©2003 C-SIS & A.Alibašić

Cambridge Programme for Security in International Society (C-SIS)

C-SIS WORKING PAPER Nº 2

Traditional and Reformist Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina

by

Ahmet Alibaši

Sarajevo 2003

Centre of International Studies

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Content

Content ...............................................................................................................2 Introduction........................................................................................................3 I The Islamic Community in B&H.....................................................................4 II Sufi orders..................................................................................................... 10 III Islamic Revival in Bosnia: Its Nature, History, Factors and Manifestations........................................................................................................................... 11 IV Islamic Revival after 1992........................................................................... 12 IV. a. Arrival of Aid Agencies and Mujahidun ..................................................... 12 IV. b. Bosnian Students of Islam in the Muslim World ......................................... 13 IV. c. Islamic Literature...................................................................................... 14 IV. d. Audio and Video Tapes.............................................................................. 18 IV. e. Radio and TV ............................................................................................ 18 IV. f. Printed media ............................................................................................ 18 V Currents Transformations in Bosnian Religious Discourse Reflecting the Arrival of Reformist Islam............................................................................... 19 VI The IC and reformists ................................................................................. 20 A Note ................................................................................................................ 21 VII Conclusion.................................................................................................. 23

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Introduction

Islam has been continuously present in Bosnia and Herzegovina since the middle of the 15th

century when the Osmanli armies victoriously entered most of the towns of medieval Bosnian

kingdom. Unlike the population of Serbia, majority of Bosnians accepted Islam during the

following two centuries. They did so on the hands of the Osmanli ‘ulama and sufis and

therefore adopted the dominant legal and theological schools in the state, Hanafi madhhab in

law and Maturidi school of thought in theology. The position of these two schools in Bosnia

remained practically unchallenged until the recent aggression on Bosnia 1992-95.1 Before we

start describing and analyzing the interaction between traditional and reformist Islam in

Bosnia, let us have a brief look at the structure and the role of the official Islamic religious

body – the Islamic Community (IC) and Sufi brotherhoods (tariqa) in Bosnia.

1 Exception is modernism which was quite strong during 1960s and 1970s. However it was confined to small Islamic intellectual circles in Sarajevo, a few Islamic publications and the classrooms of the Faculty of Islamic studies without stronger roots in Muslim population. The most prominent modernist thinker and the follower of ‘Abduh was late Husein ozo who vehemently attacked taqlid as a state of mind. However his discussions were not taken as attacks on Hanafi madhhab since he did not advocate change of the ritual practice. He also criticized wahhabism as a reformist school. He did not question their intentions and as a modernist appreciated their position on certain issues (like opposition to taqlid, popular sufizm, etc). However his critique is general and distant since wahhabism was not around in Bosnia at his time. For more see Enes Kari , A History of Islamic Thought in Bosnia (forthcoming), chapters on “Husein ozo and Modernism” and “ ozo’s Interpretation of the Qur’an and the Salafi Salih”.

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I The Islamic Community in B&H

History of Islam in Bosnia is largely history of Islam in the Osmanli state (the beginning of

15th c. - 1878). The Osmanli state was organized according to the principle of organic unity of

religious and political authority whereby Islamic religious institutions were a part of the state

administration. The novelty in the Osmanli system was a tightly knit hierarchy of Muslim

scholars (‘ulama’, ‘ilmijje), which was unprecedented in Muslim history. Not only judges

(qadis) and Friday prayer preachers (khatibs), but also muftis, mudarrises, and imams were

under state jurisdiction and very often state officials. Consequently there was little autonomy

in interpretation and practice of Islam in Bosnia at the time. Sporadic heterodox movements

like Hamzawis were quickly extinguished (in 1573). On the contrary, Christians, mainly

Orthodox Christians had their independent religious administration2 which made them ready

for the dramatic political change in Bosnia in 1878 when the Osmanli state succumbed to the

international pressure to allow Austro-Hungarian empire to occupy Bosnia. That was a

cultural earthquake, which found Muslims totally unprepared.3 After initial confusion Bosnian

Muslims who decided to stay in Bosnia realized that Istanbul will get further and further as

time will be passing and started working on a completely new Islamic religious organization

or administration from early 1882, when the first Islamic religious leader of Bosnian Muslims

was appointed.4 Such course of action was initially supported by the Austro-Hungarian

government, which did everything to cut Bosnian Muslims off from Istanbul. The result of

120 years of struggle and experiment is today’s very strong and certainly best organized and

most capable Islamic community in the Balkans and may be in Europe.5

Today’s IC is organized according to the 1997 constitution which clearly states that the IC is

the sole and united community of Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina, of Bosniaks outside

their homeland, and of other Muslims who accept it as their own (Article I). The IC in Bosnia

and Herzegovina is an inseparable part of the Ummah (Article III). The organization and

activities of the IC are based on the Qur’an and Sunnah, Islamic tradition of Bosniaks and the

2 Because of the autonomy that the Orthodox Church enjoyed a Serbian author called it “state within the state”. See Mirko Mirkovi , Pravni položaj i karakter Srpske crkve pod turskom vlaš u (1459-1766) (Beograd: Zavod za izdavanje udžbenika SR Srbije, 1965). 3 Fikret Kar i , The Bosniaks and the Challenges of Modernity: Late Ottoman and Hapsburg Times (Sarajevo: El-Kalem, 1999); Enes Kari , A History of Islamic Thought in Bosnia. 4 See Fikret Kar i , “The Office of Ra’is al-‘Ulama’ Among the Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims)”, Intellectual Discourse 5 (1997), no. 2: 109-20. 5 The IC today employs some 15 Ph. D. holders, equal number of MA holders and over 500 graduates from different Islamic and secular faculties in and outside the country. Its educational system consists of six madrasas in Bosnia and two in Zagreb (Croatia) and Novi Pazar (Sandžak, Serbia) with some 1300 pupils, the Faculty of Islamic Studies in Sarajevo and three academies for teacher training (Zenica, Biha and N. Pazar) with some 800 students. In addition the IC has 460 years old library, Publishing center El-Kalem, Center for Islamic Architecture, News Agency MINA, Office for Diaspora, and Directorate of Waqfs.

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requirement of the time (Article IV). The aim of the IC is that all of its members should live

in conformity with Islamic norms. That is being achieved through promotion of good and

prevention of evil (Article V). The IC protects the authenticity of the Islamic norms and

assures their interpretation and application. In the interpretation and performance of the

Islamic religious rituals the Hanafi madhhab is to be applied (Article VIII) (italics added).

Several points are worthy of special emphasis here. First, the IC is proclaimed the sole

community of Muslims in Bosnia on the basis of which the IC asked the state not register any

organization with the attribute “Islamic” in its name. The state however did not respond

positively at least in the case of one organization (Active Islamic Youth). Second, belonging

to the universal community of the Ummah is put side by side with the belonging to the

particular country and ethnic group. Third, the Hanafi madhhab is said to be binding in

interpretation and application of Islamic norms. Fourth, reference in this context is made to

“the Islamic tradition of Bosniaks”.

Understandably some of these provisions proved to be unacceptable to the reformists. The

provision about the Hanafi madhhab is unacceptable only to some of them since they claim

that they would be happy with the application of any authentic Sunni madhhab in Bosnia.6

Besides, Hanafi madhhab is not applied in letter and spirit anyway, especially among the

learned members of the IC. For instance many do not follow Hanafi madhhab with regard to

the joining of prayers during travel or the number of rak‘at in tarawih prayer during

Ramadan. Much more controversial with the reformists is the provision about the Islamic

tradition of Bosnian Muslims, which in fact sometimes contradicts the provisions on the role

of the Hanafi madhhab. Actually it is this tradition that Bosnian Muslims know and follow.

Until recently very few people knew much about Islamic law and its various madhahib. When

Muslim masses denounce “Wahhabi” way of practicing Islam they do it on the basis of their

local Islamic tradition not Hanafi madhhab.7

6 Recently a group of graduates from Riyadh and a lecturer from the Faculty of Islamic Studies in Sarajevo translated the 1st volume of Al-Fiqh al-Hanafi fi Thawbih al-Jadid by Abdulhamid M. Tuhmas. The book was well received and the Cultural Center King Fahd hosted its official launching. 7 For an analysis of the route through which Hanafi madhhab reached Bosnia see Fikret Kar i , “Kako je hanefijski mezheb došao u Bosnu: interpretacija silsile Hasana kafije Pruš aka”, Novi muallim br. 8 (5. januar 2002), 20-25. In short, Hanafi madhhab reached Bosnia via Arabia, Iraq, Transoxiana, Cairo, Halab, Anatolia, and Istanbul.

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Until the WWII only Hanafi textbooks (Multaqa al-Abhur,8 Al-Hidaya, etc.) were studied in

madrasas and the schools of higher Islamic learning. Only non-juridical works from other

madhahib were used such as Al-Ghazali’s Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din and Al-Mawardi’s Adab

al-Dunya wa al-Din. The practice of strict adherence to the old Hanafi textbooks was

criticized by the early Muslim reformers in Bosnia at the outset of the 20th century who

advocated introduction of new, original textbooks. One of them was the most popular of all

presidents of the IC, Ra’is al-‘Ulama’ Džemaluddin Čaušević.9 However, the existence of

Shari‘ah courts encouraged the established practice. Once the Communists took over the

country in 1945, abolished the Shari‘ah courts, closed High Islamic Theological and Shari‘ah

School in Sarajevo and all madrasas except the Gazi Husrev-bey madrasa in Sarajevo, and

imprisoned majority of respected Muslim scholars a rupture in Islamic education followed.

The IC started to rebuild its educational system only in 1970s. By that time there was no need

for unified knowledge of Islamic law (Shari‘ah courts were abolished) and the consciousness

of belonging to the Hanafi madhhab (and Islam in general) was weakened while the

modernist ideas gained weight in Islamic circles. The comparative studies were introduced in

Islamic educational institutions. No specific classical textbook was assign for study at the

Faculty of Islamic studies while imam Al-Navavi’s commentary on Muslim’s Sahih and Al-

San‘ani’s Subul al-Salam10 are required readings for Hadith courses at the Faculty until today.

The strongest advocate of modernist ideas was late Husein Đozo (d. 1982), a member of al-

Azhar’s Islamic Research Academy. As he fell to the disgrace with Communist authorities, a

remarkable personality of al-Azhar graduate Dr. Ahmed Smajlović (d. 1988) became the

moving force of the IC and the religious thought and life in Bosnia. He was the most famous

member of the first post-WWII study group that went to al-Azhar in 1960s after the

establishment of the close relations between Yugoslavia and Egypt. As Islamic theology

professor at the Faculty of Islamic Studies he, in addition to Maturidi ‘aqidah and already

well known M. ‘Abduhu and Rashid Rida, started teaching Ibn Taymiyyah, Ibn ‘Abd al-

Wahhab and other reformist scholars. However, his reformist ideas were confined to class,

and were cautious and mild. Several factors contributed to that. He himself was not trained in

Islamic studies, obviously did not fell under the influence of any particular reformist

movement, and was aware of the limits of religious freedom in Socialist Yugoslavia. Yet by

8 First volume recently translated and published by the Faculty of Islamic Studies (Sarajevo, 2002). 9 Enes Kari i Mujo Demirovi , Reis Džemaludin auševi : Prosvjetitelj i reformator (Sarajevo: Ljiljan, 2002), 36-53. 10 First volume translated by Dr. Omer Naki evi , professor at the Faculty of Islamic Studies, a staunch opponent of “wahhabism”. The volume is about to be published soon by the Faculty.

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mid-1980s he also fell into disgrace with the Yugoslav authorities and very soon died of heart

attack.

One of the signs of the adoption of comparative method in Islamic learning in Bosnia was the

project of the translation of Fiqh al-Sunnah in late 1980s within the IC. The book was almost

translated when somebody drew the attention of the Islamic authorities that it was a

comparative Islamic law book. The project was stopped and very soon the war started.

Recently the project was revived.

Interestingly enough, the Constitution mentions Maturidi madhhab nowhere although the

current Rai’s al-‘Ulama’ did his Ph. D. on Maturidi’s theology.11 Only two small works of al-

Maturidi have been translated but none is widely circulated in Bosnia, while short works of

Abu Hanifah and lately of Al-Ash‘ari have been translated. The most often ‘aqidah textbooks

in Bosnian madrasas used to be Al-Mawaqif fi ‘Ilm al-Kalam of Al-‘Iji, Al-Sawad al-A‘zam of

Abu al-Qasim al-Samarqandi (d. 342/953) and ‘Aqidat al-Nasafi of Abu Hafs ‘Umar al-

Nasafi (537/1142).

This administration of Islamic affairs today includes religious hierarchy (‘ilmiyya), religious

education, and endowments (waqf). Until 1946 it included Shari‘ah courts as well. The IC

activities cover rituals (‘ibadat), Islamic education, waqf, publishing (Publishing center El-

Kalem), charity and income-generating projects.12

As of today Islamic education is provided in 1405 maktabs (elementary informal religious

schools) for 60,000 regular pupils,13 six Islamic high schools (madrasa), two Islamic

academies for training teachers of religious education in state schools, and the Faculty of

Islamic Studies in Sarajevo. These, however, are not the only institutions where Bosnians

acquire Islamic knowledge. Hundreds of Bosnians are currently enrolled at various

universities throughout (mainly Muslim) world. In addition the IC employs as religious

leaders (imams) many graduates from non-Islamic universities.

11 See Mustafa Ceri , Roots of Synthetic Theology in Islam: A Study of the Theology of Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (d. 333/944) (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1995). 12 In 1999 the IC controlled 946 mosques and 636 masjids, while 258 mosques and 112 masjids were under construction. The IC employed 1,119 persons as imams, mu‘allims and khatibs. For more on the administration of Islamic affairs in Bosnia today see an excellent article by the President of the Constitutional court of the IC Fikret Kar i , “Administration of Islamic Affairs in Bosnia and Herzegovina”, Islamic Studies 38: 4 (1999), 535-61 and annual report of the Presidency of the IC “Izvještaj o radu Rijaseta IZ u BiH za 1420/21 h.g. – 2000. g.”, Glasnik Rijaseta IZ u BIH LXIII (2001), no. 7-8, 665-792. 13 “Izvještaj o radu Rijaseta IZ u BiH za 1420/21h.g. – 2000.g.”, 665-792.

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The IC is also exclusive administrator of waqfs for decades.14 However, several big (multi

million) foreign waqfs were established after 1995 which are by way of contract with the IC

granted full autonomy for various periods of time (usually two decades). Such is an example

of the Cultural Center King Fahd (CCKF) in Sarajevo, another Saudi cultural center in central

Bosnian town Bugojno, Cultural Center in Hadžići near Sarajevo, etc. There were periods

when High Saudi Commission for the Relief of Bosnian Muslims – HSC administered CCKF

without even consultation with the IC. The HSC also gave full support to salafi organizations,

first to Active Islamic Youth (AIO) and then to Furqan. However, since September 11 things

have changed. The media identified the HSC and these two organizations as the sources of

extremism, while some of their employees and members were arrested or questioned by local

police or international forces (SFOR) with regard to their links to terrorism. This pressure led

to the closure of Furqan organization at the end of 2002 and King Fahd Center’s attempts to

distance itself from “alternative” circles and establish closer relations with the IC. When the

pressure reached its peak in 2002 the president of the IC Dr. Mustafa Cerić – to the surprise of

many - spoke openly against the incrimination of Muslim solidarity and visited several

Islamic aid projects including the orphan village and school Al-Ghazzaz built by a Saudi

family whose accounts were under scrutiny.

14 The number of waqfs has continuously been reduced since the beginning of 20th century. In 1909, when the Austro-Hungarian Empire granted autonomy to the IC waqf was considered the biggest private owner in the country with 1050 individual waqfs. In 1930s that number rose to 1,647. However in 1945 and 1958 every important waqf except mosques and few waqfs was expropriated and nationalized, and all but one madrasa closed. Fikret Kar i , “Administration”, 541-542, 544.

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II Sufi orders

The Constitution of the IC of 1997 under its institutions mentions Sufi orders, which are to be

established in accordance with the Shari‘ah and Tariqa (Article LXXI). Similar provision

existed in the 1990 constitution unlike the previous constitutions. The IC of Yugoslavia put

the ban on the activities of tariqas in Bosnia in 1952. Their property was confiscated and

taken either by the IC or state. When Dr. Ahmed Smajlović became the president of the IC in

Bosnia in early 1980s situation started improving. Today there are a few thousand sufis in

Bosnia (nobody appears to know the exact number) following mainly Naqshibandiyyah and

Qadiriyyah orders. Rufa‘is, Mawlawis, Khalwatis and Hamzawis (a Malami-Bayrami branch)

were also present at various periods of time in history.15

Historically sufi orders played an important role in the islamization of Bosnia, the Osmanli

military, and revolts against the Osmanli state. Sufis were also leaders of several reformist

and protest movements.16 Like in other places sufis were successful propagators of Islam due

to their accommodation of some local customs and practices. During the recent war many

sufis were actively engaged in jihad and today some are active in inviting non-Muslims to

Islam.

Sufi orders are unevenly spread in Bosnia. They main concentration is in central Bosnia

(Travnik, Fojnica, Kiseljak, Visoko, Zenica, Sarajevo) and the valley of Neretva river

(Mostar, Blagaj). The number of sufi lodges (tekke) today is about 20.

15 Džemal ehaji , “Društveno-politi ki, religiozni, književni i drugi aspekti derviških redova u jugoslavenskim zemljama” (Socio-Political, Religious, Literary and Other Aspects of Sufi Tariqas in Yugoslav Lands), Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju 34 (1984), 93-113. 16 ehaji , Ibid., 105, 108.

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III Islamic Revival in Bosnia: Its Nature, History, Factors and Manifestations

The contemporary Islamic revival in Bosnia, which is generally apolitical, started in 1970s

due to several factors: the liberalization of the then Yugoslav regime, improved economic

situation, graduation of a new generation of young Muslim intellectuals from Yugoslav and

Middle Eastern universities and global trends in the Muslim world which culminated in

Iranian Revolution in 1979. The main manifestations of revival until 1992 were: a)

(re)construction of mosques financed by local money except in a few cases (Zagreb mosque),

b) (re)opening of new education institutions (Faculty of Islamic Studies and female section of

Gazi Husrev Bey Madarasah in Sarajevo), c) publishing of Islamic texts and periodicals

(fortnightly Preporod, etc.), d) intensified personal religiosity and use of Islamic social

symbols (mosque attendance, hijab for women and beard for man), e) establishment of

Muslim political organizations (Democratic Action Party - SDA) f) emergence of Muslim

solidarity institutions.

The dominant feature of the Islamic revival in Bosnia during this period was that its only

institutional framework was the IC. Alternative organizations were practically unheard off

since the dissolution of the Young Muslims Society in 1940s. This would dramatically change

after April 1992.17

17 For more on Islamic revival in Bosnia until 1992 see Fikret Kar i , “Islamic Revival in the Balkans 1970-1992”, Islamic Studies 36, no. 2-3, 565-81.

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IV Islamic Revival after 1992

IV. a. Arrival of Aid Agencies and Mujahidun

The Islamic revival in Bosnia underwent radical changes from the beginning of the aggression

on Bosnia in April 1992. Those parts of Bosnia under Serbian and Croatian forces (ca 75% of

Bosnian territory) were “cleansed” of Muslims while mosques and other Islamic religious

buildings were in almost all cases destroyed.18 On the other hand, freedom for Islamic

activities became almost unlimited in the territories under the control of Bosnian Army (25%

of the territory). This provided an opportunity for Muslim aid workers and several hundreds

of freedom fighters (mujahidun) from all over the world who joined Muslims in their defense

to preach and proselytize freely. Highly religious and motivated they brought with them

specific understanding of Islam and tried their best to inculcate those ideas into Bosnian

minds. The salafi and Wahhabi ideas on wider scale surfaced for the first time. (For instance

the issue of niqab was almost unheard of in Bosnia from 1950 until 1992 although prior to

1950 it was the rule). When the mujahidun arrived first in 1992 they brought hope and

courage to Bosnian Muslims who felt alone in their fight against Serbian and then Croatian

aggressors. However, as the time passed they became a problem in the relation with the West.

In fact, the Dayton agreement asked for their departure from Bosnia. In a recent interview ex-

president Izetbegović opined that “on the whole, they did more harm than good”.19

During these years the relations between Bosnia and the Muslim world were elevated to

unprecedented level. The number of graduates of Islamic studies outside the country (often

sent by mujahidun and aid agencies) dramatically increased and the Islamic literature in both

Arabic and English arrived in significant amounts (see below). Finally, economic power of

local population was practically reduced to nothing and the foreign aid agencies became the

prime donors of Islamic revival. So, the new social reality of war and post-war Bosnia was

reflected in a flood of aid money (sometimes used for Islamic propaganda - da‘wah),20

freedom fighters, and all kinds of Islamic literature. Subsequently the first alternative Islamic

organizations, which were symbols and catalyst of Islamic revival at the same time, were

established. These included the most important Active Islamic Youth (AIY) initially

18 Only one mosque in the Republic of Srpska was not completely destroyed. Muharem Omerdi , Prilozi izu avanju genocida nad Bošnjacima (1992-1995) (Sarajevo: El-Kalem, 1999). 19 Senad Pe anin, Intervju sa Alijom Izetbegovi em, “Caco je i heroj i zlo inac”, BH Dani, 1. mart 2002, p.11. 20 Many Islamic humanitarian agencies had a department for da‘wah. This was almost a rule since the prime mover for the donors of those organizations was religiosity.

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supported by the HSC, which later on turned toward more pro-Saudi Furkan organization.

The AIY has been leaning toward ideas of Saudi dissidents Safar al-Hawali and Salman al-

‘Awdah, which is perhaps the reason behind the change in the HSC policy. Majority of the

members of these organizations are young men from rural areas although urban, well

educated youth is well represented as well. Their numbers are however uncertain and may

reach a few thousands.

After the end of the war the aid agencies first and then Bosnians themselves opened Islamic

kindergartens, halal food restaurants and meet shops. The sympathy for global Islamic issues

such as Palestine and Chechnya was revived together with the revival of jihadi spirit. This

means that all the manifestations of Islamic revival from 1970s and 1980s were intensified

except for the Islamic political organizations. In fact, no major Islamic organization including

salafi ones demanded the application of the Shari‘ah or the establishment of an Islamic state.

The only exception are the Supporters of the Shari‘ah.21 Furthermore, even slightly Islamic

Izetbegović’s SDA was made more secular during this period than it initially was (its symbol

was changed from crescent to lily). After 2000 when the so called Democratic Alliance led by

the Social-democratic Party came to power and especially after September 11, 2001 things are

getting back to the pre-1992 situation in many regards. Today, for instance, it is almost

impossible to find a foreign donation for mosque construction.

IV. b. Bosnian Students of Islam in the Muslim World

Besides relief agencies and mujahidun, another, in the long rang perhaps the most important

vehicle for the transmission of reformist ideas from the Middle East to Bosnia are students.

The IC in Yugoslavia did not have any higher education institution from 1945 until 1977.

During 1940s and 1950s no Bosnian is known to have embarked on higher Islamic studies.

The first group of Bosnian students went to Al-Azhar in 1962. Their usual destinations during

the following two decades were Egypt, Libya and Iraq, all countries with some kind of

Socialist regime. However with exception of Dr. Smajlović (and much later Dr. Mustafa

Cerić) none of them individually made significant impact on the Islamic scene of Bosnia. On

the contrary, during the 1980s it was a group of young lecturers at the Faculty of Islamic

Studies (Fikret Karčić, Enes Karić, and Rešid Hafizović) trained in Yugoslavia who started

introducing new ideas into the Islamic discourse in Bosnia (ideas of Sa’id Ramadan, Fazlur

Rahman, S. H. Nasr, etc.). All this time salafi type reformism was alien to Bosnia. Yet,

21 See www.geocities.com/sos_bosna.

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because those were the last years of the Communist regime, which by that time became much

more sensitive to any reformist Islamic ideas than it was during 1970s, a series of arrests of

Islamic thinkers and activists was orchestrated from 1983 to 1987 (including ex-president

Izetbegović). The ideas of Izetbegović’s group were close to those of Mawdudi and Sayyid

Qutb. They actually translated Sayyid Qutb’s Mustaqbal li hadha al-din and Hadha al-din,22

Mawdudi’s Mabadi’ al-Islam and Hamidullah’s Introduction to Islam in 1970s.

Those were also turbulent years within the IC when the old guard of pro-Socialist leaders

were put under pressure to step down. By that time a dozen of Bosnians was already studying

Islam in Saudi Arabia (some even at postgraduate level) but they kept low profile and did not

travel home often because some of more outspoken activists among them were denied

passports (eg., today’s Bosnian ambassador to Pakistan Mr. Abdullah Hodžić and Muharem

Štulanović).

Today the number of Bosnian graduates of Islamic studies outside the country equals the

number of graduates from the Faculty of Islamic Studies. At the moment there are about a

hundred Bosnian students of Islam in Saudi Arabia, about 60 in Syria, 40 in Egypt, 35 in

Jordan, 30 in Iran, 10 in Pakistan, 10 in Turkey, and about 20 in Malaysia. Although many of

these students adopt salafi ideas others do not and they easily finds their place in the IC upon

return to the country.

IV. c. Islamic Literature

Another important vehicle of change in Islamic discourse in Bosnia has been Islamic

literature that has been published in Bosnia since 1992 on two bases: commercial and

missionary. The letter group includes literature published by aid agencies and other

organizations for free distribution. The main supporters of salafi ideas among relief agencies

were the already mentioned High Saudi Committee, Al-Haramain Foundation, and the

Society for the Revival of Islamic Heritage (Jam‘iyyat Ihya’ al-Turah al-Islami). Among

Bosnian organizations those are Active Islamic Youth (AIY), Furqan (closed down on

December 31, 2002), Balkan Center u Zenici (for a short period), and Centre for the

Affirmation of Islamic Sciences. However, neither were the salafi ideas the only ones that

enjoyed the support of foreign agencies nor was all salafi literature distributed for free. Many

sufi books especially those of shaykh Nazim Haqqani and Badi‘ al-Zaman Sa‘id al-Nursi are

22 Reprinted in Travnik by Taibah International in 1995 with the consent of the local mufti.

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also distributed free of charge. On the other hand, some salafi books were translated and

published on commercial basis (and well received). Such is the case with Al-Qahtani’s Al-

Wala’ wa al-Bara’ fi al-Islam,23 Al-Jaza’iri’s Minhaj al-Muslim, and Al-Bahr al-Ra’iq fi al-

zuhd wa al-raqa’iq published by AIY. Moreover, western aid agencies employed the same

strategies; it did not happen once that Bosnian children received New Year gifts with books

on Christianity in the bag.

The most ambitious publication project was that of the High Saudi Committee. The result of

it are about 30 books of predominantly salafi authors translated into Bosnian although other

authors were included (Taha Jabir ‘Alawani, Al-Qaradawi, Al-Zindani, Al-Buti, …). All

HSC publications are distributed free of charge including the mushaf (Qur’an) printed at the

King Fahd Complex in Madinah. Through this mushaf accompanied by the Bosnian

translation of the Qur’an Bosnian Muslims were for the first time introduced to ‘Uthman’s

orthography of mushaf, which some defenders of ‘Bosnian Islam’ find unacceptable.24

The main achievement of the High Saudi Committee in the publication field was the “Family

library”,25 the shortened version of the Tafsir Ibn Kathir in Bosnian, and the complete

translation of Sahih al-Bukhari (forthcoming).26 The Committee also commissioned a number

of translations that were never published (for instance, ‘Umar Sulayman al-Ashqar’s series on

‘aqaid). Translators of these works are former Bosnian students in Saudi Arabia (Madina,

Riyadh), UAE and Jordan. However, even local muftis were involved in preparing some of

them. For instance the Mufti of Travnik, a graduate of the Islamic University in Madina

famous for the adherence to Bosnian Islamic tradition, translated a small treatise Al-‘Aqidah

al-Sahiha wa ma yudaddiduha written by late shaykh Bin Baz (Visoko: Jam‘iyyat Ihya’ al-

Turath al-Islami, 1993 and Travnik: Organizacija za pomoć projektima podizanja džamija,

Odjeljenje za Balkan, 1994).

Yet, none of these mainly short books produced as much controversy as did a 64 page booklet

by ‘Imad al-Misri @ Eslam Durmo (originally Faragalla) Shvatanja koja trebamo ispraviti

23 This book was translated by an employee of the IC who does not seem to be salafi himself. This fact tells us two things. First, people translated books not only for ideological but for existential reasons as well. Secondly, the war and immediate post-war atmosphere of siege in Bosnia was conductive to the kind of ideas advocated in the mentioned book. 24 Recently the IC’s hugely indebted publishing center El-Kalem published mushaf with the Osmanli orthography not because of the need but because of other concerns. 25 “The Family Library” included some 20 titles, mainly translations, including: Hilmi A. Sha‘ban’s A‘midat al-Islam: Ashab Rasulillah s.a.w.s., Al-Nawawi’s Riyad al-salihin, Muhammad N. Yasin’s Al-Iman: Haqiqatuh wa Arkanuh wa nawaqiduh, Abd al-Majid al-Zindani’s Tawhid al-Khaliq, M. A. al-Hashimi’s Shakhsiyyat al-Mar’ah al-muslimah, Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan al-Tamimi’s Kitab al-Tawhid, and several booklets on Islamic ethics. 26 Significant portion of Sahih al-Bukhari was translated before the war.

16

(Attitudes that we have to change) published by Jam‘iyyat Ihya’ al-Turath al-Islami in central

Bosnian town Travnik, one of the centers of salafi presence27 in autumn 1993 (the most

difficult period of Bosnian war). ‘Imad al-Misri was deported to Egypt on October 6, 2001

under the accusation of false identity (allegedly he was Al Husseini Arman Ahmed who is

sentenced to ten year imprisonment in Egypt). Until that time he was one of the main

authorities within Bosnian salafi circles including AIY. The book made an argument for

radical departure from some established practices among Bosnian Muslims. In introduction it

points out that many of religious customs attributed to imam Abu Hanifah have nothing to do

with him. Even if they did, we are obliged to follow the Qur’an and Sunnah, not any

particular scholar who might be right or wrong. After a short explication of the basic tenets of

‘aqidah according to salafi understanding (tawhid and its types, shirk, issue of madhahib,

etc.) the authored stated that ‘ibadat are prescribed by God (tawqifiyyah) and that any change

is condemned (bid‘ah). He then started naming innovations in Bosnian practice of Islam in

prayer citing about 20 of them (pronouncing the niyyah, raising hands with each takbir,

reciting Al-Fatifah when praying in jama‘ah, dhikr after prayer, giving two adhans before

Friday prayer, etc. (17-23). He then called for giving zakat al-fitr and zakah in kind not in

money and warned against distribution of zakah to atheists such as communists, democrats,

Jews and Christians (24). With respect to Ramadan he advocated the practice of fasting upon

seeing the crescent in Bosnia or some other country like Saudi Arabia. (This idea is

vehemently opposed by the IC which publishes annual schedule of prayers and holidays and

considers that one of its exclusive prerogatives). The author went on giving standard salafi

views on music, friendship, smoking, consumption of intoxicants, beard, commanding good

and prohibiting evil, behavior towards one’s parents, other Muslims, and similar themes. The

second part of the booklet (32-55) is a collection of supplications for various occasions

implying that collections of supplications composed by Bosnian authors are unacceptable.

Last three pages are direct appeal to the imams to watch their behavior, to leave Turkish

innovations in religion, to require the consent of bride’s guardian before concluding marriage,

to be in the forefront of jihad, etc. This remains the most important and direct explication of

salafi ideas in Bosnian context and its recommendations are widely accepted among salafis

(AIY, Furqan, and others).

Unlike the Ikhwani, perennial philosophy and modernist literature, the IC never sponsored the

publication of any salafi book. On the contrary it published polemical works of Muhammad

al-Ghazali and S. Ramadan al-Buti: The Prophet’s Tradition between Jurists and Scholars of

27 Until today central Bosnia is the epicenter of salafi activities which is mainly due to the presence of mujahidun during the war in that area.

17

Hadith and The Call for Abolishment of Madhahib, respectively.28 The IC imam in Munchen

wrote a small booklet on the mistakes of shaykh Nasir al-Din al-Albani while the most

outspoken critic of Wahhabis is Chicago based Bosnian imam with American passport and

follower of shaykh Hakkani, Senad Agić who critisized even the IC and the Ra’is al-‘Ulama’

for not taking tougher position on wahhabism predicting that it may cost Bosnian Muslims a

lot.

Salafis from their side relentlessly criticize the teaching and the practice of the IC. The

militants among them (the Supporters of the Shari‘ah) called upon the IC to follow the

Taliban of Afghanistan and dubbed the Faculty of Islamic Studies as “faculty of un-Islamic

studies”. Others circulated short commentaries on mistakes of Dr. Al-Qaradawi as one of the

most respected scholars within the IC.

Islamic literature was distributed in Arabic also. Especially active in this field again was the

High Saudi Committee which distributed several hundreds of ‘scholar libraries’ including

hundreds of titles in all fields of Islamic learning. Less ambitious was the Society for the

Revival of Islamic Heritage which distributed ‘student library’ consisting of dozens of mainly

salafi titles in Arabic.

Thus Bosnia after 1992 was flooded with all kinds of Islamic (and other) ideas and literature.

There is practically no orientation within the contemporary Islam that is not present in Bosnia.

From the militant,29 extremist salafis the followers of Abu Hamza (UK) who congratulated

Muslims on the occasion of September 11, 2001, to ordinary salafis, to perennial philosophy

which is very popular with Bosnian intellectuals,30 to revivalists like Sayyid Qutb, Al-

Qaradawi, and others, to Sufis like shaykh Hakkani and Qabbani, to Shi‘a who have Ibn Sina

research center and Cultural center and publish two very good journals (Beharistan and Signs

of Times) and many books of Shi‘a scholars, to modernists like Garouody and Arkoun and to

new figures such as Tariq Ramadan. The most acceptable discourse to the traditionally

minded the IC seems to be that of Dr. Yusuf al-Qaradawi whose works are translated at large.

It is expected that first two volumes of his fatawa will be published soon by the IC.

28 Professors at Faculty of Islamic Studies in Sarajevo translated Sayyid Qutb’s Fi Zilal al-Qur’an while the office of Tuzla Mufti published his Signs on the road. 29 Even Muhammad ‘Abd al-Salam Faraj’s Al-Faridah al-gaibah was translated during war. It seems however that the translator was not aware of the nature and history of the book. 30 Recently Mr. Nevad Kahteran defended his Ph.D. dissertation at the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo on perennial philosophy (Genon, Schoun, and S. H. Nasr) and it was published by El-Kalem, the Publishing center of IC which is publisher of many other Nasr’s works including The Heart of Islam.

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IV. d. Audio and Video Tapes

The field in which alternative organizations have completely outdone the IC is audio and

video production. The IC used tapes only for the recitation of the Qur’an and religious songs

(ilahije). Other Islamic organizations used this tool for the dissemination of lectures of their

leaders very successfully.

IV. e. Radio and TV

Although Muslims have generally poorly performed when it comes to electronic media a

story of the (Islamic) Radio station NABA (from naba’) from Visoko, a small town near

Sarajevo is a pure success story. Its signal currently covers a small (but important) area of

Bosnia. Its broadcast via internet reaches significant Bosniak population in the Western

Europe. The station is open to everybody including salafis, shi‘a, and sufis.

IV. f. Printed media

The IC and its institutions publish several fortnight newspapers and journals. The most widely

circulated is fortnightly “Preporod” (print run 19,000 copies), educational journal “Novi

muallim” (2,800 copies), while the oldest is the official herald of the IC, the bimonthly

“Glasnik”. Monthly “Islamska misao” has not been published since 1992. Now, the second

most widely read Islamic magazine (fortnightly) is “Saff”, published by pro-salafi AIY (ca

9,000 copies per issue). The tone of the articles in the magazine is much more moderate that

the discourse of some members of the organization itself. Another important magazine is

monthly “Novi horizonti” published by the society established by former mufti of mid-

Bosnian town Zenica, Halil Mehtić. This is a pro-revivalist magazine where Dr. Al-Qaradawi

features regularly. The majority of contributors are professors of Zenica Islamic Teachers

Academy (mainly Ph. D. holders) who are considered to be salafi and conservative by the IC

establishment. The magazine has never attacked the IC or questioned its authority, although

some of the fatawa issued in it by the dean of the Academy do contradict those issued in the

official Preporod. However both are individuals’ efforts without official sanction. Some sufis

also publish in this paper. In last few issues one of the young sufi authorities has been

translating the abridgement of Madarij al-Salikin.

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V Currents Transformations in Bosnian Religious Discourse Reflecting the Arrival of

Reformist Islam

When Islamic revival started in Bosnia in 1970s its main themes were prayer performance,

fasting, alms giving, avoidance of alcohol drinking, avoidance of adultery, … Since 1992

standard salafi issues have also become a part of Islamic discussions. They include issue of

madhahib, authority of local Muslim tradition,31 religious innovations (bid‘ah),32 correctness

of shi‘ah and sufi beliefs,33 music, face covering for women (niqab), beard for men, marriage

without registration with state authorities, marriage with close relatives,34 mixing of sexes,

giving of zakah and zakat al-fitr in kind not in money, legitimacy of democracy and

elections,35 particular way of performing prayer, the determination of the beginning of

Ramadan by way of seeing the crescent, …

31 Bosnian Islam incorporates a number of syncretic elements mainly from Slavic religion, from medieval Bosnian Church, and Orthodox Christianity. Hills, ancient graveyards, sources, caves, lakes, churches serve as cultic places even today. Also spread is the practice of offering prayers in open (eg. Ajvatovica in central Bosnia, Kari i near Sarajevo and Djevoja ka pe ina near Kladanj) and celebration of holidays of unIslamic origin. For the details see Muhamed Hadžijahi , “Sinkreti ki elementi u islamu u Bosni i Hercegovni” (Syncretical Elements in Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina), Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju no. 28-29, 301-29. Author documents many largely unsuccessful attempts of Osmanli ‘ulama’ to eradicate such practices. 32 Rituals most often criticized by salafis are mawlid celebrations, tawhids (reading Yasin and dhikr for the deceased on 7th and 40th day of his death or any other occasion), reading of the Qur’an for dead for money, fast performance of prayers, especially tarawih during Ramadan, collective recitation of dhikr after prayers, etc. In a very unpleasant case several years ago the authorities of the King Fahd Mosque prevented a group of believers and the IC officials from performing mawlid in that mosque. Thereafter no similar testing of limits of toleration of the King Fahd Mosque authorities happened. In another case during last Ramadan (on 27th night) in a small northern town of Kalesija ordinary believers beat up a group of salafi youth who used to perform tarawih on their own after the regular tarawih. This was not the only case of physical conflict between salafis and other believers. One of the points of contention is also going to discos and sea beaches of some imams and the IC officials, as well as mixing of genders. Because of that one young wahhabi recently called a mosque “brothel”. 33 Halid Tuli , Veliki šejtan /Great Satan/ (1996). A Shi‘i author, perhaps Bosnian, wrote a several times thicker refutation Šejtanski rog /Satan’s horn/ the following year. Decades before salafis, modernists like Husein ozo criticized sufis but from completely different vantage point. 34 Some Bosnian Muslims do not marry even distant relatives of 8th degree. 35 Although many salafis in Bosnia consider democracy to be an atheistic system, others do accept party politics and elections and actively participate in them. During last elections some members of AIY distributed electoral materials agitating against Social–democratic led government and calling their members to vote for opposition.

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VI The IC and Reformists

No official Islamic administration likes alternative Islamic organizations. Bosnian IC is no

exception. In principle the IC has reserved and sometimes antagonistic attitude towards

alternative Islamic organizations. The quality of the relationship depends on the orientation of

the particular organization and its willingness to cooperate with the IC although personal

relations also influence the attitude of the IC. The most outspoken critics not only of the IC

but other Islamic groups are the Supporters of the Shari‘ah. AIY and Furqan also have

reservations towards the IC and so does the IC towards them. Lately things are changing in so

much as these two organizations seem to accept the overall authority of the IC while retaining

the right to act independently. It is not rare case now that the AIY and IC organize certain

events together (usually lectures in mosques).

While it is true that proselytism and lack of tact are often cited as the main reasons of the

strained relationship, it is also evident that activists loose the respect for the leaders of the IC

when they encounter their ignorance, lack of initiative, indifference, and even blatant

transgression of Islamic norms. The worst relations exist where activists try to engage in the

activities that the IC considers its own exclusive domain such as determining the beginning

and the end of Ramadan, collection of zakah and zakah al-fitr, religious education, training of

imams, supervision of mosques, and the like.

However, one should not exaggerate the tension. It seems that several years of existence have

worked towards a modus vivendi. For instance, the only mosque that is currently not under the

IC administration is the King Fahd’s mosque in Sarajevo. However, the khatib of the mosque

is Nezim Halilović - Muderis, the director of the Waqf directorate of the IC, a graduate of Al-

Azhar; the first imam is a lecturer from the Faculty of Islamic studies, a graduate of Madinah;

the second is professor from Gazi Husrev bey’s madrasa, a graduate of the University of

Jordan; and the third is a student of the Faculty of Islamic studies. As we already noted, the

pressure on Islamic humanitarian agencies and organizations after September 11, 2001, as

well as the scarcity of once ample resources have led to the greater importance and legitimacy

of the IC even in the eyes of its critics.36 On the other side, the IC feels now more secure to

recognize these organizations at least implicitly since its position is definitely not under

question.

36 It is fair to say that in addition to money, the main reasons for the spread of salafi ideas among Bosnians was the courage that salafi fighters (Bosnians and non-Bosnian) showed during the war on the frontline.

21

One of the most sensitive issues is that of the training of imams and khatibs who closely

interact with the population. It is now even a written official policy of the IC not to employ

those who graduated from Islamic faculties outside the country, irrespective of the repute of

the certificate awarding university, if they did not graduate from one of the IC madrasas,

although exemptions are possible to find.37 This is deliberately adopted policy to prevent

those young men who went to Islamic schools in the Arab world through “alternative”

channels such as foreign aid workers or domestic salafis. Those students usually first attended

short seminars on Islam or learning circles organized by various Islamic (aid and non-aid)

organization sometimes even called madrasas.38 Those who overtly accept “wahhabi” or

“salafi” Islam39 share the same destiny when it comes to employment in the IC even if they

graduated from madrasas. The IC can do it easily today because of huge number of students

and graduates of Islamic studies within and outside the country. Probably half of the IC

employees with degree are graduates from Islamic faculties from Morocco to Pakistan and

Malaysia. Only a half of them come from the Faculty of Islamic studies (so far some 225

graduates).

Besides efforts on behalf of the IC to counter salafi influence, ordinary believers are very

often staunch opponents of salafis and that might be the really insurmountable obstacle in

front of salafism in Bosnia.

A Note

A note here is in order. The subject of this paper is the tension between traditional and

reformist Islam in Bosnia. However, in order to be balanced we have to mention the positive

role of relief agencies and volunteers in defending almost armless Bosnian Muslims. In a way

they fought a human case when others were confused who is who in Bosnian war. Secondly,

there is a tendency to exaggerate the role of wahhabis in changing the face of Bosnian Islam.

Esposito mentions in Unholy terror that wahhabis destroyed some graves. While this might

37 Bosnian Madrasas are campus-type schools with dormitories where future imams and khatibs acquire their identity built around traditional Islam. 38 The most systematic such a program was that of AIY centered in a central Bosnian village of Bo inja (municipality of Maglaj). It was a Serbian village which Serbs fled and subsequently colonized by salafis who organized their life there as they thought appropriate. In addition to a few hundred permanent residents another few hundreds of young men came to Bo inja for short courses on Islam. Colony remained open for visitors all the time. Interestingly enough, the colony was dispersed in 2001 without incidents of violence as part of NATO forces effort to suppress the activities of former mujahidun. A smaller replica of it was attempted in northern village of Gornja Mao a which is being dispersed these days also under the pressure of NATO forces. 39 This is commonly used terminology in Bosnia today.

22

be case in one or two places the real destroyers of Bosnian Islam were aggressors from east

and west who jointly killed almost 200,000 Muslims, expelled a million of them and

destroyed about one thousand mosques.40

40 See Muharem Omerdi , Ibid.

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VII Conclusion

The most intense conflict between traditional and reformist Islam in Bosnia is behind us after

so much energy spent on trivial issues not because of some lessons learned but because of the

pressure put on reformists by anti-terrorist activities of NATO and other forces in Bosnia. In

this text we have tried to outline the history of conflict, its present state, and main topics of

contention. The salafi discourse has firmly established itself in Bosnia although the

predominance of traditional Islam is unquestionable.