Traditional water harvesting methods – their role and scope in correcting indian water sector part...

TRADITIONAL WATER HARVESTING METHODS – THEIR ROLE AND SCOPE IN CORRECTING INDIAN WATER SECTOR Part I I

Vivek P. KapadiaEmail : [email protected]

Presented at One Day Woirkshop on Water Conservation organised by

The Institution of Engineers (India), Gujarat State Center, Ahmedabad

TRADITIONAL WATER CONSERVATION METHODS

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TRANS HIMALAYAN REGION

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The Trans-Himalayan region of India

consists of the cold deserts of Ladakh

and Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir,

and the Lahaul and Spiti valleys of

Himachal Pradesh. These valleys

hold some of the highest permanent

villages on earth. Ladakh, located at

the edge of the Tibetan plateau, gets

an annual rainfall of only 140 mm.

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• Water is diverted from streams with the help of guiding

channels, and towards the evening, it is taken to a small tank,

locally known as a zing.

• The stored glacier water is then used the following day in the

fields. Each village has a large network of canals and zings.

• To ensure equity in the distribution of the scarce water, the

villagers elect a water official known as churpun, at the start

of each agricultural season.

• The churpun ensures that each farmer gets adequate water in

proportion to the area of land he owns. Disputes over use of

water are very rare.

Tank connected with Guiding Channels

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• Canals are repaired by community effort.

Almost the entire irrigated area in the district

is based on traditional canals, constructed and

maintained by the villagers.

• Streams are so important to a Ladakhi’s

livelihood that they are traditionally

worshipped. No activity that pollutes the

streams, including washing of clothes, is

permitted.

Guiding Channel

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WESTERN HIMALAYAS

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• The Himalayan mountains bind India in the north

by one continuous chain of gigantic peaks.

• The western half, which stretches from the

Kashmir valley to the hills of Uttaranchal forms the

watershed of the river Indus, its five tributaries and

the main Ganga river. The said five tributaries are

Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum and Chenab.

• These mountains support a large human

population. Terraced agriculture is commonly

practiced on the slopes, and paddy cultivation in

the valleys and duns - the wide valleys that

separate the sub-Himalayan ranges from the middle

mountains.

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WESTERN HIMALAYAS

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• Villages in the Spiti subdivision are located

between 3,000 m and 4,000 m height, which means

they are snowbound six months a year.

• Rainfall is negligible because it is a rainshadow

area. The soil is dry and lacks organic matter. But,

despite these handicaps, the Spiti valley has been

made habitable and productive by human

ingenuity.

• Kuls are water channels found in precipitous

mountain areas. These channels carry water from

glaciers to villages in the Spiti valley of Himachal

Pradesh. Where the terrain is muddy, the kul is

lined with rocks to keep it from becoming clogged.

Kul and Tank

Tank Filled through Kul

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WESTERN HIMALAYAS

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• Between sowing in April and harvesting in September, water availability is for

approximately 70 days. But if a family whose share is 30 days need kul water for only

20 days, it can sell its surplus.

• Water shares are renewed and adjusted every season according to need, but a share

cannot be lent, sold or disposed of in perpetuity.

• Water shares are renewed and adjusted every season according to need, but a share

cannot be lent, sold or disposed of in perpetuity.

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WESTERN HIMALAYAS

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• Kuhls are surface channels diverting water from natural

flowing streams called khuds and run at a higher

elevation than the stream to irrigate more upstream

lands than the khud itself.

• Farmers have had a major tradition of building canals

aligned roughly with contours to draw water from hill

streams or springs. This is a traditional irrigation

system in the lower belts of Himachal Pradesh like

Kangra, Mandi, Hamirpur.

• The system consists of a temporary headwall

(constructed usually with river boulders) across a khud

(ravine) for storage and diversion of the flow through a

canal to the fields.

Water Distribution from Kuhl to Farms

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WESTERN HIMALAYAS

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• The kuhls were constructed and maintained by the village community. At the

beginning of the irrigation season, the kohli (the water tender) would organize the

irrigators to construct the headwall, repair the kuhl and make the system operational.

The kohli played the role of a local engineer. Any person refusing to participate in

construction and repair activities without valid reason, would be denied water for

that season.

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EASTERN HIMALAYAS AND NORTH EAST HILLS

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• The Indian portion of the eastern Himalayan

region consists of the states of Sikkim and

Arunachal Pradesh, and the Darjeeling district

of West Bengal.

• The water resources potential of the region is

the largest in the entire country. Given its heavy

rainfall, it also has abundant groundwater

resources.

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• The Apatani plateau occupies about 27 sq km in

Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh.

• The Apatani tribals inhabit 21 villages in the

plateau and their population density is higher

than the average of the state.

• The farmers grow wet rice, integrated with fish

culture in terraces and finger millets on the

risers/terrace bunds.

• Terraces prepared in the main valley are quite

broad, perfectly leveled and provided with

strong bunds.

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• The slope of land in the main valley ranges between 1-8%.

• Puddling and levelling of terraces is done manually with the help of indigenous

wooden tools.

• Fish channels across the terrace are dug with wooden crowbar having flattened tip.

• Every stream arising from the surrounding hills is tapped, channelised at the rim of

the valley and diverted to the terrace fields by a network of primary, secondary and

tertiary channels.

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• The zabo (the word means ‘impounding run-

off') system is practiced in Nagaland in north-

eastern India. Also known as the ruza system, it

combines water conservation with forestry,

agriculture and animal care.

• The Zabo system consists of a protected

forestland towards the top of the hill, water-

harvesting tanks in the middle and cattle yard

and paddy fields at the lower side.

Concept of Zabo System

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• Near the catchment area (mid-hill), silt

retention tank and water harvesting tank are

dugout with the formation of earthen

embankments. Silt retention tanks are

constructed at two or more points and the

water is kept for 2 or 3 days in these tanks

before being transferred to the main tank. The

silt retention tanks are cleaned annually and

the desilted materials, which have good

amount of organic matter and nutrients, are

transferred in the terrace fields.

Rice Fields

• In constructing the water-harvesting tank, the bottom surface is properly rammed and

sidewalls are plastered with paddy husk to minimise the loss of water through seepage.

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• Bamboo drip irrigation system is practised

mainly in the Jaintia and Khasi Hills of

Meghalaya for the last 200 years.

• This is a useful irrigation system in a place

where there is water scarcity and soils are poor

in water holding capacity, the topography is

rocky and undulating and irrigation is required

for crops that need relatively less water.

Bamboo Channels

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INDO GANGETIC PLAINS

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• The Indo-Gangetic Plains is a vast enclosed basin of numerous small and large rivers,

separated by alluvial divides. It covers Rajastan, Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi,

western Uttar Pradesh and Bengal. Geologically, the whole region is made up of

alluvium brought down by the Himalayan rivers.

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• Floodwater enters the fields through the inundation canals, carrying not only rich

silt but also fish, which swam through these canals into the lakes and tanks to

feed on the larva of mosquitoes. This helps to check malaria in this region.

Concept of Bengal’s Inundation Channel

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• This traditional floodwater harvesting system is indigenous to south Bihar. The soil

here is sandy and does not retain water. Groundwater levels are low. Rivers in this

region swell only during the monsoon, but the water is swiftly carried away or

percolates down into the sand. All these factors make floodwater harvesting the best

option here, to which this system is admirably suited.

Ahar-Pyne System

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•An Ahar is a catchment basin embanked on three sides, the 'fourth' side being the

natural gradient of the land itself.

•Ahar beds were also used to grow a rabi (winter) crop after draining out the excess

water that remained after kharif (summer) cultivation.

•Pynes are articifial channels constructed to utilise river water in agricultural fields.

Starting out from the river, pynes meander through fields to end up in an Ahar.

Ahar

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EASTERN HIGHLANDS

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• The Eastern Plateau extends across Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chattisgarh, Madhya

Pradesh and Orissa. The uplands of Jharkhand also known as the Chotanagpur Plateau,

cover the districts of Palamau, Ranchi, Dhanbad, Hazaribagh, Giridih, Santhal

Parganas and Singhbhum, and extend into the Purulia, Bankura, Mednipore, districts of

West Bengal. This region slopes towards the southeast.

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EASTERN HIGHLANDS

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• The katas, mundas and bundhas were the main

irrigation sources in the ancient tribal kingdom

of the Gonds (now in Orissa and Madhya

Pradesh).

• Kata is an ordinary irrigation tank, which is

constructed by building a strong earthen

embankment, slightly curved at either end across

a drainage line so as to hold fast flowing sheets

of water.

Concept of Kata/ Munda/ Bndha

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EASTERN HIGHLANDS

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• Munda is an embankment of smaller size across a drainage channel. Embankments of

this sort are very common, as they can easily be constructed by the raiyats (individual

farmers) themselves for the benefit of their own holding.

• Bundh is a four sided tank excavated below the kata from which it derives its water by

percolation. They are almost invariably used for drinking purposes only and are

properly regarded as suitable monuments of piety or charity and are invariably

consecrated or married to a god.

• Water distribution was supervised by the village panch.

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CENTRAL HIGHLANDS

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• The Central Highlands comprise the semi-arid uplands of eastern Rajasthan, the

Aravalli range and the uplands of the Banas-Chambal basin in Rajasthan; the Jhansi

and Mirzapur uplands of Uttar Pradesh; the eastern hilly regions of Dangs and

Panchmahal in Gujarat; northern Madhya Pradesh uplands; the Sagar, Bhopal and the

Ratlam plateaus of central Madhya Pradesh; and the Narmada region, including the

flanks of the Vindhya and Satpura ranges of southern Madhya Pradesh.

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EASTERN HIGHLANDS

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• This system was devised according to

the peculiarities of the terrain to divert

water from swift-flowing hill streams

into irrigation channels called pats.

The diversion bunds across the stream

are made by piling up stones and then

lining them with teak leaves and mud

to make them leakproof. The pat

channel has to negotiate small nullahs

that join the stream off and on, and

also sheer cliffs before reaching the

fields.

Pat System

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EASTERN HIGHLANDS

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• Johads are small earthen check dams that capture

and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and

groundwater recharge.

• In many parts of the Rajasthan state the annual

rainfall is very low and the water can be unpleasant

to drink.

• Johads are called as "khadins" in Jaisalmer.

• These are simple mud and rubble barriers built

across the contour of a slope to arrest rainwater.

• These earthen check dams are meant to catch and

conserve rainwater, leading to improved percolation

and groundwater recharge.

Johad

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THAR DESERT REGION

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•The Thar Desert covers an area of 44.6 million hectare (mha), of which 27.8 mha lie in

India and the rest in Pakistan.

•The desert is bounded by the Aravalli hills in the east, by the fertile Indus and the Nara

valleys of Pakistan and the salt marsh of the Rann of Kutch in the west, and by the

alluvial plains of Haryana and Punjab in the north.

•Area under Thar region: Western Rajasthan, part of Gujarat—whole of Kachchh and

parts of districts like Banaskantha, Patan, Surendranagar, Punjab- whole of Bhatinda

and Ferozepur districts and Haryana-- most of Hissar and parts of Mohindergarh

districts.

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THAR DESERT REGION

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• Baoris or bers are community wells, found in Rajasthan, that are used mainly for

drinking.

• Most of them are very old and were built by banjaras (mobile trading communities)

for their drinking water needs. They can hold water for a long time because of almost

negligible water evaporation. The baoris are not merely tanks, but also groundwater

recharge facilities.

Baoris

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THAR DESERT REGION

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• Traditional step-wells are called vav or vavadi in Gujarat, or baolis or bavadis in

Rajasthan and northern India.

• Designed to bring the people and Gods together, these wells attempted to entice Gods

to leave their abodes for a cool drink of water - the elixir of life.

Vav

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THAR DESERT REGION

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• The vavs or baolis (step-wells) consisted of

two parts, a vertical shaft from which water

was drawn and the surrounding it were the

inclined subterranean passageways,

chambers and steps, which provided access

to the well.

• The galleries and chambers surrounding

these wells were carved generously, which

became cool retreats during summers.

Vav

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WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS

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•The Western Coastal Plains stretch southward from the hot and near-arid Kathiawar

peninsula of Gujarat to the humid Malabar coast of Kerala. In the north, these plains are

bounded by the part of the Thar Desert lying in Gujarat. To the northeast, they are

bound by the Aravalli hills, Malwa Plateau, and Vindhya and Satpura ranges, and along

the eastern stretch by the western slopes of the Western Ghats all the way down from

Gujarat through Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka to Kerala.

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• Virdas are shallow wells dug in low depressions called jheels (tanks). They are found all

over the Banni grasslands, a part of the Great Rann of Kutch in Gujarat. They are systems

built by the nomadic Maldharis, who used to roam these grasslands. Now settled, they

persist in using virdas .

• Essentially, the structures use a technology that helps the Maldharis separate potable

freshwater from unpotable salt water. After rainwater infiltrates the soil, it gets stored at a

level above the salty groundwater because of the difference in their density.

Virdas

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• A structure is built to reach down (about 1 m) to this upper layer of accumulated

rainwater. Between these two layers of sweet and saline water, there exists a zone of

brackish water. As freshwater is removed, the brackish water moves upwards, and

accumulates towards the bottom of the virda.

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THE DECCAN PLATAU

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•The Deccan Plateau constitutes the whole of the south Indian tableland - the elevated

region lying east of the Western Ghats. The plateau occupies large parts of Maharashtra

and Karnataka and a portion of Andhra Pradesh.

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THE DECCAN PLATAU

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• Phad irrigation is one of the traditional forms of irrigation practiced in the Khandesh

region of Maharastra.

• The system starts with a bandhara (check dam or diversion-weir) built across a rivers.

From the bandharas branch out kalvas (canals) to carry water into the fields.

Phad Irrigation

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THE DECCAN PLATAU

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• Charis (distributaries) are built for feeding water from the kalva to different areas of

the phad. Sarangs (field channels) carry water to individual fields. Sandams (escapes),

along with kalvas and charis , drain away excess water.

• In this way water reaches the kayam baghayat (agricultural command area), usually

divided into four phads (blocks). The size of a phad can vary from 10-200 ha, the

average being 100-125 ha.

• Every year, the village decides which phads to use and which to leave fallow. Only

one type of crop is allowed in one phad. Generally, sugarcane is grown in one or two

phads; seasonal crops are grown in the others. This ensures a healthy crop rotation

system that maintains soil fertility, and reduces the danger of waterlogging and

salinity.

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THE DECCAN PLATAU

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•These are check dams or diversion weirs built

across rivers.

•A traditional system found in Maharashtra, their

presence raises the water level of the rivers so that it

begins to flow into channels.

•Where a bandhara was built across a small stream,

the water supply would usually last for a few

months after the rains.

•They are built either by villagers or by private

persons who received rent-free land in return for

their public act.

Bandhara

Bandhara Across a Stream

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THE DECCAN PLATAU

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• Tanks, called Kere in Kannada, were the

predominant traditional method of irrigation in the

Central Karnataka Plateau, and were fed either by

channels branching off from anicuts (check dams)

built across streams, or by streams in valleys.

• The outflow of one tank supplied the next all the

way down the course of the stream; the tanks were

built in a series, usually situated a few kilometres

apart. This ensured no wastage through overflow,

and the seepage of a tank higher up in the series

would be collected in the next lower one.

Concept of Kere

Large Kere

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SOUTH EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS

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• The South Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide and long stretch of land that lies between

the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The major rivers which pass through this

region have carved out broad valleys and deltas.

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• In southern India, every village had more than

three water bodies that met the needs for

drinking, farming and for cattle and birds.

Some of these still work or can work if

renovated.

•The tanks, in south Travancore, though

numerous, were in most cases ooranis

containing just enough water to cultivate the

few acres of land dependent on them.

Concept of Oorani

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•The irregular topography of the region and the absence

of large open spaces facilitated the construction of only

small tanks unlike large ones seen in the flat districts of

the then Madras Presidency, now Tamil Nadu.

•Traditionally, the village assemblies built the ooranis.

The local community also maintained these structures.

Donating land for ponds or assisting in digging a pond

was considered virtuous.

•The maximum benefit from using oorani water goes to

women who usually fetch water for domestic needs.

Oorani

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WESTERN GHATS

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• The Western Ghats constitute a narrow but long range of hills running from north to

south along the western coast of India.

• The Western Ghats extend from Gujarat to Kerala, traversing the states of

Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.

• The ghats end as low hills in the Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, situated at the

southern tip of India. The eastern flanks of the Western Ghats extend into Tirunelveli,

Ramanathpuram and Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu.

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•Kasaragod district in the northern Malabar region of Kerala

is an area whose people cannot depend directly on surface

water. The terrain is such that there is high discharge in

rivers in the monsoon and low discharge in the dry months.

People here depend, therefore on groundwater, and on a

special water harvesting structure called surangam.

• It is a horizontal well mostly excavated in hard laterite rock

formations. The excavation continues until a good amount

of water is struck. Water seeps out of the hard rock and

flows out of the tunnel. This water is usually collected in an

open pit constructed outside the surangam.

Surangam

Concept of Surangam

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•Usually several subsidiary surangams are excavated inside the main one. If the

surangam is very long, a number of vertical air shafts are provided to ensure

atmospheric pressure inside.

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CONCLUSIONS

Without addressing the entire agriculturable land, potential of land resources could

not be fully utilized and water sector can not be said to be in order

Placing Water Sector in order is the key to Indian prosperity – all other corrections

would follow

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Centralized approach to water management has limitations – decentralized

approach may be applied as complementary to it rather than an alternative – Indian

traditional methods of water conservation and utilization are based on

decentralized approach, environmental enrichment, groundwater recharge,

wholistic view towards water, community participation, cost effectiveness, etc. and

hence are much more promising and time-tested and hence can better introduce

corrections to the Indian water sector

CONCLUSIONS

India preaches the values which include veneration of resources rather than

viewing them as a subject to consumption - if education system is made founded

on these values, modern society would become sensitive to environment and hence

would automatically opt for sustainable ways of development – for the world to be

better, the mankind must understand the significance of honoring the nature and its

gift in the form of five basic elements – earth, water, space, light and fire

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For India to make progress, address the basic issues of ignorant masses who do

not have access to safe drinking water, sanitation, food, education, home, etc. as

by ignoring the so-called ignorant, India has become and remained slave for

centuries and even today is not free in true sense

THANKS TO ALL47

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