or practical learning. It was evident from the data that CE is
mostly applied in schools, NGOs, clinics and hospitals. Several HEIs have university clinics on campus where
communities have access to free services. Bender (2008:1154) emphasises that practices such as practica, community-
based education and clinical practicals cannot simply be renamed to CE. Bednarz et al (2008:89; 2008:61) state that CE
can take on different forms and is used differently within academic programmes.
As the focus of internships is mainly on student learning within the proposed framework the teaching/learning component
will be replaced by SL. With SL, both the community and students are primary beneficiaries. Reciprocity is a central
characteristic of SL (HEQC 2006:23). SL is furthermore a form of engaged learning which includes experiential learning
and is seen by Thomson, Smith-Tolken, Naidoo and Bringle (2011:216) as a pedagogical strategy that links students
with communities. SL provides students with the opportunity to engage in interactive and experiential processes. Zuber-
Skerritt (2002) highlights the idea that experiential learning is based on the belief that experience and constant reflection
on experience are the keys to effective learning. The importance of reflection in academic learning is supported by
Bringle and Hatcher (1999), Eyler and Giles (1999), Kolb (1984) and Zuber-Skerritt (2001) and regarded as a crucial
element in transforming, clarifying, reinforcing and expanding concrete experience into knowledge. The linking of
research and teaching within an academic programme is emphasised by Henkel (2000).
Community-based research (CBR)
From the empirical data obtained from the students and lecturers, it became clear that research, within the postgraduate
programme, is not integrated with the teaching or the service component.
The current role that the communities play was also not apparent and the needs of the communities were not identified
or addressed. Only a few community partners could be identified and long-term goals and needs for developing and
implementing CE activities were not defined. The HEQC (2004:19) emphasises the importance that service needs focus
directly on the needs of communities. Bringle and Hatcher (2002) also emphasise the importance of reciprocity.
Partnerships and reciprocity are core elements within CE (Carnegie Foundation 2009:1) and were also highlighted by the
participants from the HEIs.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
104
Bernardo et al (2012:189) state that the relationship between universities and society is framed by a mutuality of
outcomes such as goals, trust and respect. Norris-Tirrell, Lambert-Pennington and Hyland (2010:174) emphasise the
importance of the relationship between communities and universities. This relationship is based on reciprocity – a give
and take of resources, ideas, power, products and responsibilities. Driscoll (2009:6), when defining CE, highlights the
fact that collaboration between HEIs and communities takes place within a context of partnership and reciprocity. McNall,
Reed, Brown and Allan (2009:217) also focus on partnerships when defining CE.
Bringle and Hatcher (2005:28-29) emphasise that SL scholarship and research should be conducted across the
implementation of a course and in a manner that demonstrates growth over time in order to contribute to knowledge and
practice. Brenner and Manice (2011:88) emphasise the importance of the exchange principle in CE. Different CE models
have been identified, which include community-based participatory research, participatory action research and
community-based research (CBR) (Lazarus et al 2008:61). Most of the student participants indicated that they were able
to identify their research problems from their involvement in the community and the HEI participants reported that some
of their research was undertaken in the communities in which they were involved.
Within the proposed framework research is linked to the community through CBR. CBR is described by Strand et al
(2003) as “a partnership of students, the academics and community members who collaboratively engage in research
with the purpose of solving a pressing community problem or affecting social change”. This link can furthermore promote
a scholarship of engagement. Macfarlane (2007:53) states that the connecting and applying of academics’ expertise to
community needs can bring about an integration of teaching and research and promote the scholarship of engagement.
Scholarship provides an opportunity to build bridges between theory and practice, to communicate one's knowledge
effectively to students, and to address the needs of the community. This will also promote the lecturers' involvement in
communities and contribute to both the theoretical understanding as well as practical solutions to societal problems.
Research is also linked to teaching and learning as research needs to inform the curriculum (teaching/learning). This will
enhance the research-mindedness of the students, their critical thinking abilities and their academic writing skills. The
linking of research and teaching within academic programmes is emphasised by Henkel (2000). Stanton (2008:23-25)
argues that engaged research provides an opportunity for communities to benefit in a direct or indirect manner.
Expertise
One of the mission elements of the university where this postgraduate programme is nested is to implement the
expertise in teaching-learning and research in the continent. The data indicated that academics play a key role in
communities. O'Meara et al (2011:84) emphasise the importance of applying this expertise to local, regional and national
problems; therefore, this is seen as part of CE within the programme.
Conclusion
Internationally, as well as in South Africa, the importance of CE as one of the three pillars of HE has gained considerable
momentum and is challenging HEIs to become engaged institutions. It is therefore essential to adhere to societal needs
and growing challenges by finding new ways to become more engaged with community needs. This proposed framework
provides an opportunity to promote the integration of community-engaged teaching, learning and research.
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About the author
Lizane Wilson is currently the programme head as well as a lecturer and research supervisor in the Play Therapy
Programme at the Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, Faculty of Health, North-West University. She is a
registered social worker, with a Master’s degree in Play Therapy and recently obtained her PhD at Stellenbosch
University in Education (Curriculum Studies). She has research projects in community engagement, play therapy and
child sexual abuse.
107
International teaching practicum with a difference: When Australian teacher education partners with
South African communities and schools
Graham Parr1 and Craig Rowe2
Abstract
In the face of widespread uncertainty as political, national and cultural boundaries blur, governments across the world
are calling for higher education institutions to focus on international student mobility and international collaborations as a
strategy both for shoring up “national, political, economic and security interests” (Kiely 2011) and for helping their citizens
develop a more tolerant multicultural identity in today’s globalised world such as the International Education Advisory
Council 2012; British Council 2012; MCEETYA 2008. Higher education institutions are responding by “internationalising
the student experience” and by enshrining responsiveness to the needs of individuals and of society in their mission
statements. In this essay, using ‘memory work’ and ethnographic narrative methods, the authors reflect on the first five
years of an international teaching practicum that they originally established in 2009 for Australian pre-service teachers in
South Africa that combines practice teaching in schools with participation in local community engagement programmes.
They situate the emergence of this programme within national and international policy developments in relation to higher
education, teacher education and globalisation, and find that overall the pre-service students have responded very
positively to the practicum. However, they caution against complacency in creating international teaching fieldwork
programmes.
Introduction
In 2009, the authors, Graham, an academic from a faculty of education in a large multi-campus university in Australia
(Monash University) and Craig, the manager of a small community engagement department in a related higher education
institution in South Africa (Monash South Africa (MSA)), collaborated in designing an international intercultural teaching
practicum with a difference. The practicum was intended for Australian pre-service education students. It would provide
crucial teaching experience in intercultural settings for the Australian students, and would help to build a powerful
transnational educational partnership between universities thousands of kilometres apart. In the first part of this article,
we describe the process of setting up that practicum, the innovative ways in which the practicum incorporated
community engagement in the international pre-service teaching experience and supportive structures for this, and we
provide a detailed conceptualisation of the theory underpinning the pedagogy of the practicum. Later we introduce the
notion of identity work, and explain how students who have undertaken this practicum are engaged in complex identity
work, which can often make them vulnerable to significant culture shock or related challenges in their learning. We
conclude with some observations about the potential benefits of such a programme, but also some of the inherent
dangers.
Setting up the practicum
The practicum was open to pre-service teachers in the final stages of a university-based teacher education degree or
diploma in Australia. It included 15 days of formal teaching practice and several days of community, cultural and
institutional orientation and engagement. The conditions for teaching practice were similar enough to local practicums in
Melbourne, in order that the pre-service students’ learning in the practicum could be formally credited toward their
teacher education qualification.
Beyond that, there were some distinct differences. Pre-service teachers travelled to Johannesburg and spent a block of
time learning to teach in two acutely contrasting schools: a well-resourced and an under-resourced one. Their teaching
in these schools was continuously monitored and mentored by experienced South African teachers, and their learning
1 Graham Parr, * Corresponding author: Graham Parr: [email protected]
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. 2 Craig Rowe, Department of Community Engagement, Monash South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
108
was supported through ongoing dialogue with an Australian teacher educator (Graham), who travelled to South Africa
with the students and had an office at MSA for the duration of the practicum.
One significant difference was that the pre-service students (with their Monash mentor) were working together on this
practicum as a professional learning community (PLC) (Stoll & Seashore 2007) over four months. This working together
began about six weeks prior to their departure from Melbourne, and continued for several weeks following their return.
For the three and a half weeks of their practicum, the students lived together in student accommodation at MSA (after
2009, this changed to guest house accommodation off campus). They were encouraged to collaborate in lesson
planning, and to reflect with each other on a daily basis. There were regular PLC meetings, led by Graham, for the group
to reflect on challenges, triumphs and questions in their practicum. Graham and Craig (Manager of Community
Engagement, Monash South Africa) liaised regularly with the schools and community partners in Johannesburg where
the students were teaching, and Graham visited the students to observe their teaching. In the difficult intercultural
journey that they undertook, the pre-service students were further supported by the expertise, local knowledge, and
social justice vision of a small team of community engagement professional staff at MSA (led by Craig), along with
student volunteers and workers registered with the Community Engagement Department. Additionally, the pre-service
teachers were able to work with education-focused non-government organisations (NGOs) with which MSA was affiliated.
This innovative model of an international teaching practicum, combining a more traditional international teaching
practicum with an experience of community engagement – in contrast to other international practicums, which
emphasise one or the other – laid the foundations for what turned out to be a highly successful international practicum
programme that has continued for five years. For the community engagement component of the field work, students
could participate in a weekend school programme for students with particular learning challenges, or they could work
with local university volunteer students in various tutoring programmes, or they could seek out other programmes run by
various non-government organisations, who partner with Monash South Africa’s Community Engagement Department.
And yet it was never easy, and any hopes that the programme and the students undertaking the practicum would just
take care of themselves needed to be continuously rethought. Complacency was the greatest threat to the organisation
and running of the practicum. It has been a continual negotiated reciprocal journey between all the partners.
In 2009, with just nine pre-service students, the planning for the practicum proved to be extremely ‘messy’ and
complicated. There were so many different stakeholders and dimensions needing to be negotiated and coordinated.
During the period of the practicum in South Africa, pre-service students, practicum leaders and host partners in
Johannesburg needed to be patient and responsive to the unexpected situations that arose (see Parr & Chan in press).
Four practicums later, in 2013, 76 Australian pre-service teachers have now successfully completed this practicum
combining teaching in schools with a range of community engagement work. They have taught almost 10 000 learners in
more than 12 primary and secondary schools and early childhood centres, and numerous community settings, alongside
hundreds of Johannesburg teachers and community engagement workers. Their feedback has been overwhelmingly
positive.
This International Symposium on Service-Learning (ISSL) in Stellenbosch has provided a welcome opportunity for the
two of us – Graham and Craig – to get together again to reflect on the distinctive character of this multidimensional
international teaching practicum programme. In this short paper, using critically reflective ‘memory work’ (Parr & Doecke
2012; Haug 1987), drawing on archived emails we have exchanged, and research journals we both kept during the five
years of the practicum programme, we describe what was involved in organising and leading the practicum.
Incorporating a small dimension of ethnographic narrative methodology (Brodkey, 1987), we also provide a few brief
insights into the Australian teaching students’ experience of this practicum.
Australian academic ethics restrictions prevented us from presenting and analysing the local Johannesburg students’
responses to the Australian students’ teaching. However, the brief insights we offer into the students’ experiences,
provide a window into the complex identity work (Bauman 2004; Parr & Chan in press) of the Australian students who
have undertaken this practicum over the five years of the practicum’s short life. Ethics approval for the research on which
our memories and reflections are based was obtained in August 2010 from Monash University’s ‘Human Research
Ethics Committee’.
International teaching practicum with a difference – Parr, Rowe
109
We will move now to situate the establishment of the multidimensional practicum programme within national and
international policy developments in relation to higher education, teacher education and the globalising multicultural
world.
Policy context
Globalisation and technological advances are facilitating rapid movements of people, ideas and educational knowledge
across national, regional, sectoral and institutional borders (Appadurai 1996; Parr, Faine, Le Ha & Seddon 2013). In the
face of widespread uncertainty as political, national and cultural boundaries blur, governments across the world are
calling for higher education institutions to focus on international student mobility and international collaborations as a
strategy both for shoring up “national, political, economic and security interests” (Kiely 2011:245) and for helping their
citizens develop a more tolerant multicultural identity in today’s globalised world (eg International Education Advisory
Council 2012; British Council 2012; MCEETYA 2008). Higher education institutions are responding on the one hand by
“internationalising the student experience” (Arkoudis, Baik, Marginson & Cassidy 2012; Dooley & Villanueva 2006), and
on the other hand they seem to be taking seriously their ethical responsibilities in the globalising world by enshrining
“responsiveness to the needs of individuals and of society” in their mission statements (Breier 2001).
In South Africa, the Education White Paper 3 of 1997 endorsed a national imperative of “transformation”, which would
entail “reconstructing domestic social and economic relations to eradicate and redress the inequitable patterns of
ownership, wealth and social and economic practices that were shaped by segregation and apartheid” (Department of
Education 1997:9). White Paper 3 explicitly mentions the importance of “promot[ing] and develop[ing] social
responsibility and awareness amongst students of the role of higher education in social and economic development”
(DoE 1997:11). To develop this national imperative of transformation in higher education, experiences of community
engagement and service-learning were strongly encouraged, alongside teaching and learning and research. This has
resulted in service-learning and volunteerism often becoming embedded in the culture and curriculums of South African
universities.
Recently, in Australia, the policy focus has been more pointedly upon teacher education to produce the next generation
of teachers in schools who will “nurture an appreciation of and respect for social, cultural and religious diversity, and a
sense of global citizenship” (MCEETYA 2008:4). This might explain the proliferation in Australia in recent years of
international teaching practicums (eg Johnson 2009; Lee 2011; Parr 2012; Santoro & Major 2012). But, in fact, as
Quezada (2010) and Hamel, Chikomori, Ono & Williams (2010) point out, higher education institutions across the world
are also responding to this call by promoting international fieldwork of different kinds. For example, some traditional
study abroad programmes are offering forms of international service-learning or community engagement for individual
higher education students as part of a range of self-education options (Kiely 2011; Stanton & Erasmus 2013).
Across the world, there is now strong support for international teaching fieldwork (eg Cushner & Brennan 2007; Lee
2011; Merryvale 2002; Pence & MacGillivray 2008; Roose 2001; Sahin 2008; Stachowski & Sparks 2007). But this rarely
if ever includes involvement in community engagement. Benefits of this international teaching fieldwork or practicum
(often the terms are used interchangeably) for the visiting students typically includes: ‘empowering’ of individual student
teachers; improved competence in managing multicultural classrooms; improved sensitivity to and appreciation of
diversity and cultural difference; a richer sense of professional identity that sees a teacher’s work as part of a larger
vision of education for social justice. The evidence for such benefits is compelling, and the vast majority of students on
Monash’s South African practicum have emerged positively transformed through their experience. Comments such as
the following have been common in surveys taken at the end of students’ international practicum experiences in South
Africa: “I’ve grown a lot more appreciative towards different cultures … I have learned the importance of understanding
and taking the time to both see and value difference amongst all people (Jean,3 Secondary pre-service students’, 2010,
written reflection).
Yet an increasing body of research is revealing that international fieldwork is not a magic pill that invariably produces
better teachers (Dolby 2004; Hamel et al 2010; Garii, in Walters, Garii & Walters 2009; Santoro & Major 2012).
Researchers argue that international teaching practicums need careful planning and continuous responsive support from
3 Apart from the names of the authors and the institutions they belong to, all other names mentioned in this article are
pseudonyms.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
110
visiting organisations and local partners. A number of studies have inquired into the sometimes problematic impact of
international teaching practicums on visiting learners who have suffered significantly from what is variously described as
“cultural disequilibrium” (Hamel et al 2010; Wilson 1993), “cognitive dissonance” (Lee 2011) or “culture shock” (Santoro
& Major 2012). And they have considered the unintended effects on communities in the host countries, especially when
these communities are in acutely under-resourced socioeconomic contexts (cf Dolby 2004; Johnson 2009; Parr 2012).
The vast majority of teaching practicum students from Australia in the five years of the programme came from relatively
privileged schools. Socioeconomic conditions and levels of resourcing in schools across Australia are probably not as
diverse (and inequitable) as they are in South Africa. In addition, these students’ particular education pathways through
to a teaching qualification in a top-level university have usually had little opportunity to cross the intercultural learning
contexts they experienced in Johannesburg. Every year of this practicum programme, Australian practicum students in
South Africa have spoken about how they had learned a great deal from their interactions with Johannesburg learners,
teachers and community engagement workers. Sometimes, the teaching they have witnessed in different dimensions of
their practicum has inspired them. For example, one student from 2009 referred to “some of the best teaching I have
ever seen [in any country]” in an acutely under-resourced school he worked in on the outskirts of Johannesburg (Parr
2012:105; see also Chan & Parr 2013; Parr & Chan forthcoming). And yet they have been significantly challenged as
they have encountered, face to face, conditions of such difference as they had only ever read about before arriving in
South Africa. Chair of NGO Equal Education, Yolisha Dwane, summarised research that her organisation has conducted
into levels of resourcing of ‘basic education’ in post-apartheid South Africa:
More than 3500 of South Africa’s 25,000 schools do not have electricity supply, 11,450 use pit latrine toilets and
2,402 lack a water supply. More than 22,000 schools do not have adequate computer facilities, an even greater
number (23,552) lack stocked science laboratories and more than 90% do not have functional libraries. (quoted in
John 2012:10)
The pre-service students on Monash’s South African practicum taught for up to a week in schools and community
placements such as these (indicated in Table 1 below as “Phase 2” schools and community settings) at some time in
their practicum.
Table 1: Numbers of pre-service teachers participating in the South African practicum (2009-2013)
Year of
practicum
Number of pre-service teachers
(Secondary, Primary, Early Childhood)
Phase 1:
Days in well-
resourced
schools
Phase 2:
Days in under-
resourced schools
and community-
based settings
Additional days
(community, institutional and cultural orientation
and engagement)
2009 10 secondary 13 4 5
2010 5 secondary
3 primary 9 8 5
2011 8 secondary
9 primary 9 7 6
2012 9 secondary
10 primary
2 early childhood
9 7 6
2013 12 secondary
8 primary 9 7 8
The Australian pre-service practicum in Johannesburg needed to comply with the mandated practicum components of
the Australian teacher education curriculum. State and federal policy, in Australia, requires that teaching fieldwork
International teaching practicum with a difference – Parr, Rowe
111
“should include opportunities for pre-service teachers to work with a range of learners at a variety of year levels and in a
variety of educational settings [local and perhaps international] … [with] opportunities for engagement with cultural and
socioeconomic diversity” (VIT 2007). Since 2009, and the publication of more prescriptive national standards and
procedures for Australian teacher education practicums (MCEECDYA 2011), the minutiae of the practicum processes
including mentoring practices by local teachers have had to be rigorously monitored and sometimes adjusted from time
to time. From the outset, as designers of this practicum, we have been keen to ensure that the notion of “engagement
with cultural and socioeconomic diversity” in Johannesburg has involved more than just an extra feature on an
‘educational tourism’ brochure for travelling education students from Australia (cf. Quezada 2004; Parr 2012; Parr &
Chan forthcoming; Stachowski & Visconti 1998). Education ‘engagement’ for students on this international practicum has
meant getting to know local communities, and working with local leaders and local programmes in Johannesburg. Only
then have the teacher education students been able to respond to the needs of individuals and local groups in the
schools and communities they have taught in.
Dialogue and identity: Discussion of key concepts underpinning the practicum
The five-year history of this practicum has been a testament to the importance of ongoing critical and collaborative dialogue and mutually respectful partnerships. This has included:
The transnational dialogue between higher education partners, from their initial contact in designing the pilot
practicum, and continuing over the ensuing five years;
The dialogue between Craig, his community engagement team and successive new practicum coordinators
from Monash Australia (in 2012 and 2013), ensuring that each new practicum operates effectively;
The dialogue between mentor teachers and pre-service teachers in the practicum schools, facilitated by
partnerships with the Community Engagement Department at MSA and Monash’s Faculty of Education in
Australia; and
The dialogue in the professional learning community that consists of the Australian pre-service students and
their Monash mentors – including scheduled meetings for reflection but also informal dialogue as students
exchange ideas or perspectives during lesson planning of an afternoon or evening, or even over breakfast.
It is possible to see this commitment to critical collaborative dialogue and partnerships as fundamental to a broader
concept of pedagogy in this practicum. In A pedagogy of liberation, Paulo Freire teases out the notion of dialogue that
underpins his work as an educator, philosopher and researcher. “Dialogue”, he says, “is more than ‘Good morning, how
are you?’ Dialogue belongs to the nature of human beings, as beings of communication” (Shor & Freire 1987:3). But, he
points out, dialogue is not just a difference of opinion articulated as point and counterpoint in an argument. Dialogue is
deeply embedded within Freire’s (1997:92) understanding of humanity, and an orientation to dialogue in education is
part of his vision for achieving a more just future. Such understandings of dialogue and reciprocal partnerships have
been deeply embedded in the initial conceptualising of the South African practicum and its development over time.
Indeed, ongoing and robust dialogue has been important in prompting individuals’ reflection on the South African
practicum, and in the interactions and relationships between peers in the travelling group. The practicum has helped the
visiting students to understand the dialogic relationships between and within countries, cultures, communities and
schools (Bakhtin 1981; Parr 2010). This can be seen in the thoughtful comparisons they have made between South
Africa and Australia, between Australian cultures and South African cultures, between one community or school and
another. Such comparisons often emphasise differences, but they also reveal some degree of sameness. For example,
one student from 2010, reflected after his practicum: “It is now my sense that racism in Old South Africa (pre 1994) was
the old school curriculum. Anti-racism in the New South Africa is the new school curriculum. Racism in Australia and
South Africa remains the hidden curriculum” (Sandy, Secondary pre-service student, 2010, written reflection).
One particular dimension of the dialogue and dialogic relationships has been Bakhtin’s (1981) notion of “dialogic
recognition”, in which students are encouraged to see dialogue across difference as inherently valuable, rather than a
bothersome complication. The practicum was designed to maximise opportunities for the Australian pre-service students
(and their practicum mentors) to encounter difference and the ‘Other’, and to seek to know the ‘Other’, in the belief that
such opportunities were valuable for “constructing new meanings and new ways to mean” (Kostogriz & Doecke 2007:1)
and developing a deeper orientation to education that values diversity and difference.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
112
Alberta’s reflection (below), written soon after returning to Australia, is one example among many of Monash pre-service
students constructing new meanings through dialogic interaction and engagement:
There were many times during our South African experience that we were put out of our comfort zone …. Such
experiences included racial issues in the classroom, expressions of religious ideologies in the school, characteristics
of certain students and the unavailability of resources in the teaching environment. Through the process of
discussion and debriefing on such matters, in schools and with my Monash peers and mentors, I was better able to
understand them and move forward with the experience in a positive manner. (Alberta, Primary, 2010, written
reflection)
This process of constructing meanings through dialogue with others and dialogic recognition has applied as much to the
pre-service teachers’ practical work in classrooms as to the ways in which they constructed their identities as teachers in
a multicultural and globalising world, full of movement, diversity and change. The notion of identity we are drawing on
here is not one where students can choose ‘off-the-shelf’, as it were, from a set of static predetermined identities that
might enable them to operate as teachers. In the mobile world of the 21st century, philosopher Zygmunt Baumann
(2004:15) explains that identity should be “something to be invented rather than discovered”. His conceptualisation of
identity helps explain the way that this international educational practicum was designed with an emphasis on dialogic
relationships and dialogic recognition:
The main reasons for identities to be sharply defined and unambiguous … and to retain the same recognizable
shape over time, have vanished or lost much of their once compelling power. …. Longing for identity comes from the
desire for security, itself an ambiguous feeling. However exhilarating it may be in the short run, however full of
promises and vague premonitions of an as yet untried experience, floating without any support in a poorly defined
space, in a stubbornly, vexingly ‘betwixt-and-between’ location, becomes in the long run an unnerving and anxiety-
prone condition. On the other hand, a fixed position amidst the infinity of possibilities is not an attractive prospect
either. (Baumann 2004:29)
For five years, Monash’s international fieldwork in South Africa has combined a teaching practicum in schools with
community engagement. This has purposefully placed Australian pre-service teachers in “stubbornly, vexingly, ‘betwixt-
and-between’ locations” – it is telling how often students spoke about this in their written reflections, using language like
Alberta’s: “we were put out of our comfort zone”. And yet the students’ learning and identity work in these zones were
supported by ongoing dialogue between educational leaders, dialogic professional learning communities and a number
of interconnected institutional partnerships. There can be no guarantees that such a programme produces better
teachers or that it helps to shore up “national, political, economic and security interests’ for either South Africa or
Australia. And yet, for all of the ‘longing’ for certainty and unambiguous professional identities that all 76 students have
probably felt at times while in South Africa, it has been encouraging and inspiring for Craig and Graham to read/hear
reflections such as the following by Alana. They speak to us optimistically about the “infinity of possibilities” in this
programme into the future.
To say my peers and I were outside of our comfort zone [in our Phase 2 school] would be an understatement. Two of
my colleagues were spending full days with children who couldn’t speak any English, an English specialist was
teaching maths, and I was an art teacher without an art classroom. This was not like the Australian classrooms we
had experienced before our trip, and whilst these were challenging circumstances, they were conditions through
which we flourished. While most of our jaws dropped at the sight of several unsupervised year 8 classrooms, we
were quick to adapt, we became more flexible and uninhibited. We worked and learnt in collegial ways…Actually, the
relationships we were able to build with the local students reflected some internationally shared understandings of
education and school. (Alana, Secondary, 2011, written reflection)
Conclusion
The Monash international teaching practicum, combining a teaching practicum in contrasting Johannesburg schools with
participation in community engagement programmes organised by local partners, has repeatedly shown several benefits.
They include raising intercultural awareness and promoting intercultural dialogue across difference – which we have
theorised as ‘identity work’ – and this applies as much to the students undertaking the practicum as to the academic
mentors leading the practicum. And yet such a programme is fraught with challenges and complexities in so many
International teaching practicum with a difference – Parr, Rowe
113
different ways, some of which are captured by phrases such as ‘culture shock’ or ‘cultural disequilibrium’. The success of
the practicum described in this essay is at least partly attributable to the ongoing dialogue and ‘dialogic recognition’
which allows teachers and training, their mentors and the international partners they engage with to learn and develop in
their own ways. Those who wish to undertake a similar venture need to do so with full awareness of the rich potential
benefits, but also the embedded dangers of such a programme for all stakeholders.
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* * * * * *
International teaching practicum with a difference – Parr, Rowe
115
Biography of corresponding author
Graham Parr is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia. His research interests include
teacher professional learning, teacher education, English and literature teaching, and intercultural educational work. In
association with Craig Rowe and Monash South Africa in 2009, he developed the international teaching practicum
reported on in this paper as part of a transnational education partnership between Monash University (Australia) and
Monash South Africa.
Institutional details
Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
117
Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey
Karen Venter
Abstract
This paper shares the impact that service-learning has on student learning, scholarly development and community
engagement when it is applied within the discipline of nursing in the higher education (HE) arena in South Africa. The
specific focus will be on professional nurses who further their studies in the field of nursing education at the School of
Nursing (SoN) of the University of the Free State (UFS). Here service-learning is used as an educational tool to facilitate
the development of global citizenship skills and to implement service-learning activities related to educational practice.
Reference will be made to service-learning literature to define and explain service-learning as a reflective pedagogical
tool within existing powerful partnerships. The challenges related to the implementation of service-learning will also be
reviewed. The research study reported on in this paper further focuses on the effect knowledge sharing has on the
development of students, academics and community partners, that is the learning community, in several long-term,
powerful service-learning (SL) partnerships. Data gathering took place before, during and after the implementation of the
SL course through a number of techniques, namely questionnaires, reflective journals and semi-structured interviews. To
summarise, this research journey aimed to gain a better understanding of the developmental role of sharing knowledge
within the learning community through reflection on the feelings, perspectives, difficulties and concerns of the
participants, about SL.
Keywords: Knowledge sharing, learning community, reflection, SL triad partnerships
Introduction and background
This paper illustrates the impact of service-learning (SL) in the nursing discipline at the School of Nursing (SoN) of the
University of the Free State (UFS) in South Africa on student learning, scholarly development and community
engagement in Mangaung. The investigation focuses on the developmental effect of knowledge sharing on the learning
community involved in SL practices. We briefly outline the SL programme that is the specific focus of this paper.
The nursing education programme
Postgraduate registered nurses can enrol for a one-year diploma to further their studies in nursing education within the
higher education (HE) arena. A theory module presented by the module coordinator underpins the practical SL module
presented by a co-lecturer. Service-learning is used as an educational tool in the learning and development of nurse
educator students to facilitate global citizenship (McMillan 2013:41). It is therefore used in compliance with the
dispensation of transformation in South African education in order to incorporate community service into the activities of
the students enrolled for this programme in nursing education. In presenting this module, we follow the triad partnership
model of the Community-Higher Education-Service-Partnerships (CHESP), as set out in Figure 1.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
118
Figure 1: Triad partnership model: The CHESP Model (CHE 2006:93)
The triad of partners include 1) the HE sector, represented by two lecturers and 20 nurse educator students, 2) four
service sector providers (non-profit organisations (NPOs)), and 3) the community of Mangaung. The co-lecturer serves
as the link to ensure that all partners in the partnerships (see section 1.3) connect and communicate effectively. This
unique synergistic relationship of the two lecturers strengthens the SL module and each partnership project. Our target
population in the community we serve with educational practices is care workers who render service at these NPOs.
Community partners involved
The partnership projects of the nursing education module are implemented in the Mangaung community (more
specifically Heidedal and Ashbury) in order to make a sustainable impact. The partnerships were built over a period of
time and mutual trust and respect underpin these relationships.
Service sector partners
The nursing education students collaborate with the following NPOs:
New Horizon Support Group provides palliative care to patients through home visits
Reach provides pre- and after-school care to orphans and vulnerable children
Talitha Baby Safety House provides a safe haven for abused children between the ages of 0-2 years who have
been legally removed from their homes
Talitha Kidz provides a safe haven for abused children between the ages of 2-10 years, who have been legally
removed from their homes
The service-learning component
On the commencement of the course, the students are divided into four groups. Each group is allocated to serve at an
NPO in order to reach their curricular credit-bearing outcomes. These outcomes are aligned with the health-related
learning needs of the community.
Outcomes for the nurse educator students
In the development of a curriculum, the nursing education students in our programme apply critical cross-field outcomes
(CCFOs) and, at the same time, they have an opportunity to develop their sense of social responsibility. Students learn
how to identify and solve teaching-related challenges and how to collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate
information when designing curricula and teaching units. They are given the chance to utilise educational technologies,
Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey – Venter
119
such as Internet searching, and designing of PowerPoint lessons in order to promote learner-centred education. They
learn to develop valid and reliable learner assessment tools and assess their effectiveness. They must work effectively
with others as members of a team, group, organisation or community in developing their nursing curricula and teaching
units. Students learn to communicate effectively by using visual and language skills during presentations as well as
when they are involved in their assigned community.
Finally, students learn to organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively, proof of which
is given in a learner portfolio which serves as a summative assessment. All activities, such as feedback on lectures
designed and presented demonstrations, oral presentations, educational material developed, reflections and the final
curriculum developed for the care workers, forms part of the portfolio collection.
The impact on the community
South Africa’s healthcare system, which is predominantly nurse-based, requires nurses to have the competence and
expertise to manage the country’s burden of disease and to meet South Africa’s healthcare needs (RSA DoH 2012:5).
Therefore there is an urgent need to present nursing curricula that can develop creative and critical thinkers in our health
sector. In this module, the community (the care workers, their families and clients) is exposed to innovative educational
practices in order to facilitate solutions to everyday health challenges, eg diseases such as HIV and AIDS, tuberculosis,
diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cancer. The community and care workers are given the opportunity to voice their
needs in terms of their learning environment and they receive training via the student nurse educators on the topics that
have been identified in the process, eg basic first aid care and prevention of the above-mentioned diseases. The
trainees can then go back to their communities and, in turn, share their knowledge and skills with others in the
community.
The rationale of the research
The reported inquiry was embedded in a current research project. The UFS received a research grant to the value of
R1,1 million from the National Research Foundation (NRF) to conduct research on community engagement, with the
emphasis on knowledge as enabler within a NPO focus. The research question of the NRF project was the following:
“How can higher education institutions and the community sector establish long-term, research-based collaborative
engagements that will empower both the institution and the community through joint, reciprocal knowledge-based
activities and capacity building?”
It is evident that knowledge sharing exists in SL partnerships as is indicated by the word ‘learning’, but the specific role of
knowledge sharing in the development of SL partners can be explored more fully. Therefore, in our context, it is possible
to ask a second question to build on the main question above: “What is the role of knowledge sharing in the
development of partners in service-learning?” This paper is thus, in a sense, my endeavour as an academic to share my
personal perceptions regarding a research journey in applied service-learning in order to answer the second question.
Theoretical grounding
To gain a better understanding of the research study, a few important points made in the literature to describe the
pedagogy of SL are discussed.
Defining service-learning
There are various definitions of SL in the literature (Bringle & Hatcher 2005:112; Furco 1996:5; Stanton & Erasmus
2013:66; UFS 2006:9). Their explanations vary, but it is important that the definition should comply with four essential
criteria, namely (Howard 2001; Stacey, Rice & Langer 2001 in CHE 2006:25):
relevant and meaningful service within the community
enhanced academic learning
purposeful preparation of students for socially responsible citizenship
structured opportunities for reflection
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
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SL requires a collaborative partnership context that enhances reciprocal knowledge sharing among the members of the
learning community in the partnership. Thus, a key concept is that the pedagogy of SL educates the learning community
through experiences about partnership dynamics. SL is thus an example of experiential learning.
The pedagogy of service-learning
SL is rooted in the learning theories of constructivism and invokes the theories of Bandura (1977), Coleman (1977),
Dewey (1963), Freire (1970, 1973), Kolb (1984) and others (CHE 2006:14). The field of experiential education is the
pedagogical foundation of SL, underpinned by democratic collaboration and engagement (HEQC/ JET 2006:16). In
nursing education, experiential learning is the main strategy to integrate theory and practice worldwide (Hughes & Quinn
2013:205). SL is a teaching strategy that favours community-based experiential teaching and learning, with an essential
reflective component (Stanton & Erasmus 2013:66).
Reflection in service-learning
In SL, reflection helps to integrate service and learning in a mutually reinforcing relationship (Eyler, Giles & Schmiede
1996). The definition of Bringle and Hatcher (1999:153) is useful in that it describes reflection as a process of looking
back at actions taken, whether they had positive or negative consequences, and learning from them. Rice (nd:1) gives
various examples of how reflection can be implemented in SL in order to promote lifelong learning.
Towards a praxis of lifelong learning
The Green Paper for Post School Education and Training (RSA DHET 2012:31) points out that
the community education and training approach to adult learning seeks to facilitate a cycle of lifelong learning in
communities, and offers routes to enable the development of skills, (including literacy and numeracy skills) to
enhance personal, social, family and employment experiences. It further seeks to assist community organisations,
local government and individuals to work together to develop and enhance their communities, by building on their
existing knowledge and skills.
The graduate attributes or generic skills most commonly referred to in the professional context are critical thinking,
analytical skills, communication, teamwork, and problem solving (Tempone & Martin 2000:3). SL could provide a means
for practising and promoting lifelong learning skills through reflective activities that conform to the requirements for
reflection, as set out by Eyler, Giles and Schmiede (1996), namely continuity, context, communication, connection and
challenge.
Service learners as local and global agents of change
SL holds the potential to inspire and enable all partners of a learning community to act as agents of change and to work
towards the development of communities from poor to better, and from good to great. Moreover, I believe service
learners can be guided to develop a positive sense of identity and openness to new ideas. They can learn to be
interdependent and develop a willingness and desire to be agents of change in the community they serve. Students can
learn to be committed to their own rights and responsibilities as well as to those of others; they can learn commitment to
work towards peace, to justice and to establishing sustainable environments and communities.
The following quote by Muhammad Ali (iheartinspiration 2013) underpins my beliefs regarding change and scholarly
development expressed in this paper:
Impossible is just a big word thrown around by small men who find it easier to live in the world they’ve been given
than to explore the power they have to change it.
Scholarly development: a personal reflection
Writing about the notion of a scholarship of engagement, the Council on Higher Education (2006:11) concludes:
“Community engagement, as a scholarly activity, is of critical importance both in shaping our students and future citizens
and in producing knowledge that is most relevant and useful in the South African context.”
Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey – Venter
121
Since I have become involved in SL, I have grown personally and professionally. Personally I have expanded my
worldview through active engagement in community work and striving to contribute through all my actions to the
sustainable development of the community where I serve. The constant contact I have with students, other academics
and the community have helped to shape my thinking, making it sharper in solving problems in authentic situations.
Having a global outlook on community issues has become a way of life for me. I strive to reflect continuously on our SL
endeavours in order to develop my scholarship, to keep discussions with all partners alive and to encourage reciprocal
knowledge sharing within the learning community. Professionally, I have gained academic knowledge by engaging with
SL literature and integrating it with my practical journey as a lecturer. The initial support and motivation from my co-
lecturer opened the way for me to develop professionally through an exploration of the SL pedagogy. Furthermore, I
have completed a core module on the pedagogy of SL, which led to a deep appreciation for SL as a scholarship of
engagement. Additionally, I have attended and presented my research at conferences. This platform allowed me to
connect and collaborate with other scholars whose valuable knowledge of sound, evidence-based SL principles and
practices enriched my thinking.
Methodology
In the following section, the research paradigm, design and method of enquiry will be discussed. The research study
discussed in this paper was characterised by relationship building, subjectivity, collaboration, co-constructing knowledge,
shared power, social responsibility and pursuing mutual good in society.
Research paradigm
A democratic, participative action research approach was followed within the context of the SL community. In order to
describe the research paradigm better, I need to add my epistemological views.
Because I work with people, their perceptions are of the utmost importance to me. I believe that I must love myself to be
able to love others, that I should deeply respect people and look at everyone holistically and see people as unique
individuals. I respect everyone’s spirituality, human dignity and social environment. I believe that I should strive to be an
asset to others around me by acting immediately without procrastinating duties. I accept that I must work with resources
in a productive way, use time effectively and add value and goodwill to others. Furthermore, I believe in the importance
of setting goals and working hard to achieve success. I am not the boss, I am a humble diligent team worker, and strive
to be prepared and organised. I can be trusted, am disciplined and act caringly and carefully when I work with people. I
try to be practical and find solutions for problems. I strive to mediate when I observe a need for it, and seek to
understand first, and then also to be understood. I am willing to be directed when I go wrong. Lastly, because I am an
action researcher, I always reflect on my actions and strive continuously to change situations for the better through
collaborating with others in a humble and friendly way; they make my life worthwhile and give me goals: to care and cure
with compassion, to serve and help others.
Action research
Zuber-Skerrit suggests in Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007:299) that action research is a
critical (and self-critical) collaborative inquiry by reflective practitioners being accountable and making results of their
inquiry public, self-evaluating their practice and engaged in participatory problem-solving and continuing professional
development.
Consequently, action research can be used as a paradigm and a process to guide everyday praxis (theory integrated
with practice) of scholarly SL academics, within their own epistemology. There are numerous similarities between action
research and learning, SL and experiential learning. Erasmus (2005:11) said:
The definitive link with action learning that characterizes the pedagogy of SL allows for action research
methodologies to emerge in the quest to accommodate multiple ways of knowing.
As a result, SL is used as pedagogy to unlock human potential. Through the experiential learning activities students
perform, learning among all partners in the relevant learning community is made possible and knowledge sharing can
take place.
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
122
The approach of the renowned action researcher Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) involves a spiral of steps, each of which is
composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action (Action research nd). This is
displayed in the flow diagram in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Schematic flow diagram of action research (Smith 2007)
Data collection
In action research data collection can take place by making use of a variety of sources and participants (Mills 2000:56).
In this study a diversity of data was collected from students, academics and community partners (see Table 1).
Furthermore, in this kind of research, data collection is usually classified according to three data sources, namely
experiencing, enquiring and examining (Mills 2000:57). Data gathering took place before, during and after the course
was implemented. A variety of data methods and gathering tools were used, namely observation, questionnaires,
reflective journals, minutes of meetings and semi-structured interviews (see Table 1).
Table 1: Data collection methods used
Strategy classification
according to Mill’s taxonomy Methods and instruments Participants
Inquiring
Experiencing
Questionnaires
Reflection journals
Twenty students
Experiencing Reflection journal
Observation
Two academics
Experiencing
Examining
Interviews
Minutes of meeting
Four service sector partners
Data analysis and interpretation
Following Mertens (2010:424-425), the data were analysed by identifying certain characteristics and themes as
described in the steps of the flow diagram below (see Figure 2). During step one, fresh data were transcribed, reviewed
and reflected on in order to interact with the research material. In step two the data were reduced through exploration to
Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey – Venter
123
a manageable amount. In step three the reduced data were coded, whereafter they was interpreted and documented
carefully. Step two and three occurred in synergy.
Figure 3: Data analysis process (Adapted from Mertens (2010))
Ethical considerations
Permission for the study was granted by the ethics board of the Faculty of Education at the University of the Free State.
Aspects such as privacy considerations, informed consent, confidentiality, honesty and the maintenance of ethical
standards were taken into account in carrying out the project. Principles were followed as described in Mertens
(2010:16-18), namely balance of fairness, ontological authenticity, educative authenticity, catalytic authenticity and
tactical authenticity.
Findings
The background and findings of the research study are given below in terms of the action research process of Lewin
illustrated in Figure 2 above.
Step 1: Identify an initial idea: Students participate in service-learning activities in order to achieve the intended learning outcomes
As has been said above, the educational approach in the course under consideration was SL and the nursing students’
activities related to educational practice.
Step 2: Fact finding
Through reflection on the students’ activities (action) the following facts were found:
Step 3: Planning
After discussion and reflection with an expert academic mentor, I was advised to video-record the lessons presented at
the NPOs to ensure that the care workers can use it for in-service training. Furthermore, as part of professional
development, the module coordinator advised me to embark on an SL course to expad my knowledge of the pedagogy.
From my reflection journal:
The principles of partnership formation were followed. However, as lecturer-partner I doubted
the long-term sustainability and the developmental effect of the knowledge sharing on all the
partners in the learning community, especially on the service-sector partners within the
partnership. The students reached their learning outcomes and the service was rendered to the
community, but was the reciprocal knowledge sharing really sustainable? Volunteer care
workers come and go and are not permanently appointed at the service sector site – how could
we share sustainable knowledge?
Synergy
Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational
124
The course included a knowledge base of policy directives on national and institutional level, as well as essential
elements of SL to serve as good practice on the South African road of community engagement in higher education.
Step 4: Taking action
The next year I followed the advice to gather video recordings of data and to apply new skills gained from the SL course.
Step 5: Evaluation
As mentioned above, the research question explored related to the exact role of knowledge sharing in the development
of the learning community in the SL partnerships.
The data collected from questionnaires, reflective journals, semi-structured interviews and minutes of meetings could be
categorised according to four general themes and comments related to these are summarised in Table 2.
Table 2: Data organised by theme and related comments
Themes Comments from different partners
Students Service sector partners (NPOs)
Feelings In the beginning – nervous, anxious, scared,
fearful of the unknown, but excited
I enjoyed myself
I feel honoured and humbled
I am very happy
We felt valued to be co-educators
We felt empowered by knowledge
When we feel down, the visits from the university partners
uplift our spirits
Perspectives I discovered myself
Service-learning should be included in every
course as it benefits the student and the
community
I have grown emotionally, academically,
spiritually and personally about cultural diversity
Although I am a loner, I have learned to work
with others
We shared knowledge with our co-educators
from the community
Clarified, shared values should drive the relationship e.g.
respect, integrity, loyalty
Continuous communication made us feel in ‘control’
We connected at a deep level
Knowledge empowered us, it is far better than money
The community has a lot of indigenous wisdom to share
Senior postgraduate students can share precious research
knowledge to empower us
The university should not only gather knowledge, but share
it with others
Difficulties I only experienced my ‘own’ difficulties
Lack of time
To overcome our ‘emotional’ burden of hurt from the past of
apartheid
Lack of staff
Concerns My concern is the escalating numbers of
unemployment, poverty and inequality. How is
the country going to assist in eradicating these
challenges?
I was worried about the power struggle at first, but soon
discovered the power balance in the partnership
Worthlessness of people in the community
Research results should be embedded in the community,
and not stay on the library shelves of the university
From my reflection journal:
The video recordings of the presented lessons took a lot of planning. However, this was so
rewarding. The videos enriched my teaching and learning practice and feedback to the students.
The community could now benefit from the sustainable knowledge (video recordings of lessons
and a curriculum compiled by the students) left behind at the NPOs. Furthermore, I have gained
so much knowledge and self-confidence from the service-learning course which enabled me to be
an active change agent towards reciprocal knowledge sharing to the mutual beneficence of all in
the learning community.
Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey – Venter
125
Step 6: Amending the plan
Discussion and conclusion
In the nursing discipline, as in many other disciplines, it is a challenge for students and academics to cross the divide
between newly gained academic knowledge and its application in real-life. This is clear from the following service sector
comment: “Research results should be embedded into the community, and not stay on the library shelves of the
university” (Table 2).
Furthermore, graduates should be allowed to contribute to community development by applying their knowledge and
skills while learning and developing the attitudes they will need in the workforce as good local and global citizens. SL as
pedagogy has the potential to bridge the gap between knowledge and application within the safe arena of powerful
partnerships between community organisations (in our case non-profit organisations) and the university (as evidenced by
various other studies referred to in Stanton, Giles and Cruz (1999:249-258)). Long-term trust relationships can evolve
into connected and collaborative ‘classrooms’ where academic and indigenous knowledge are shared in order to solve
real-life problems. I quote the service sector partners: “The community has a lot of indigenous wisdom to share”
(Table 2).
Through keeping powerful partnerships in place and through constant evaluation thereof the journey of reciprocal
knowledge sharing among students, academics and community members can yield benefits for all involved. There are,
nevertheless, many challenges to overcome, such as limited time as well as limited human and financial infrastructure.
Cultivating a willingness to cooperate in partners and the establishment of shared values and goals are very important
and it is possible that changes in the dynamics in partnerships may take place. Service and learning can be balanced
and they must be made possible through communication between partners, joint decision-making, sharing values, care
on a deeply connected level and creative management of change in order to promote sustainable community
development both locally and globally.
In summary, this research journey aimed to gain a better understanding of the role of knowledge sharing among the
voyagers in a long-term collaborative SL partnership through reflection on the feelings, perspectives, difficulties and
concerns that are encountered along the way. There is a distinct possibility that repeated action research cycles could
help streamline relationships between partners and enhance sustainability of projects.
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ABOUT THE EDITORS
Dr Antoinette Smith-Tolken Deputy-Director, Community Interaction heads the Office for Service-Learning and
Community-based Research of the Division for Community Interaction at Stellenbosch University. In this capacity she is
primarily responsible for enhancing the scholarship of engagement of academic staff through training and support
programmes with secondary graduate teaching responsibilities. Dr Smith-Tolken holds a PhD in Education from the
Stellenbosch University. She has been teaching Community Development in a study abroad programme at Stellenbosch
University since 2005 as well as an undergraduate Sociology class. Currently she teaches in three post-graduate
programmes, supervise and examine masters- and doctoral theses. She plays a leading role in the proliferation of
service-learning and community engagement in South Africa through workshops, seminars, and professional
development programmes in experiential teaching and learning and community-based research. Antoinette has
presented at conferences in South Africa, Australia, Europe, the United States and China over the last 10 years, co-
chaired two international symposiums and a national colloquium. She is one of the co-founders of the International
Symposium: Service-Learning and the chair of the fifth ISSL 2013 in Stellenbosch. Her research record reflects several
national and international publications.
Jacob du Plessis is a lecturer in Sociology at Stellenbosch University (SU). His teaching and research interests focus
on the intersections between ‘development and health’. He is actively involved in CE and co-facilitated with his academic
partner Antoinette Smith-Tolken various service-learning capacity building courses for academics at SU and other SA
universities; the most recent a regional capacity building programme for academics from three Western Cape
universities. They recently presented on this S-L capacity building initiative at the CLAYSS conference in Argentina (Aug,
2013). Jacob presented papers at all the ISSL symposia to date: Stellenbosch (2005), the USA (2007), Athens (2009),
China (2011). Apart from CE, he has a keen interest in teaching and learning, in particular blended learning and is the
recipient of three awards for excellence in teaching. He has been working with Northwestern University (NU) (Chicago)
as academic director for a NU global health program presented at SU this year for the 7th year.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Gerda Bender
Prof Gerda Bender was appointed at the Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg in July 2011 and served as
Head of the Department of Educational Leadership and Management from 2012-2013. Before joining the University of
Johannesburg she was professor at the North West University (Potchefstroom), School of Education; from 2008-2010: at
the University of Pretoria: Manager: Curricular and Research-related Community Engagement: Strategic planning and
implementation. Professional development of academic and support staff and from 1988-2008, senior lecturer in Faculty
of Education at the University of Pretoria. Teaching: She has taught various modules/courses on undergraduate in
teacher training and postgraduate levels for 25 years. In some of the modules /courses she integrated academic service-
learning as a teaching-learning method to enhance citizenship, social responsibility of students and social justice.
Gerda’s main areas of research interest and experience are in developmental studies; curriculum studies and leadership
and management in general. Her research focuses on curricular engagement and leading educational partnerships,
collaborations and networks which encapsulate engaged research and participatory action research. She serves on
international editorial boards related to the mentioned focus areas. Contribution: She has played a leading role in
establishing community engagement and service-learning as curriculum and programme intervention at Higher
Education Institutions in South Africa. The University of Pretoria acknowledged her contribution towards the development
and implementation of service-learning in higher education by awarding her a prestigious Teaching Innovation Award.
Conferences and publications: She has presented over 100 papers at numerous national and international conferences.
Chapters in national and international Books (only indicated from 2008): 8 Chapters. Articles published in national and
international accredited journals (2008-2013): 12 articles.
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128
Liang Cai
Dr Cai Liang (1974) PhD, is associate professor of Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University. His research
fields include Applied Linguistics, focusing on the integration of language learning into community service.
Catherine E. Crandell
Dr Catherine “Kate” Crandell received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Community Health Education at Purdue University, a
Bachelor and Master of Science degree in Physical Therapy from Washington University, a Master of Divinity degree
from Louisville Seminary and a post-professional transitional Doctor of Physical Therapy degree from Shenandoah
University. Currently, Kate is Assistant Professor and Associate Director of Clinical Education at Bellarmine University
Doctor of Physical Therapy Program. Kate’s teaching and clinical practice has focused on adult outpatient orthopaedics.
Kate has a special interest in service-learning, community-campus partnerships, cultivating civic-minded graduates and
the scholarship on engagement.
Weiliang Jin
Prof. Weiliang Jin, President of Ningbo Institute of Technology Zhejiang University is a Fellow of Institute of Civil
Engineering (UK), China Ocean Engineering Society and China Society of Civil Engineering. He is the deputy director of
several national committees, including the Committee of Engineering Structural Reliability in China Civil Engineering
Society, the editor-in-chief of International Journal of Structural Engineering. With more than 140 papers and 5 books,
Prof. Jin’s main research areas lie in the reliability and durability of concrete structures and offshore structures as well as
Chinese higher education.
Johan Jordaan
Johan Jordaan teaches operations management at the North West University Potchefstroom Business School. He has a
B.Sc., B.Com. and MBA degree. During his career he has taught Mathematics and Physical Science at school level for 8
years, worked for Sasol for ten years as research scientist, process engineer, area manager, regional sales manager,
applications manager and business manager. He then started his own consulting business and ventured into the
construction business, before joining the Potchefstroom Business School in 2010. His research topic for his Ph.D., with
which he is presently pursuing, is an operations management model for wildlife rehabilitation centres in South Africa, and
in his teaching he loves to experiment with different teaching methods and teaching aids. He has led 23 MBA
dissertations and has presented papers at five international conferences since the beginning of his career in academia in
2010.
Nariman Laattoe
Nariman Laattoe is a lecturer and holds an MPhil in Education (Adult Ed) degree from the University of Cape Town
(UCT). She is currently the course convenor for core courses offered by Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit in
the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences at the University of the Western Cape, a unit which is responsible for
teaching interdisciplinary community-oriented courses, she co-ordinates service-learning in both rural and urban
communities and provide interprofessional learning opportunities for health science students at UWC. Ms Laattoe’s area
of expertise is located within the field of community engagement.
Phylis Lan Lin
Dr Phylis Lan Lin, PhD, is Associate Vice President for International Partnerships and Professor of Sociology at the
University of Indianapolis. She is also Senior Vice President of Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign Languages-
University of Indianapolis International College in China. Dr Lin has several additional titles at the University of
Indianapolis, including director of Asian Programs and the Executive Director of the University of Indianapolis Press. She
has a PhD in Sociology from the University of Missouri, Columbia. She has organised and chaired several international
conferences, including four in service-learning. She has written and edited more than fifteen books in Chinese and
English. In 2011, she co-authored Service-Learning: Theory and Practice in Higher Education. The book was co-
published by Zhejiang University Press and University of Indianapolis Press.
Graham Parr
Dr Graham Parr is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia. His research interests
include teacher professional learning, teacher education, English and literature teaching, and intercultural educational
Author Bio’s
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work. In association with Craig Rowe and Monash South Africa in 2009, he developed the international teaching
practicum reported on at this conference as part of a transnational education partnership between Monash University
(Australia) and Monash South Africa that continues to develop and evolve since then.
Margo Paterson
Margo Paterson is a Professor Emerita in the Occupational Therapy at Queen’s University, Kingston Canada. Margo’s
scholarly contributions are within a number of areas including professional practice and theory-practice integration;
interprofessional education, care, and practice; fieldwork education including service learning; clinical reasoning; and
qualitative research. Margo has published work in all of these areas and presented at national and international
meetings. She has received extensive funding to support such scholarship. Her most recent administrative role was as
Director of the Office of Interprofessional Education and Practice in the Faculty of Health Sciences from 2009-2012.
Craig Rowe
Craig Darrel Rowe has worked extensively in Community Engagement, Student Support, Experiential Learning,
Churches, Schools and Service Learning in South Africa. Craig has had the privilege of being involved in a number of
Higher Education Institutions, NGO’s, FBO’s and government departments in South Africa. He has also been involved in
the establishment of partnerships in a global context. Through what has been achieved in the Monash Student Volunteer
Program they were able to inspire and assist with the establishment of the Monash Volunteer Program at Monash
University Malaysia. For the last 5 years Craig has had the privilege of collaborating with Dr Graham Parr in facilitation
and international student teacher and service-learning placement. Craig is a member of the Board of SAHECEF and a
member of the National Community Development Steering Team for the Professionalisation of Community Development.
Scott Shall
Mr Scott Gerald Shall is Associate Professor and Chair in the Architecture Department at Lawrence Technological
University and the founding director of the International Design Clinic (IDC, www.internationaldesignclinic.org), a
registered non-profit that has realised much-needed creative work with communities in need on four continents. Shall’s
work has been featured in a range of peer-reviewed publications, including works by the AIA Press (2010) and the
University of Indianapolis Press (2010). Shall has exhibited his creative work in venues around the world, including solo
shows at the San Francisco Museum of Art in La Paz, Bolivia (2011) and the AIA Center for Architecture in Philadelphia
(2009) as well as group shows at the Sheldon Swope Museum of Art (2010), the Goldstein Museum of Design (2010),
and the 2012 Venice Architecture Biennale (2012).
Rika Swanzen
Dr Rika Swanzen worked directly and indirectly within the social development field for the past 16 years. During her
working career she obtained her Masters degree in social work cum laude and completed her doctoral study with the
development of the ChildPIE©; a classification system for describing childhood social functioning problems. Since her
studies she also served as the project manager on national- and provincial level research projects. In 2009 she joined
Monash South Africa (MSA) to develop a degree for Child and Youth Care. In 2011 Rika won the Pro-Vice Chancellors
Distinguished Teaching Award at MSA. Most recently she participated in the Higher Education Institutions and related
Stakeholder workshop for the roll-out of Community Development qualifications.
Mea van Huyssteen
Dr Mea van Huyssteen is an academic staff member at the School of Pharmacy, University of the Western Cape. She is
a pharmacist concerned with the promotion of patient-centred pharmaceutical care, which has been inspired by her
previous collaboration with traditional African health practitioners. As co-facilitator of the Service-Learning in Pharmacy
team, she has co-designed the guided reflection sessions tailored to examine service-learning principles through the
lens of African values. Currently the service-learning programme at the School is being expanded across the entire
undergraduate curriculum.
Karen Venter
Mrs Karen Venter is a Junior Lecturer at the School of Nursing, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein. She is
involved in various service-learning modules at the School of Nursing.
Sarita Verma
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130
Dr Sarita Verma is a Professor in the Department of Family and Community Medicine, Deputy Dean of the Faculty of
Medicine and Associate Vice Provost Health Professions Education at the University of Toronto. She is a family
physician who originally trained as a lawyer at the University of Ottawa (1981) and later completed her medical degree at
McMaster University (1991). She has been a Diplomat in Canada’s Foreign Service and worked with UNHCR in Sudan
and Ethiopia for several years. Dr. Verma is the 2006 recipient of the Donald Richards Wilson Award in medical
education from the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada and the 2009 co-recipient of the May Cohen
Gender Equity Award from the Association of Faculties of Medicine in Canada. Along with colleagues at McGill
University, University of British Columbia and the University of Toronto, she was one of the lead consultants for the
Future of Medical Education in Canada Postgraduate project. At present she is the Co-lead for the Canadian
Interprofessional Health Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC) at the Institute of Medicine’s Global Forum on Innovation in
Health Professions Education.
Firdouza Waggie
Dr Firdouza Waggie is a senior lecturer and holds a BSc (PT), MSc (PT) and PhD degree from the University of the
Western Cape (UWC). She currently heads the Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit in the Faculty of Community
and Health Sciences at the University of the Western Cape, a unit which is responsible for teaching interdisciplinary
community-oriented core courses, co-ordinates service-learning in both rural and urban communities and provide
interprofessional learning opportunities for health science students at UWC. Her expertise and research areas include:
community engagement and service-learning, health professions education, and school health promotion.
Mark Wiegand
Dr Mark Wiegand, PT, PhD is professor and dean of the Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences at Bellarmine
University in Louisville, Kentucky, USA. He teaches anatomy and is interested in the role of service-learning and
professional development in physical therapy education. Dr Wiegand received his degree in physical therapy from the
University of Kansas, his master’s degree from the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse and his PhD from the University of
Louisville. In 2002 Dr Wiegand received the Outstanding Physical Therapist Service Award from the Kentucky Physical
Therapy Association, and was a Bellarmine University Wyatt Fellowship recipient in 2007 and a 2008 Louisville Health
Enterprises Network Fellow. Dr Wiegand was the co-editor of Service-Learning in Higher Education: Connecting the
Global to the Local (2013) published by the University of Indianapolis Press. He is married to Dr Judy Wiegand, is the
father of five adult children, and has four grandchildren.
Lizane Wilson
Dr Lizane Wilson is currently the programme head as well as a lecturer and research supervisor in the Play Therapy
Programme at the Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, Faculty of Health, North-West University. She is a
registered social worker, with a Masters Degree in Play Therapy and recently obtained her PhD at Stellenbosch
University in Education (Curriculum Studies). She has research projects in community engagement, Play therapy and
Child sexual abuse.
Jiangang Yang
Prof Yang Jiangang, (1959), Doctor of Engineering, professor at Zhejiang University. He is vice-president of Ningbo
Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University, currently being responsible for teaching management in the college, leading
the teaching reform of featured P3 Model of Practice Teaching, a project for constructing the Service-learning
Educational System in Ningbo, China, which highlights the practice of experiential learning in curriculum design, and
advocates a community-based Talents Cultivation in higher education.