Training to Enhance the Physiological Determinants of … PS Mest 2015/DE/SG-Midgley... · Training...
Transcript of Training to Enhance the Physiological Determinants of … PS Mest 2015/DE/SG-Midgley... · Training...
Sports Med 2007; 37 (10): 857-880REVIEW ARTICLE 0112-1642/07/0010-0857/$44.95/0
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
Training to Enhance the PhysiologicalDeterminants of Long-DistanceRunning PerformanceCan Valid Recommendations be Given to Runners andCoaches Based on Current Scientific Knowledge?
Adrian W. Midgley,1 Lars R. McNaughton1 and Andrew M. Jones2
1 Department of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Hull, Hull, England2 School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, England
ContentsAbstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8571. Training and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8592. Training Quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8593. Enhancing the Maximal Oxygen Uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8644. Enhancing the Lactate Threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8665. Enhancing Running Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8706. Can Valid Training Recommendations be Given to Runners and Coaches Based on Current
Scientific Knowledge? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8727. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
This article investigates whether there is currently sufficient scientific knowl-Abstractedge for scientists to be able to give valid training recommendations to long-distance runners and their coaches on how to most effectively enhance themaximal oxygen uptake, lactate threshold and running economy. Relatively fewtraining studies involving trained distance runners have been conducted, and thesestudies have often included methodological factors that make interpretation of thefindings difficult. For example, the basis of most of the studies was to include oneor more specific bouts of training in addition to the runners’ ‘normal training’,which was typically not described or only briefly described. The training status ofthe runners (e.g. off-season) during the study period was also typically notdescribed. This inability to compare the runners’ training before and during thetraining intervention period is probably the main factor that hinders the interpreta-tion of previous training studies. Arguably, the second greatest limitation is thatonly a few of the studies included more than one experimental group. Consequent-ly, there is no comparison to allow the evaluation of the relative efficacy of theparticular training intervention. Other factors include not controlling the runners’training load during the study period, and employing small sample sizes that resultin low statistical power. Much of the current knowledge relating to chronicadaptive responses to physical training has come from studies using sedentary
858 Midgley et al.
individuals; however, directly applying this knowledge to formulate trainingrecommendations for runners is unlikely to be valid. Therefore, it would bedifficult to argue against the view that there is insufficient direct scientificevidence to formulate training recommendations based on the limited research.Although direct scientific evidence is limited, we believe that scientists can stillformulate worthwhile training recommendations by integrating the informationderived from training studies with other scientific knowledge. This knowledgeincludes the acute physiological responses in the various exercise domains, thestructures and processes that limit the physiological determinants of long-distancerunning performance, and the adaptations associated with their enhancement. Inthe future, molecular biology may make an increasing contribution in identifyingeffective training methods, by identifying the genes that contribute to the variationin maximal oxygen uptake, the lactate threshold and running economy, as well asthe biochemical and mechanical signals that induce these genes. Scientists shouldbe cautious when giving training recommendations to runners and coaches basedon the limited available scientific knowledge. This limited knowledge highlightsthat characterising the most effective training methods for long-distance runners isstill a fruitful area for future research.
The physiological determinants of long-distance several prominent running coaches, whereas contri-running performance have been well documented, butions from scientists have been relativelyand include maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max),[1-3] small.[11,21,22] This may be due to the reluctance oflactate threshold[3-5] and running economy (figure runners and coaches to acknowledge the potential1).[3,6,7] These three determinants explain >70% of merit of scientific research for improving trainingthe between-subject variance in long-distance run- methods, or because scientific knowledge is tooning performance.[8] Although athletic performance limited to allow worthwhile contributions. Sportsis known to be related to genetic-[9,10] and training- scientists sometimes give training advice to runnersrelated[11] factors, the former is normally a fixed during sports science support work, or after runnersfactor (gene doping[12] being the exception). In con- have participated in experimental research. Aware-trast, physical training may exert profound effects ness of the current state of scientific knowledge inon physiological adaptation and athletic perform- this area should therefore be valuable.ance.[13-15] Distance runners often seek the most
The main purpose of this article is to evaluateeffective training methods to enhance perform-whether there is currently sufficient scientificance,[16] and is probably most evident in elite run-knowledge to allow scientists to give valid trainingners where the rate of training adaptation and per-recommendations to long-distance runners and theirformance enhancement may have reached a pla-coaches on how to most effectively enhanceteau.[17] Since VO2max, lactate threshold and runningVO2max, lactate threshold and running economy.economy have been regarded as the most importantThis article focuses mainly on training interventionphysiological determinants of long-distance runningstudies (summarised in table I) that involved runnersperformance, effective training programmes forand reported changes in these physiological deter-long-distance runners should focus on their en-minants of long-distance running performance.hancement.[18] However, it is unclear which trainingTraining intervention studies involving other ath-methods are most effective.[16,17,19,20]
letes and sedentary individuals have been highlight-Current training methods have largely developeded where deemed appropriate.from the trial-and-error approach of runners and
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 859
sities and durations rather than threshold values,since training protocols that are not optimal wouldreduce the overall efficiency of the training pro-cess.[48] Optimising training methods may also ne-gate the need to continually increase the trainingvolumes of runners to extreme levels, which hasbeen implicated in premature stagnation of perform-ance.[49]
2. Training Quantification
Training load is the product of intensity, durationand frequency.[50] Although training loads for run-ners may be prescribed based on training volume(duration or hours multiplied by frequency), such askilometres or hours run per week,[51] this approach
Performance VO2
Mean race pace
Highest sustainablerate of ATPresynthesis
Runningeconomy
VO2maxSustainable% VO2max
Lactatethreshold
··
·
Fig. 1. Flow diagram showing that long-distance running perform-ance is predominantly determined by maximal oxygen uptake(VO2max), the lactate threshold (determines the fraction of VO2max
that can be sustained) and running economy. Performance oxygenuptake (VO2) represents the highest mean VO2 that can be sus-tained during the race. Running economy refers to how efficient therunner is at converting available energy into running speed. ATP =adenosine triphosphate. does not incorporate exercise intensity, which has
been suggested to be the most important and heavily1. Training and Adaptation debated of the variables relating to exercise pre-
scription.[52-54] Training intensity has been pre-Training-induced stress imposed on a physiologi- scribed based on percentages of maximum velocity
cal process or structure is the stimulus for adaptation or race pace,[55] made more practical by the relative-resulting in an enhanced functional capacity.[44] The ly recent development of global position systemtraining frequency of distance runners is typically (GPS) monitors.[56,57] Training intensity has alsorelatively constant,[29] with elite and sub-elite run- been based on physiological measures such as per-ners performing approximately 10–14 sessions per centages of the maximal heart rate or VO2max.[58]
week.[45] Training stress is therefore predominantly The common factor to physiological measures isimposed by the manipulation of training intensity that they are all indicators of relative physiologicaland duration.[46] Chronic adaptation will occur only strain. However, the relative percentage method hasif the training intensity is sufficient to elicit an been criticised, since it does not take into accountadaptive response.[47] This minimum intensity has between-subject differences in lactate accumulation
at particular percentages of maximal heart rate andbeen termed the training intensity threshold.[17] Sim-VO2max, and may therefore be a poor indicator ofilarly, for a given training intensity there must be aphysiological strain.[58] A more complex model oftraining duration threshold, below which no chronictraining prescription and quantification based onadaptive response occurs. The intensity and durationheart rate and training duration has been developedthresholds combined form the adaptation threshold,and termed the training impulse (TRIMP).[59] Thiswhich must be surpassed to enhance any of themethod has been further refined by the inclusion of aphysiological determinants of long-distance runningweighting factor based on blood lactate concentra-performance highlighted in figure 1. A model fortion.[60]performance enhancement based on this threshold
concept is shown in figure 2. Although the thresh- Several authors have suggested that some physio-olds define the minimum training intensity and dura- logical responses can be used to demarcate trainingtion required to elicit a chronic adaptive response, zones, with the cumulative time spent in each ofthese thresholds may not be optimal for enhancing a these training zones being indicative of the totalparticular physiological performance determinant. physiological strain over a given training peri-Distance runners should seek optimal training inten- od.[54,61] For example, the blood lactate response to
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
860 Midgley et al.
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Tab
le I.
Sum
mar
y of
23
trai
ning
inte
rven
tion
stud
ies
that
hav
e re
port
ed c
hang
es in
the
max
imal
oxy
gen
upta
ke (
VO
2max
), la
ctat
e th
resh
old
(or
onse
t of b
lood
lact
ate
accu
mul
atio
n[O
BLA
]) o
r ru
nnin
g ec
onom
y of
tra
ined
dis
tanc
e ru
nner
s. S
tudi
es a
re o
rder
ed in
rel
atio
n to
the
mea
n re
lativ
e V
O2m
ax o
f th
e ru
nner
s pa
rtic
ipat
ing
in t
he s
tudi
es
Stu
dyS
ubje
ctsa
Age
(y)
Initi
al V
O2m
axS
tudy
Wee
kly
trai
ning
Mea
n %
impr
ovem
entb
Com
men
ts
[mea
n ±
(mL/
kg/m
in)
dura
tion
VO
2max
LT/O
BLA
RE
SD
]c[m
ean
± S
D]c
(wk)
Bill
at e
t al
.[23]
8 M
MD
R/
24 ±
371
.2 ±
5.0
80–
4wk:
1 ×
vO
BLA
, 1
× vV
O2m
ax,
2.1
1.1
6.1*
85 k
m/w
k th
roug
hout
stu
dy.
Run
ners
LDR
4 ×
60–7
0 vV
O2m
ax– 0
.43.
47.
7*di
d on
ly 8
5–90
km
/wk
easy
run
ning
2y
5–8w
k: 1
× v
OB
LA,
3 ×
vVO
2max
,be
fore
stu
dy2
× 60
–70
vVO
2max
(vO
BLA
≈85%
vV
O2m
ax)
Sjo
din
et a
l.[24]
8 M
MD
R/
2068
.7 ±
2.6
141
× vO
BLA
(20
min
) +
nor
mal
2.2
4.3*
2.8*
Run
ners
nor
mal
tra
inin
g in
clud
edLD
R(1
8–25
b )tr
aini
ng (
vOB
LA ≈
85%
vV
O2m
ax)
supr
a-O
BLA
vel
ociti
es.
Stu
dyco
nduc
ted
in t
he o
ff-se
ason
Lehm
ann
8 M
DR
/33
± 7
66.8
± 5
.64
6 d/
wk;
90–
98%
tra
inin
g vo
lum
e0.
6T
rain
ing
volu
me
incr
ease
d by
≈33
%et
al.[2
5]LD
Rat
50–
70%
long
-dis
tanc
e ra
ceea
ch w
eek
pace
; th
e re
st h
igh-
inte
nsity
inte
rval
s
Prie
st a
nd12
M C
CR
21 ±
366
.0 ±
5.9
74
× 10
4% 1
0km
d pa
ce6.
2*T
rain
ing
was
at
the
estim
ated
max
imum
Hag
an[1
4]51
.7 ±
4.8
4 ×
109%
10k
md
pace
12.3
*st
eady
-sta
te (
runn
ing
velo
city
at
2.2
mm
ol/L
blo
od la
ctat
e).
Nor
mal
tra
inin
gno
t sp
ecifi
ed
Ham
ilton
10 M
DR
28 ±
866
.0 ±
7.0
5–7
G1:
nor
mal
end
uran
ce t
rain
ing
0.5
Num
ber
of r
esis
tanc
e tr
aini
ng s
essi
ons
et a
l.[27]
(con
trol
s)4.
0ede
pend
ent
on s
ubje
ct a
vaila
bilit
yG
2: 1
–3 ×
tet
here
d m
axim
alef
fort
tre
adm
ill r
uns
at a
5%
grad
e an
d m
axim
al e
ffort
sin
gle-
leg
jum
ps r
epla
ced
part
of
norm
al t
rain
ing
Ace
vedo
and
7 M
LD
R22
± 3
65.3
± 6
.28
1 ×
90–9
5% H
Rm
ax in
terv
als
0.7
5.7*
Nor
mal
tra
inin
g 80
–105
km
/wk
atG
oldf
arb[2
8](8
5–95
% V
O2m
ax);
2 ×
far
tlek
8–19
km p
er s
essi
on.
Nor
mal
tra
inin
gar
ound
10k
m p
ace;
3–4
× L
SD
mai
ntai
ned
exce
pt 3
d LS
D t
rain
ing
was
subs
titut
ed f
or h
ighe
r in
tens
ity t
rain
ing
Tan
aka
et a
l.[29]
20 M
MD
R19
–23c
64.4
± 3
.817
2 or
mor
e ×
vLT
or
slig
htly
abo
ve4.
8*3.
8*N
orm
al t
rain
ing
incr
ease
d fr
om 9
0 km
/vL
T (
60–9
0 m
in)
+ n
orm
alw
k to
120
km
/wk
for
stud
y pe
riod.
trai
ning
(vL
T =
70
± 5%
VO
2max
)N
orm
al t
rain
ing
inte
nsity
not
spe
cifie
d
Con
tinue
d ne
xt p
age
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 861
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Tab
le I
. C
ontd
Stu
dyS
ubje
ctsa
Age
(y)
Initi
al V
O2m
axS
tudy
Wee
kly
trai
ning
Mea
n %
impr
ovem
entb
Com
men
ts
[mea
n ±
(mL/
kg/m
in)
dura
tion
VO
2max
LT/O
BLA
RE
SD
]c[m
ean
± S
D]c
(wk)
Dan
iels
et
al.[3
0]15
DR
22 ±
363
.9 ±
4.1
8In
crea
se in
tra
inin
g vo
lum
e fr
om0.
0– 0
.75
subj
ects
= c
ontin
uous
fas
t ru
ns;
520
to
30km
eas
y ru
nnin
g (2
mo
subj
ects
= 1
00–6
00m
spr
ints
; 5
cont
rol p
erio
d) t
o 50
–70k
msu
bjec
ts =
600
–120
0m r
uns
(gro
ups
pool
ed f
or a
naly
ses)
. N
orm
al t
rain
ing
not
spec
ified
Paa
vola
inen
et
10 M
CC
R23
± 3
63.7
± 2
.79
G1:
nor
mal
tra
inin
g (c
ontr
ols)
4.9*
0.8
– 1.0
End
uran
ce t
rain
ing
= 8
4% <
vLT
(62
%al
.[31]
G2:
32%
of
norm
al t
rain
ing
– 1.3
1.7
7.7*
VO
2max
) an
d 16
% >
vLT
(86
% V
O2m
ax).
repl
aced
with
spo
rt-s
peci
ficS
tudy
con
duct
ed in
the
off-
seas
onex
plos
ive
stre
ngth
tra
inin
g
Sm
ith e
t al
.[32]
5 M
MD
R23
± 4
61.5
± 6
.64
2 ×
inte
rval
s at
vV
O2m
ax;
1 ×
4.9
Nor
mal
tra
inin
g in
clud
ed L
SD
, te
mpo
,co
ntin
uous
at
60%
vV
O2m
axsp
eed
and
over
-spe
ed w
ork,
and
wei
ght
trai
ning
Sm
ith e
t al
.[33]
18 M
25 ±
761
.4 ±
5.2
42
× in
terv
als
at v
VO
2max
; 1
×5.
02.
0N
orm
al t
rain
ing
not
spec
ified
MD
R/
cont
inuo
us a
t 60
% v
VO
2max
f
LDR
/Tr
Sla
win
sky
6 LD
R27
± 4
61.2
± 6
.08
2 ×
v∆50
inte
rval
s (≈
93%
0.7
2.5
3.6*
Nor
mal
tra
inin
g no
t sp
ecifi
ed.
Stu
dyet
al.[3
4]vV
O2m
ax);
3 ×
con
tinuo
us a
tco
nduc
ted
durin
g re
turn
to
trai
ning
afte
r60
–70%
vV
O2m
axre
cove
ry f
rom
com
petit
ion
perio
d
Mik
esel
l and
7 M
LD
R24
± 9
61.1
± 3
.76
3 ×
‘all-
out’
runs
(40
min
) el
iciti
ng4.
1T
rain
ing
was
alte
rnat
e da
ys o
f ru
nnin
gD
udle
y[35]
hear
t ra
tes
≥190
bpm
; 3
×an
d cy
clin
g. I
nstr
ucte
d to
run
as
far
ascy
clin
g in
terv
als
at ≈
95%
poss
ible
dur
ing
runs
. N
orm
al r
unni
ngpV
O2m
axm
ileag
e de
crea
sed
by 6
0%.
Nor
mal
trai
ning
not
spe
cifie
d
Laffi
te e
t al
.[36]
7 M
MD
R/
25 ±
460
.6 ±
4.4
82
× v∆
50 in
terv
als;
3 ×
LS
D4.
00.
65.
4*N
orm
al t
rain
ing
not
spec
ified
LDR
(v∆5
0 =
93
± 1%
)
Bic
kham
7 D
R28
± 8
58.1
± 5
.36
3 ×
sprin
t in
terv
als
(90–
100%
– 2.2
Sub
ject
s ha
d no
rec
ent
hist
ory
of s
prin
tet
al.[3
7]pe
rcei
ved
max
imum
effo
rt)
+tr
aini
ng.
Nor
mal
tra
inin
g ≈5
0 km
/wk
norm
al t
rain
ing
sub-
vLT
Spu
rrs
et a
l.[38]
8 M
DR
25 ±
457
.6 ±
7.7
6G
1: r
egul
ar e
ndur
ance
tra
inin
g6.
4– 0
.2N
orm
al t
rain
ing
= 6
0–80
km
/wk
(con
trol
s)3.
35.
7*(in
tens
ity u
nspe
cifie
d).
No
hist
ory
ofG
2: a
s G
1 +
2–3
× p
lyom
etric
stru
ctur
ed p
lyom
etric
tra
inin
gtr
aini
ng
Con
tinue
d ne
xt p
age
862 Midgley et al.
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Tab
le I
. C
ontd
Stu
dyS
ubje
ctsa
Age
(y)
Initi
al V
O2m
axS
tudy
Wee
kly
trai
ning
Mea
n %
impr
ovem
entb
Com
men
ts
[mea
n ±
(mL/
kg/m
in)
dura
tion
VO
2max
LT/O
BLA
RE
SD
]c[m
ean
± S
D]c
(wk)
Bill
at e
t al
.[39]
9 M
LD
R48
± 3
55.1
± 4
.26
2 ×
vMLS
S (
30–6
0 m
in);
3 ×
LS
D3.
6*3.
3*P
revi
ousl
y on
ly p
erfo
rmed
LS
D t
rain
ing
(vM
LSS
≈85
% V
O2m
ax)
(65
± 17
min
/wk)
. T
wo
LSD
ses
sion
sre
plac
ed b
y vM
LSS
Fra
nch
et a
l.[40]
36 M
DR
30 ±
554
.8 ±
3.0
6G
1: 3
× in
terv
als
at 1
06%
6.0*
3.0*
Tra
inin
g 4w
k be
fore
stu
dy a
vera
ged
2.2
vVO
2max
3.6*
0.9
h/w
k at
≈65
% H
Rm
ax.
The
vol
ume
ofG
2: 3
× in
terv
als
at 1
32%
5.9*
3.1*
LSD
tra
inin
g w
as a
djus
ted
so t
hat
vVO
2max
runn
ers
mai
ntai
ned
the
sam
e vo
lum
eG
3: 3
× c
ontin
uous
at
94%
as b
efor
e th
e st
udy
vVO
2max
Sub
ject
s al
so p
erfo
rmed
1–3
LSD
ses
sion
s
Hof
fman
[13]
8 M
/F D
R25
± 7
52.0
± 7
.16
G1:
1 ×
vV
T (
20 m
in)
+ n
orm
al8.
1*N
orm
al t
rain
ing
aver
aged
≈42
km
/wk
trai
ning
14.1
*(in
tens
ity n
ot s
peci
fied)
. vV
T t
rain
ing
G1:
3 ×
vV
T (
20 m
in)
+ n
orm
alre
plac
ed t
he s
ame
volu
me
of n
orm
altr
aini
ngtr
aini
ng s
o th
at s
ubje
cts
mai
ntai
ned
sam
e tr
aini
ng v
olum
e as
bef
ore
the
stud
y
Yos
hida
6 F
MD
R/
19 ±
151
.8 ±
3.2
86
× vO
BLA
(20
min
) +
nor
mal
2.5
10.3
*2.
8N
orm
al t
rain
ing
≈120
min
at
vLT
et a
l.[15]
LDR
trai
ning
(vO
BLA
≈91
% v
VO
2max
)
John
ston
6 F
DR
30 ±
250
.5 ±
5.4
10G
1: 4
–5 ×
ste
ady-
stat
e ru
nnin
g– 1
.90.
0G
1 an
d G
2 gr
oups
bot
h di
d 32
–48
km/
et a
l.[41]
(con
trol
s)– 2
.14.
0*w
k fo
r 12
wk
prio
r to
and
dur
ing
the
G2:
as
G1
+ 3
× s
tren
gth
trai
ning
stud
y. S
ubje
cts
inst
ruct
ed t
o m
aint
ain
sam
e en
dura
nce
trai
ning
as
befo
re t
hest
udy
perio
d. T
he s
tren
gth
trai
ning
was
addi
tiona
l in
G1.
Sub
ject
s ha
d no
tw
eigh
t tr
aine
d fo
r ≥3
mo
Tur
ner
et a
l.[42]
10 M
/F D
R31
± 9
50.4
± 8
.06
G1:
nor
mal
end
uran
ce t
rain
ing
0.4
0.0
Sub
ject
s in
stru
cted
to
cont
inue
nor
mal
(con
trol
s)0.
02.
3*tr
aini
ng (
not
spec
ified
)G
2: a
s G
1 +
3 ×
ply
omet
rictr
aini
ng
Con
tinue
d ne
xt p
age
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 863
an incremental exercise test can be used to approxi-mate the range of heart rates and running velocitiesin the light (or moderate), heavy and severe exerciseintensity ‘domains’ associated with continuous ex-ercise.[62,63] These domains are characterised bymarkedly different blood acid-base and pulmonarygas exchange responses.[62-64] This approach to-wards training prescription has also been used withexercise intensity domains demarcated by ventilato-ry measures such as the ventilatory threshold andrespiratory compensation point.[54,65,66] Coaches andgoverning bodies have used additional zones, butthe physiological rationale underlying this approachhas been criticised, since the zones are not based ondefinable physiological events.[49,54] Particularchronic physiological adaptations may be expectedto be largely exercise domain specific, and futureresearch should explore this possibility.
The distribution of training loads over the weeks,months and years of an athlete’s training plan is animportant but complex aspect of prescribing long-term training known as periodisation.[67] Periodisa-tion allows runners to tolerate periods of relativelyhigh training loads necessary to optimise perform-ance, by following a systematic progression in train-ing load and physiological strain, interspersed withperiods of low training loads that are necessary forregeneration to avoid overtraining.[68] Training peri-odisation originated in the former Soviet Union inthe 1950s,[69] and some degree of periodisation ap-pears to have been adopted by modern distancerunners and coaches across the world.[20,65,70] How-ever, this approach to training has been criticised,[71]
and there is currently little scientific evidence tosupport the effectiveness of periodised training. It isparticularly noteworthy that world-class Africanrunners typically have not followed periodised train-ing plans.[71] Finally, it is important to highlight thatthe total training load that can be tolerated and thatresults in peak performance is specific to each indi-vidual.[72]
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Tab
le I
. C
ontd
Stu
dyS
ubje
ctsa
Age
(y)
Initi
al V
O2m
axS
tudy
Wee
kly
trai
ning
Mea
n %
impr
ovem
entb
Com
men
ts
[mea
n ±
(mL/
kg/m
in)
dura
tion
VO
2max
LT/O
BLA
RE
SD
]c[m
ean
± S
D]c
(wk)
Ols
en e
t al
.[43]
12 M
DR
25 ±
445
.9 ±
3.6
8G
1: 2
× in
terv
als
at 9
2%6.
2R
ecre
atio
nal r
unne
rs.
Nor
mal
tra
inin
g =
vVO
2max
+ 3
.2 k
m ‘a
ll-ou
t’ ru
n5.
4*24
–40
km/w
k (in
tens
ity n
ot s
peci
fied)
G2:
2 ×
inte
rval
s at
100
%vV
O2m
ax +
3.2
km
‘all-
out’
run
aE
xclu
ding
any
con
trol
sub
ject
s.
bW
here
per
cent
age
impr
ovem
ent
was
not
rep
orte
d, it
was
cal
cula
ted
usin
g th
e fo
llow
ing
equa
tion:
cha
nge
scor
e/in
itial
sco
re *
100
.
cT
he r
ange
is in
clud
ed w
here
eith
er t
he m
ean
or S
D w
as n
ot r
epor
ted.
d3k
m r
ace
pace
≈10
0% V
O2m
ax,
10km
rac
e pa
ce ≈
89%
VO
2max
.[26]
eT
rue
trea
tmen
t ef
fect
like
ly,
base
d on
90%
con
fiden
ce li
mits
.
fT
wo
expe
rimen
tal g
roup
s w
ere
used
but
onl
y a
smal
l diff
eren
ce in
the
inte
rval
leng
th s
epar
ated
the
tw
o gr
oups
.
bp
m =
bea
ts p
er m
inut
e; C
CR
= c
ross
-cou
ntry
run
ners
; DR
= d
ista
nce
runn
ers
(spe
cial
ity d
ista
nce
not s
peci
fied)
; F =
fem
ale;
G =
gro
up; H
Rm
ax =
max
imal
hea
rt r
ate;
LD
R =
long
-di
stan
ce r
unne
rs; L
SD
= lo
ng s
low
dis
tanc
e; L
T =
lact
ate
thre
shol
d; M
= m
ale;
MD
R =
mid
dle-
dist
ance
run
ners
; pV
O2m
ax =
pow
er o
utpu
t at V
O2m
ax; R
E =
run
ning
eco
nom
y; T
r =
tria
thle
tes;
v∆5
0 =
vel
ocity
mid
way
bet
wee
n vL
T a
nd v
VO
2max
; vL
T =
vel
ocity
at t
he la
ctat
e th
resh
old;
vM
LS
S =
vel
ocity
at t
he m
axim
al la
ctat
e st
eady
-sta
te; v
OB
LA
= v
eloc
ity a
tth
e on
set
of b
lood
lact
ate
accu
mul
atio
n; v
VO
2max
= v
eloc
ity a
t V
O2m
ax;
vVT
= v
eloc
ity a
t th
e ve
ntila
tory
thr
esho
ld;
* in
dica
tes
stat
istic
ally
sig
nific
ant.
864 Midgley et al.
higher than that previously performed. The VO2max
enhancement may therefore have been related to anincreased training intensity rather than an increase intraining volume. Well trained runners in anotherstudy demonstrated no increase in VO2max in re-sponse to a >2-fold increase in training volume,even though training intensity was increased simul-taneously.[30] However, the percentage increase intraining volume was in relation to a 2-month pre-experimental period during which subjects were re-stricted to 20–30 km/week of easy running. Thefindings are therefore difficult to interpret. There islittle experimental evidence that increasing the vol-ume of LSD training is either effective or ineffectivefor enhancing the VO2max of well trained distancerunners, and more research is required. There is alsoan interest in identifying whether there is an LSDtraining volume threshold, beyond which noVO2max enhancement will occur.[82]
Training intensity has been regarded as the mostimportant variable that can be manipulated for
Trainingstatus
Trainingintensity
Intensity and durationthresholds attained or
surpassed
Chronic adaptiveresponse
Enhanced functionalcapacity
Performanceenhancement
Trainingduration
Adequaterecovery
Fig. 2. Model of the threshold concept relating to training-inducedstimuli (physiological stress) leading to physiological adaptationand enhanced running performance. Note that the adaptationthreshold is specific to an individual runner and the runner’s trainingstatus at any given time. VO2max enhancement,[83-85] and may explain the
increase in VO2max of distance runners during the3. Enhancing the Maximal transition between the off-season and pre-competi-Oxygen Uptake tive period, during which training intensity is typi-
cally increased.[86-89] Accordingly, some authorshave suggested that to enhance VO2max, runnersDistance runners and their coaches have typicallyshould train at 90–100% VO2max,[85] or that trainingfavoured long slow distance (LSD) training andat or very close to VO2max is most effective forcomparatively little time has been allocated to high-enhancing VO2max.[90-95] Billat et al.[45] reported thatintensity training.[70,73-75] LSD training involves rel-the VO2max of well trained distance runners in-atively high mileage of moderately paced run-creased by 5.4% (p < 0.05) in response to the inclu-ning.[22] Increasing the volume of LSD training hassion of training between 90–100% VO2max, despitebeen suggested to be ineffective for enhancing thea 10% decrease in training volume. Several otherVO2max of already well trained athletes,[76] and maystudies that incorporated training intensities ofexplain the observation that the enhancement of the90–100% VO2max reported similar but statisticallyVO2max of some well trained distance runners hasinsignificant increases in VO2max.[32,33,35,36] The sta-seemingly reached a plateau.[77-81] However, Tanakatistically insignificant results may have been type IIet al.[29] reported that increasing the training volumeerrors due to the small sample sizes and associatedof well trained distance runners from 90 to 120 km/low statistical power, making interpretation of theweek resulted in a statistically significant 4.8% in-findings difficult. Acevedo and Goldfarb[28] reportedcrease in VO2max. This study also incorporated 2that the inclusion of training close to VO2max did notdays per week of training slightly above the lactateenhance the VO2max of well trained distance run-threshold velocity (vLT), and since the runners’ners. The contrasting findings of Billat et al.[45] andnormal training was not specified, it is not knownAcevedo and Goldfarb[28] cannot be explained atwhether this represented a training intensity that was
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 865
present and do not appear to be related to the initial 95–100% VO2max has been found most effective inenhancing the VO2max of distance runners, extrapo-VO2max of the runners or the volume of high-inten-lating those findings to all protocols that allow simi-sity training performed during the study period. Twolar amounts of time at 95–100% VO2max would bestudies have reported statistically significant in-invalid.creases in the VO2max of runners in response to the
addition of training at approximately 70% and 85% Moffatt et al.[106] speculated that as VO2max isVO2max.[29,39] These studies highlight that the opti- approached, the differentiation between stimuli de-mal training intensity for enhancing the VO2max of creases. Olsen et al.[43] reported no difference in thetrained distance runners may not lie between 90% increase in VO2max of runners who trained at 92% orand 100% VO2max. Since no studies involving 100% of the velocity associated with VO2maxtrained runners have compared training at 90–100% (vVO2max), therefore supporting this view. Howev-VO2max with training intensities below this range, er, training at 92% vVO2max has been shown tothe relative efficacy of the two approaches is pres- elicit VO2max.[107] The study by Olsen et al.[43] there-ently unknown. fore does not oppose the view held by some[76,91] that
training at VO2max is optimal, or even obligatory,Midgley et al.[16] suggested that training at orfor enhancing the VO2max of well trained runners.near VO2max should place maximal stress on the
physiological processes and structures that limit Two studies that investigated intermittent train-ing at 100% VO2max reported that the mean time ranVO2max, providing the optimal stimulus for adapta-at vVO2max was 9[108] and 9.5 minutes.[109] Distancetion. In trained individuals, myocardial pressure andrunners with large differences between their vLTvolume overload reach their maximal values at theand work interval velocity have been reported toexercise intensity associated with the attainment ofhave particularly low times to exhaustion duringVO2max.[96,97] This mechanical overload is the mainintermittent training protocols designed to elicitstimulus for myocardial adaptation associated withVO2max.[110] If training at VO2max is found to be thethe enhancement of the maximal stroke vol-optimal stimulus for VO2max enhancement, it wouldume.[98,99] Since the maximal stroke volume istherefore be questionable whether the relatively lowthought to predominantly limit VO2max in relativelyvolume of high-intensity training is sufficient towell trained individuals,[100,101] training at VO2maxprovide the optimal training effect. If the durationwould appear to be the optimal stimulus for VO2maxthreshold could not be attained during training atenhancement. However, this physiological rationaleVO2max, no VO2max enhancement would occur.was based on studies that investigated the physio-Conversely, only short periods may be needed atlogical responses to incremental exercise. SinceVO2max in order to enhance VO2max, since high-training protocols used by distance runners that in-intensity training may be particularly potent in elic-clude velocities that elicit VO2max are typically in-iting physiological adaptation.[111] Further trainingtermittent,[102] the validity of applying this physio-studies and research investigating acute and chroniclogical rationale to intermittent training protocols isadaptive responses to constant and intermittent run-questionable. Furthermore, intermittent training pro-ning protocols ≤100% VO2max are required.tocols that elicit VO2max can vary considerably.[103]
Astrand et al.[104] reported that subjects elicited If high-intensity training is a potent signal inVO2max during intermittent running with 10-second eliciting chronic adaptive responses,[111] supra-intervals. MacDougall and Sale[105] suggested that vVO2max training velocities may be considered ef-the oxidative stress during such short intervals fective for enhancing VO2max. There is no theoreti-would be less than for 2- to 3-minute intervals, since cal basis to support such a premise, since theremuch of the energy requirement of the work interval would be no additional stress on the oxygen trans-is derived from hydrolysis of phosphocreatine and port system compared with maximal exercise,[16]
oxygen bound to myoglobin. Even if eliciting and the greater proportional contribution of anaer-
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
866 Midgley et al.
obic metabolism would considerably reduce time to programme,[115] the long-term effects of resistancetraining on the body mass and VO2max of distanceexhaustion.[103] Bickham et al.[37] found that VO2maxrunners requires investigation. Furthermore, the fe-did not change when 5- to 15-second sprint intervalsmale distance runners in the study by Johnston et(work : relief ratios between 1 : 5 and 1 : 3) wereal.[41] demonstrated a mean 1.3kg increase in bodyadded to the training programmes of distance run-mass. Although this was statistically insignificant,ners who previously performed only LSD training.the experimental group included only six subjectsSimilar results have been reported for well trainedand therefore may have been a type II error.cyclists, triathletes and duathletes.[92] However,
In summary, some authors have suggested thatFranch et al.[40] reported a significant increase in thetraining at or near VO2max is optimal for enhancingVO2max of runners with a similar initial VO2max andthe VO2max of athletes,[90-95] and that increasing thetraining history to those used in the study byvolume of submaximal training is ineffective.[76]Bickham et al.,[37] in response to the inclusion ofHowever, submaximal,[29,39] maximal[45] andintermittent running incorporating 15-second worksupramaximal[40] training intensities have all beenintervals at 132% vVO2max (work : relief intervalshown to enhance the VO2max of distance runners.ratio 1 : 1). Very high-intensity training may there-Since only two studies[40,43] have compared differentfore enhance the VO2max of distance runners only iftraining intensities, the relative efficacy of a particu-relief intervals between work bouts are short. Franchlar training intensity is unknown. Different forms ofet al.[40] reported that interval training at 106%resistance training have consistently been reportedVO2max resulted in significantly greater increases into be ineffective in enhancing the VO2max of dis-VO2max than interval training at 136% VO2max.tance runners.Although this suggests that very high-intensity
training is not optimal for enhancing VO2max, this4. Enhancing the Lactate Thresholdtype of training may have other important benefits,
such as eliciting improvement in the so-called mus-Although the role of lactate as a cause of fatiguecle power factors.[112]
during physical activity is still a controversial is-There is no physiological rationale to suggest that sue,[116-118] scientists widely agree that an increase in
resistance training would be effective for enhancing the lactate threshold typically results in improvedthe VO2max of distance runners. Burleson Jr et endurance performance.[21,64,119-121] Anecdotal evi-al.[113] reported that the average exercise intensity dence supports the view traditionally held by dis-during a traditional strength training session was tance runners and running coaches that prolonged,only 44% VO2max. Accordingly, studies have con- moderate-intensity running is optimal for enhancingsistently demonstrated that adding traditional the lactate threshold.[105,122] However, a 103% in-strength training or plyometric training to the train- crease in the volume of sub-lactate threshold train-ing programmes of distance runners does not en- ing over 4 weeks did not enhance the lactate thresh-hance VO2max.[31,38,41,42] The increased muscle mass old of well trained distance runners.[25] The shortassociated with traditional strength training[114] study duration may explain the absence of any de-could potentially reduce the relative VO2max of dis- tectable change in the lactate threshold. The obser-tance runners. Body mass did not significantly vation that long-distance runners typically possesschange in any training studies involving the addition higher lactate thresholds than middle-distance run-of resistance training to runners’ normal training ners has been suggested to be indirect evidence thatprogrammes.[27,31,38,41,42] However, these studies high volumes of sub-lactate threshold training arewere only between 6 and 10 weeks in duration. effective in enhancing the lactate threshold.[120] TheSince neural adaptation and not skeletal muscle hy- basis for this premise was that long-distance runnerspertrophy is the predominant source of the increased predominantly perform LSD training, whereas mid-strength in the early stages of a resistance training dle-distance runners tend to rely more on interval
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 867
training at or close to VO2max.[120] Natural selection increased the oxygen uptake (VO2) at the lactatemay be an alternative explanation for differences in threshold by 48% in untrained college women, com-the lactate thresholds of middle- and long-distance pared with an insignificant 18% increase in therunners and challenges the hypothesis of MacDou- group that trained at the vLT (≈44% VO2max). In agall.[120] A runner with a genetically determined high study by Weltman et al.,[126] subjects training at thepreponderance of slow-twitch skeletal muscle fibres lactate threshold intensity demonstrated a plateau inwould probably possess a relatively high lactate lactate threshold enhancement after 4 months,threshold,[123] would more likely perform better in whereas subjects training at supra-lactate thresholdlong-distance running events,[3-5] and would there- intensities demonstrated continued improvementfore more likely compete in these events. We could over the next 8 months of the study period. Anotherfind no experimental evidence to support the pre- study reported that supra-lactate threshold trainingmise that prolonged moderate-intensity exercise is was no more effective for enhancing the lactateeffective for enhancing the lactate threshold of dis- threshold than sub-lactate threshold training.[127] Totance runners. our knowledge, only one study that involved trained
runners has reported the enhancement of the lactateSeveral authors have suggested that training canthreshold in response to the inclusion of training atbe effectively prescribed based on the blood lactateor slightly above vLT.[29] Although this study high-response to an incremental exercise test.[124-126]
lights that training at or slightly above the lactateMany training intervention studies have used thisthreshold may enhance the lactate threshold of wellapproach to prescribe training loads (table I). How-trained distance runners, only one experimentalever, Hawley[11] stated that there was no scientificgroup was used. The relative efficacy of training atevidence to support the use of blood lactate re-or slightly above the lactate threshold, for enhancingsponses to exercise tests for training prescription.the lactate threshold of trained distance runners, isUntrained women demonstrated a significant in-therefore unknown.crease in the lactate threshold during 4 months of
training at lactate threshold intensity; however, there Several studies involving runners incorporatedwas no further enhancement during the following 8 higher training velocities, with contrasting re-months of training.[126] This study suggests that sults.[15,34,36,39] Two studies that incorporated inter-training at the vLT would probably be ineffective mittent running at v∆50 (the velocity midway be-for enhancing the lactate threshold of distance run- tween vLT and vVO2max) reported no significantners. The basis for this statement is that distance increase in the lactate threshold.[34,36] Two otherrunners typically have a history of relatively high studies incorporating intermittent runs at the veloci-volumes of this type of training[15] and so the rate of ties at the maximal lactate steady-state (vMLSS) andadaptive responses has probably already reached a onset of blood lactate accumulation (vOBLA) re-plateau.[76] However, the addition of very long runs ported significant increases in lactate threshold.[15,39]
at or below the vLT (over-distance training) to the Since the duration of the studies and the relativetraining programmes of distance runners, who habit- training intensity expressed as a percentage ofually undertake high training mileages, may en- VO2max were similar between studies, these factorshance the lactate threshold; future research could did not appear to explain the contrasting findings.investigate this possibility. The study that reported the largest mean increase in
the lactate threshold of 10.6% involved 20 minutesWells and Pate[22] suggested that training slightlyof running at vOBLA for 6 days per week, in addi-above the vLT is effective for enhancing the lactatetion to the runners’ normal training.[15] This volumethreshold of endurance athletes. However, this as-of additional high-intensity training (≈91% VO2max)sertion appears to be based on the training responsesmay explain the large increase in the lactate thresh-of untrained individuals. Henritze et al.[125] reported
that training slightly above vLT (≈59% VO2max) old in these runners. The subjects in the second
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
868 Midgley et al.
study that reported a significant increase in the lac- lactate threshold. However, only four of the studiestate threshold had a previous history of performing reviewed involved well trained individuals, and onlyonly LSD training.[39] Runners who favour high one of these studies involved training above OBLAvolumes of moderate-intensity training and do not (≈85% VO2max),[24,39] making this supposition ques-engage in relatively high-intensity training may tionable. If well trained runners do require highdemonstrate a plateau in lactate threshold enhance- relative training intensities to enhance the lactatement.[76] Since the LSD training was performed at an threshold, the physiological basis for this is unclear.average of 12.4 km/h, the addition of 2 days per One explanation is that distance runners typicallyweek of training at the vMLSS (average 13.8 km/h) perform high weekly training loads,[1,45,129] with lit-may have provided an unaccustomed training stimu- tle time allocated to high-intensity training.[73,75,130]
lus resulting in lactate threshold enhancement. Since type II skeletal muscle fibres are not recruitedto any great extent until around 90% VO2max,[131]
Londeree[17] suggested that the lactate thresholdthese fibres may be relatively untrained comparedand fixed blood lactate concentrations respondedwith the frequently recruited type I fibres. Trainingsimilarly to training and should not confound theresponses associated with lactate threshold enhance-interpretation of training studies. This is highlightedment are thought to be related to skeletal musclein figure 3 by a rightward shift of the whole bloodadaptations (table II) that reduce lactate productionlactate curve, and is characteristic of the trainingand increase its disposal at higher running veloci-response of trained distance runners.[15,28,64] By in-ties.[132] The high-intensity training required for lac-ference from reported changes in OBLA, two fur-tate threshold enhancement suggested by Londe-ther studies involving well trained distance runnersree[17] may therefore be related to these trainingdemonstrated statistically significant increases inadaptations in type II skeletal muscle fibres. Mac-the lactate threshold,[24,28] and one study reported aDougall[120] presented this hypothesis almost 30statistically insignificant change.[23] Since theseyears ago and recommended that work intervals ofstudies all involved similarly intense training and2–3 minutes duration at 90–100% VO2max would besimilarly well trained runners, the reason for themost effective for lactate threshold enhancement.contrasting findings cannot be ascertained.Since some well trained runners possess lactate
A meta-analysis by Londeree[17] concluded that thresholds at or close to 90% VO2max,[75,82] traininghighly trained individuals may need to train at much slightly above the lactate threshold would representhigher than lactate threshold intensity to enhance the high-intensity training for these runners. An alterna-
tive explanation is that these physiological adapta-tions are elicited by an elevated lactate concentra-tion associated with high-intensity exercise. Ma-der[133] stated that lactate does not elicit adaptiveresponses that enhance endurance performance, butdid not provide empirical or theoretical support forthis view. Intuitively, lactate would be a prime can-didate molecule for gene induction that resulted inadaptations associated with lactate threshold en-hancement. However, if elevated blood lactate con-centrations are necessary to enhance the lactatethreshold, some distance runners may need to trainat high percentages of VO2max. Weltman et al.[58]
reported that 20 of 31 runners had blood lactateconcentrations <2.5 mmol/L at a running velocityassociated with 90% VO2max, and 10 of the 31
16 Before trainingAfter training
Blo
od la
ctat
e co
ncen
trat
ion
(mm
ol/L
)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
00.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
VO2 (L/min)
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5·
Fig. 3. A downward and rightward shift of the mean blood lactatecurve of ten male students in response to 16 weeks of physicaltraining. The error bars represent the standard deviation of themean.[128] VO2 = oxygen uptake.
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 869
Table II. Training-induced adaptations that have been associated with the enhancement of the maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), lactatethreshold and running economy
Training adaptation Physiological significance
VO2max
Increased left ventricular chamber size and wall thickness[134] Increased maximal stroke volume[135]
Increased erythrocyte mass[136] Increased blood volume, maximal stroke volume and arterial oxygencontent[137]
Increased plasma volume[138] Increased blood volume and maximal stroke volume[137]
Increased skeletal muscle capillarity[139] Increased oxygen diffusion and uptake for any given arterial pO2
and blood flow[140]
Increased skeletal muscle mitochondrial density and oxidative Increased VO2 and widening of the maximal arterial-mixed venousenzyme concentration[24,141] oxygen difference[142]
Increased myoglobin concentration[143] Facilitation of oxygen diffusion from the sarcolemma to themitochondria. Increased VO2 for any given pO2 and blood flow.Increased maximal arterial-mixed venous oxygen difference[144]
Lactate threshold
Decreased PFK-1 concentration and PFK-1 : CS ratio[24] Decreased lactate production[24]
Increased skeletal muscle mitochondrial density and oxidative Increased percentage of pyruvate that enters the Krebs cycle, asenzyme concentration[24,141] opposed to lactate formation through the LDH reaction[24]
Increased β-oxidation enzymes[24] Increased lipid oxidation, decreased demand for carbohydratemetabolism and decreased lactate production[145]
Change in LDH expression that favours the heart isoform[24] Decreased pyruvate-to-lactate conversion rate[24]
Increased MCT expression[146] Increased lactate disposal[146]
Increased muscle strength[147] Reduced recruitment of type II skeletal muscle fibres and reducedblood flow occlusion[147]
Running economy
Change in the expression of fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibres Reduced energy cost for developing a particular level of force[148]a
towards a more slow-twitch phenotype[146]
Decreased minute ventilation for a particular running velocity[40] Reduced respiratory energy demand[40]
Improved mechanical efficiency[149] Reduced whole body energy demand[150]
Increased musculotendonous stiffness[38] Increased storage and return of elastic energy and musclestabilising activity[151]
a Based on research involving mouse skeletal muscle.
CS = citrate synthase; LDH = lactate dehydrogenase; MCT = monocarboxylate transporter; PFK-1 = phosphofructokinase-1; pO2 = partialpressure of oxygen; VO2 = oxygen uptake.
runners at 95% VO2max. Consequently, the same distance runners in response to replacing part oftraining intensity (i.e. 90–100% VO2max) could be their normal training with resistance training, con-optimal for the enhancement of the lactate threshold sisting of single-leg jumps and maximal effortand the VO2max of well trained runners. Empirical tethered treadmill running. The control group, whoresearch is required to investigate this hypothesis. performed only their normal training, demonstrated
a 0.5% increase in vOBLA. The 90% confidenceMarcinik et al.[147] reported a significant 12%limits highlighted that the difference betweenincrease in the lactate threshold of sedentary malesgroups was likely to be a true treatment effect.in response to a 12-week traditional resistance train-Conversely, Paavolainen et al.[31] reported that theing programme. The authors suggested that the im-lactate threshold did not change when 32% of theprovement in lactate threshold may have been relat-runners’ normal run training was replaced withed to increased muscle strength, an associated atten-sport-specific explosive resistance training. The im-uation of blood flow occlusion, and a decrease inprovement in the study by Hamilton et al.[27] maytype II skeletal muscle fibre recruitment. Hamilton
et al.[27] reported a 4% increase in the vOBLA of have been due to the combination of high resistance
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870 Midgley et al.
and movement specificity afforded by the tethered cantly correlated (r = 0.62) with running economy inrunning, compared with the plyometric training and relatively well trained distance runners. The critical-sprints performed in the study by Paavolainen et ly important factor in the enhancement of runningal.[31] Alternatively, the apparent lack of improve- economy may therefore be the cumulative distancement in the VO2 at the lactate threshold in the study the runner has covered over the years of training andby Paavolainen et al.[31] may have been an artefact of not training volume per se. This may be due tothe 7.7% improvement in running economy. The continued long-term adaptations in skeletal musclelactate threshold, expressed as VO2 or running ve- (table II), or a slow but progressive long-term im-locity, is dependent on running economy, with im- provement in mechanical efficiency.[149] If the cu-proved running economy tending to increase the mulative distance the runner has covered over thevelocity at lactate threshold[152] and decrease the years of training is a determinant of running econo-VO2 at the lactate threshold.[153] Further research is my, a tendency for older runners to have betterclearly required to investigate the efficacy of differ- running economy than younger runners may be ex-ent types and volumes of resistance training for pected. However, running economy has been foundenhancing the lactate threshold of distance runners. to be negatively associated with age in runners aged
In summary, we found only one study that inves- 20–60 years.[155] This has been suggested to be duetigated the effects of an increase in the volume of to a reduced ability to store and use elastic ener-sub-vLT or vLT training on the lactate threshold of gy.[155] Further research is required to investigate thedistance runners.[25] This study reported no signifi- relationship between running economy and cumula-cant increase in the lactate threshold. Several train- tive training distance.ing studies have reported a significant increase in
Studies that have incorporated relatively high-the lactate threshold of distance runners in responseintensity training into the training programmes ofto the inclusion of supra-vLT training veloci-distance runners have reported equivocal results inties,[15,29,39] although these findings have not beenrelation to improving running economy. Intervalconsistent.[34,36] Similar contrasting findings havetraining at 93–106% VO2max[23,34,36,40] and continu-also been reported with studies that added resistanceous running at vOBLA[24] have been shown to im-training to the training programmes of distance run-prove running economy significantly. Other studiesners.[27,31] This limited and contrasting researchusing similar training intensities have reported nohighlights the need for further studies.significant improvement.[15,33] However, some ofthe studies that found contrasting findings actually5. Enhancing Running Economyreported similar improvements in running econo-my,[15,24,33,40] and the contrasting findings were actu-There is a belief that, over time, runners adoptally an artefact of statistical power. These studiestheir most economical running style.[149] According-therefore indicate that high-intensity training im-ly, high training volumes and the number of years ofproves running economy, but they do not allowrunning experience have been suggested to be im-evaluation of its relative efficacy. Additionally,portant for improved running economy.[154] Pate etwhereas VO2max has been shown to increase signifi-al.[155] reported that training volume was not associ-cantly during the transition between the off-seasonated with better running economy, even after con-and pre-competitive period, during which trainingtrolling for potential confounding variables. Howev-intensity is increased,[86-89] the same studies reporteder, no training intervention studies that measuredeither a significant improvement[87,88] or norunning economy have increased the training vol-change[86,89] in running economy. Further research isume of runners while maintaining the same meantherefore required to establish the relative efficacytraining intensity, so the effect of increasing trainingof high-intensity training for improving the runningvolume on running economy is not known. May-economy of long-distance runners. Franch et al.[40]hew[156] found that the years of training was signifi-
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Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 871
compared interval training at 94%, 106% and 132% importance to runners who are reluctant to engage inVO2max and found that running economy signifi- traditional resistance training. Increased resistancecantly improved in the 94% and 106% groups, but to movement may also be attained by hill training,not in the group that trained at 132% VO2max. This bungee running and running in sand. Uphill runningsuggests that very high-intensity running is not ef- and bounding have been used to enhance thefective in improving running economy, possibly due strength of distance runners,[161] whereas Billat[162]
to a loss of running form at very high running suggested that high-velocity running exerts similarvelocities, or an inability to complete a sufficient training effects as resistance training in distancetraining volume to elicit a training effect. runners. These training methods may prove to be
more effective alternative forms of resistance train-Jones and Carter[157] suggested that runners areing due to higher levels of movement specificity.typically most economical at the running velocitiesHowever, no training studies have investigated theseat which they habitually train. Since running econo-alternative forms of training for improving the run-my is only of practical importance at intended racening economy of runners. Further research is clearlypace, this would suggest that training at intendedrequired to investigate the relative efficacy of differ-race pace is optimal for enhancing running econo-ent forms of resistance training for improving run-my. Although intuitively this would seem correct, toning economy.our knowledge no studies have investigated the
specificity of training velocity on running economy. Stretching is recommended to runners to preventIn fact, Morgan et al.[158] suggested that the type of injury and improve performance.[163] Two studiesrun training exerts a negligible effect on improving have reported that flexibility was inversely related torunning economy, based on the observation that running economy in trained distance runners,[151,164]
several studies reported no differences in the run- indicating that runners should perform little or noning economy of distance runners despite the run- stretching, to prevent decrements in running per-ners engaging in different training. formance due to decreased running economy. Fur-
thermore, there is currently no scientific evidence toAlthough the addition of traditional strengthsupport the premise that stretching reduces injurytraining and plyometric training to the trainingrisk in runners.[165] Craib et al.[151] hypothesised thatprogrammes of distance runners has been shown notless flexibility minimised muscle stabilising activityto enhance VO2max,[31,38,41,42] a significant improve-and increased the storage and return of elastic ener-ment in running economy has consistently beengy. However, two studies found no relationship be-reported.[31,38,41,42] The authors suggested thattween flexibility and running economy in run-greater mechanical efficiency resulting from in-ners.[155,166] A 10-week chronic stretching pro-creased muscle strength, improved motor unit re-gramme significantly increased flexibility, butcruitment patterns and increased tendon stiffnessrunning economy remained unchanged.[167] The re-were possible explanations for the improved run-lationship between flexibility and running economyning economy.[31,38,41] Although resistance trainingis therefore currently unclear and further studies aremay appear to be an effective training method torequired.enhance the performance of distance runners, the
long-term effects of different forms of resistance In summary, high training volumes have beentraining have not been investigated. Traditional suggested to be effective for improving runningstrength training may eventually lead to an increased economy,[154] although no studies that increasedbody mass,[159] which may impair performance.[160] training volume while maintaining a constant train-Plyometric training may avoid this potential prob- ing intensity have been conducted to support thislem and has the benefit of being able to be incorpo- view. The inclusion of high-intensity interval train-rated into the warm-up or cool-down of a running ing,[23,34,36,40] continuous running at vOBLA,[24] andworkout.[42] This latter point may be of particular resistance training[31,38,41,42] in the training program-
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
872 Midgley et al.
mes of distance runners have been shown to im- period could profoundly affect training responsesprove running economy. However, no studies have during the study period. For example, if high-inten-compared the relative efficacy of the different forms sity training bouts were added to runners’ ‘normalof resistance training, and there has been limited training’, runners who have previously performedresearch[40] investigating the relative efficacy of dif- only LSD training[74,75] would probably demonstrateferent training intensities on the running economy of greater training responses than those who have al-distance runners. ready habitually performed high-intensity training.
The same would probably be true for runners stud-6. Can Valid Training Recommendations ied in the off-season compared with the pre-compet-be Given to Runners and Coaches itive phase of training. There is also the possibilityBased on Current Scientific Knowledge? that the training intervention used in some of the
studies in table I did not involve an appreciableThere have been relatively few long-term train- change in training intensity or volume for some of
ing studies involving trained distance runners.[78-81]the runners. This inability to compare the runners’
This lack of long-term training studies has been training before and during the training interventionperceived as a major limitation in characterising period is probably the main factor that hinders theeffective training methods for enhancing the physio- interpretation of previous training intervention stud-logical determinants of long-distance running per- ies. Researchers are therefore encouraged to reportformance.[19] Although we agree with this view, as much detail as practically possible relating to thetraining studies of 4–8 weeks duration, which ac- training history of subjects involved in training stud-count for 19 of the 23 studies in table I, may still be ies. A washout period has been used to minimise theinsightful. Runners often target specific physiologi- influence of the runners’ previous training on thecal performance determinants during training cycles responses to a training intervention.[30] This in-of similar duration.[20,65,70] However, when consider- volved 2 months of 20–30km per week of easying both short- and long-term training studies in- running. A limitation to this approach is that mostvolving runners, there have still been relatively few. runners will probably be unwilling to undertake aThis may be due to the reluctance of runners to have long period of low-intensity, low-volume training.scientists dictate their training schedules over the Furthermore, a washout period reduces ecologicalstudy period.[21] Consequently, it would be difficult
validity since runners would not normally undertaketo argue against the view that there is insufficient
such low training loads.direct scientific evidence to formulate training rec-
Arguably the second greatest limitation in theommendations based on this limited research. Thisinterpretation of the studies summarised in table I isis particularly evident when considering the manythat only 5 of the 23 studies[13,14,33,40,43] includedmethodological factors associated with these train-more than one experimental group. Consequently,ing studies that make interpretation of the findingsthere is no comparison to allow the evaluation of thedifficult (summarised in table III). Previous studies,relative efficacy of a particular training intervention.for example, mostly did not control the runners’If a training intervention study was conducted in thetraining load, and sometimes the basis of the trainingrunners’ off-season, for example, any increase instudy was to include one or more specific bouts oftraining volume or intensity may enhance the physi-training in addition to the runner’s ‘normal train-ological determinants of performance, regardless ofing’,[13,15,24,29,37] which was typically not describedthe specific characteristics of that intervention. Re-or only briefly described (table IV). The trainingsearchers are therefore encouraged to include atstatus of the runners (e.g. off-season, pre-competi-least two experimental groups with clearly definedtive training phase) during the study period wasdifferences in the training programmes of theseldom reported (table IV). The nature of the train-groups. Presenting at least one clear hypothesis,ing in the weeks, months and years before the study
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 873
Table III. Potential limitations to some of the training intervention studies included in table I that make interpretation of the findings difficult
Factor Impact on interpretation of results
Subjects’ prior training not Does not allow evaluation of how the runners’ training programmes have changed due to the trainingdescribed intervention
No control group Does not allow identification of any increase in a dependent variablea not due to the experimentaltreatment (e.g. learning effect during repeated testing)
Only one experimental group Does not allow evaluation of the relative efficacy of an experimental treatment in enhancing aparticular dependent variablea
Small sample size Low statistical power that increases the type II error rate (i.e. an increased chance that the authorsof a training study declare that no change has occurred in the dependent variable,a when in reality achange has occurred). This is particularly relevant to studies that have investigated interactioneffects (time × group) between control and experimental groups
Degree of compliance with Lack of compliance to the training intervention could result in more or less training being completedtraining programme not than expected, or could result in the inclusion of a type or intensity of training that the runner shouldmonitored/reported not have been doing. For example, Smith et al.[33] stated that in their previous training study[32] some
runners performed additional training because they thought the prescribed training volume wasinsufficient
Inappropriate test methodology Decreases the chance of detecting a change in a dependent variablea if it has occurred. Forexample, using an inclined treadmill test for runners who have trained on relatively levelsurfaces[24,28,30]
Inappropriate units of Relative VO2max can change due to training-induced changes in body mass and does not reflect ameasurement change in cardiorespiratory fitness. Changes in absolute VO2max should therefore be reported. A
training-induced increase in fat oxidation would tend to increase submaximal VO2[168] and would tendto mask any improvement in running economy. Applying a correction factor to the VO2 value basedon the change in the respiratory exchange ratio would increase the validity of running economymeasurements
Interaction between dependent The lactate threshold expressed in relation to VO2 or running speed is dependent on runningvariablesa economy.[152] Improved running economy tends to decrease the lactate threshold when expressed as
VO2, and increase it when expressed as a velocity
Subject pre-test preparation not Increases the noise in detecting changes in a dependent variable.a For example, differences incontrolled/reported muscle glycogen concentration from variations in dietary carbohydrate intake may alter the
measurement of the lactate threshold pre- and post-experimental treatment[169]
Subject habituation to test A change in a particular dependent variablea could be due to a learning effect rather than a trueprocedures and equipment not training effect in runners who are not adequately habituatedconducted/reported
a Dependent variables refer to VO2max, lactate threshold and running economy.
VO2 = oxygen uptake; VO2max = maximal oxygen uptake.
based on previous experimental research or some resistance training. However, it is not known whichtheoretical physiological rationale, should also aid type of resistance training is most effective, or howin the interpretation of the findings. resistance training loads and types should be inte-
grated into the different phases of a training plan.[170]Several studies incorporated resistance training
Furthermore, the studies highlighted above were ofinto the training programmes of runners and includ-only 6–10 weeks duration, and any negative long-ed a control group that maintained only their normalterms effects are unknown.run training.[27,31,38,41,42] These studies provide an
insight into the effectiveness of resistance training Much of the current knowledge relating to chron-for enhancing the physiological determinants of ic adaptive responses to training has been derivedlong-distance running performance. Resistance from studies using sedentary individuals. For exam-training has consistently been shown to improve the ple, the belief that training slightly above the lactaterunning economy of trained runners,[31,38,41,42] and threshold is optimal for enhancing the lactate thresh-this would indicate that scientists should recom- old[22] appears to have been based on studies involv-mend that runners routinely undertake some sort of ing sedentary individuals.[125,126] To our knowledge,
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
874 Midgley et al.
improving running economy;[174] however, no train-ing studies have investigated this premise. Othertraining methods that have not been investigated intraining studies using runners are over-speed train-ing using declined running and bungee ropes, over-distance training, and running in sand. Valid recom-mendations cannot be given to runners or coachesregarding the efficacy of some of these ‘novel’training methods until appropriate research has beenconducted.
Although scientists are unlikely to be able to
Table IV. Number of training intervention studies (out of 23) involv-ing distance runners that reported particular details of the runners’training prior to participation in the study
Aspect of previous training No. ofstudies
Weekly training distance 10
Training intensities 3
Weekly training distance and training intensities 0
Weekly training time 2
Type of training (e.g. interval training, hill work, 1resistance training)
Stage of training (e.g. off-season, pre-competition 5phase)a
a At the time of commencing participation in the study.formulate valid training recommendations basedsolely on ‘direct’ scientific evidence (i.e. training
no studies involving runners have corroborated studies), other sources of scientific knowledge arethese findings. However, although we cannot as- available. The physiological structures and process-sume that trained individuals respond in the same es that limit VO2max, the lactate threshold and run-way as sedentary individuals, little research has so ning economy, and the adaptations associated withfar been conducted that identifies any differences in their enhancement, have been identified (table II).chronic adaptive responses to training between Scientists can use this information, along withtrained and sedentary individuals. The rate of pro- knowledge of the acute physiological responses togression in physiological adaptation may be the only different exercise intensities, to guide training rec-appreciable difference,[171] particularly after previ- ommendations. This approach has been used recent-ously sedentary individuals have undertaken several ly by Midgley et al.[16] to formulate recommenda-weeks of training. Until appropriate research has tions for effective training intensities to enhance thebeen conducted, scientists should be very cautious, VO2max of distance runners. We believe that thewhen extrapolating findings from training studies demarcation of training zones based on the bloodthat used untrained individuals, in their advice to lactate response to incremental exercise, highlightedlong-distance runners and their coaches on effective in figure 4, is also useful for prescribing training fortraining methods. In this context, it may be possible long-distance runners. Some scientists have had vastthat training intervention studies using trained ani- experience working with runners and runningmals may have greater validity than those using coaches, and this will probably also prove valuableuntrained humans. The validity of making infer- in interpreting the body of scientific literature relat-ences from training studies using different athletes, ing to enhancing the physiological determinants ofsuch as cyclists and swimmers, or distance runners long-distance running performance.of different ability (e.g. from recreational club run-
In the future, molecular biology may make anner to elite), is also questionable.
increasing contribution to identifying optimal train-Many training methods have not been investigat- ing methods. At present, little is known about the
ed in relation to enhancing the physiological deter- biochemical, mechanical and electrochemical sig-minants of long-distance running performance. For nals that modify gene expression resulting in adapta-example, the physiological effects of replacing on- tions associated with the enhancement of the physio-land running with deep-water running have been logical determinants of long-distance running per-investigated in distance runners,[172,173] but the use of formance. Relatively recent advances in geneticdeep-water running as supplemental training to on- technology have allowed the identification of genet-land running has not been investigated. Anecdotal ic factors that contribute to particular aspects of
athletic performance.[176,177] Future research mayevidence suggests that hill running is effective for
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Training for Long-Distance Running Performance 875
research suggests that high-intensity running andresistance training may be effective training meth-ods; however, this research is still too limited toguide the formulation of specific recommendationswith a sufficient level of confidence. Although di-rect scientific evidence is limited, we believe thatscientists can still formulate worthwhile trainingrecommendations by integrating the information de-rived from training intervention studies with otherscientific knowledge. This includes the acute physi-ological responses in the various exercise intensitydomains, the structures and processes that limit thephysiological determinants of long-distance runningperformance, and the adaptations associated withtheir enhancement. The scientists’ own experiencein providing sports science support and knowledgeof appropriate anecdotal evidence should also helpformulate worthwhile recommendations that arepredominantly based on the available scientific evi-
9
Blo
od la
ctat
e (m
mol
/L) 8
3
4
5
6
7
2
1
0
Hea
rt r
ate
(bea
ts/m
in)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
11 12 13
E
14
LT
Running velocity (km/h)
15
S
T
16
LTP
17
Blood lactateHeart rate
Fig. 4. Blood lactate and heart rate responses of a competitive clubrunner during an incremental exercise test. Training zones are de-marcated by the running velocities and heart rates associated withthe lactate threshold (LT) and the lactate turnpoint (LTP). Theeasy (E), steady (S) and tempo (T) running training zones areassociated with the moderate, heavy and severe exercise domains,respectively. This is based on the assumption that the runningvelocity and heart rate at the LTP, measured during an incrementalexercise test, is a reasonable approximation of the maximal lactatesteady-state.[175] dence.
Readers should be aware that although this re-identify the genes that contribute to the variation in view has focused on identifying optimal trainingVO2max, the lactate threshold and running economy, methods for enhancing the three major physiologi-as well as the biochemical, mechanical and electro- cal determinants of long-distance running perform-chemical signals that induce these genes.[178] If the ance, enhancing competition performance is the ulti-effects of different exercise intensities and modali- mate goal. Optimal training methods for enhancingties on signal strength can be characterised for each particular determinants of long-distance runningof these genes, this information may prove very performance may not be optimal for enhancing per-effective in identifying optimal training methods for formance, since ‘optimal’ training methods may im-long-distance runners. pact negatively on other determinants of long-dis-
tance running performance. Furthermore, an in-creased risk of overtraining should be an important7. Conclusionsconsideration.
Scientists should be cautious when giving train-Current training methods have developed ing recommendations to runners and coaches based
predominantly from the trial-and-error approach of on the current limited scientific knowledge. Thisrunners and several prominent running coaches, limited knowledge highlights that characterising thewhile the contributions made by scientists have been most effective training methods for long-distancecomparatively small. The present article suggests runners is still a fruitful area for future research.that this can be largely explained by the lack ofavailable scientific knowledge. Upon consideration
Acknowledgementsof the limitations of current research, we believe thatthere is little direct scientific evidence to allowidentification of the most effective training methods No sources of funding were used to assist in the prepara-to enhance the VO2max, lactate threshold and run- tion of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest
that are directly relevant to the content of this review.ning economy of long-distance runners. Previous
© 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
876 Midgley et al.
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