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Towards an Ecological Activism: public engagement through Art and the

DIY/Citizen Science movement

(draft v.1 please do not cite, distribute, or reproduce without permission)

Maria Michails Independent Artist, Writer & Educator

www.TreiaStudios.net

1. INTRODUCTION Citizen scientists, DIY makers, biohackers, and bioartists; can these democratically-engaged, activist-oriented pursuits cultivate eco-citizenship? How does or can the intersection of these art/sci/tech activities influence our social, political, and environmental outlooks? As more 'hacker', DIY, and maker spaces pop up around the globe from small towns to major cities, what type of projects or innovations are generated and how, if at all, do they interface with their communities? Contemporary artists whose practice bridge the sciences and engineering, venture into realms of technological innovation, often employing a DIY approach and include the public as part of their creative research. Similarly, scientists are relying more and more on the Citizen Science model that enables bigger questions, broader scopes and produce large data sets traditionally not possible.1 What are the implications of these models and how do they encourage public action toward environmental stewardship and behavioral changes? In this paper I will discuss these questions in relation to several projects (art and other community engaged works) that engender public engagement as an integral part of the development of the device or project. While they focus on addressing environmental issues and use an open-culture approach to deploy and develop their 'innovation', several follow a unique social-entrepreneurial approach and have education, creativity, and empowerment as their core ethic.

1 Caren Cooper interview with Diane Toomey, "How Rise of Citizen Science is Democratized" online at http://e360.yale.edu/content/print.msp?id=2733

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2. BACKGROUND The ideals of open culture are at the core of the DIY movement, inspiring a return to making, modifying, or repairing without the aid of an expert. Do-it-yourself has been associated with consumer culture since the early 1900s.2 Citizen Science also has a long history. In the mid-1800s William Whewell of England, who was studying ocean tides, enlisted the help of thousands of coastal communities on both sides of the Atlantic to measure and mark tide levels every 15 minutes, day and night for two weeks, compiling over a million data points. 3 Where DIY is associated with the arts and crafts movement, Citizen Science is widely being used by the scientific community as a means to gather data farther afield than would be possible with a single researcher. The two often overlap, with projects being intrinsically collaborative in nature and often incredibly innovative. These methodologies can create a platform for critical engagement with regards to the politics behind scientific and technological information and access. When these techniques are used toward public engagement for environmental monitoring, protection and awareness, information can have a powerful effect; mobilizing communities to take action, standing up to corporate manipulation, and swaying policy decision-making in their best interest. The current popularity of and demand for maker spaces is a clear indication there is a shift happening toward personal ownership of commodity culture. But this is a double-edged sword. What is the significance of a maker movement in a time of excess resource extraction, unabated consumerism, and climate change? While visiting and participating in World Maker Faire in New York City the last few years, I've witnessed a noticeable increase in the selling of products to serve the burgeoning popularity of 'makers', from Makerbot 3D printers to the plethora of gadgets in the Maker Shed. I will not spend much time analyzing or critiquing these phenomena as I prefer to focus on the segment of the maker culture that services community through a different ethic – that which fosters an awareness of environmental issues, remedies environmental justice, and points toward a path for environmental or ecological stewardship through action.

2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_it_yourself 3 Caren Cooper interview with Diane Toomey, "How Rise of Citizen Science is Democratized" online at http://e360.yale.edu/content/print.msp?id=2733

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It has become evident that global leaders prefer to defer actual policy changes and pay lip service to climate change rather than take the necessary, and drastically needed, measures toward mitigation. This dis-service to the planet and humanity enslaves us for we have little alternatives at hand to make radical changes to our consumerist choices other than reduce and conserve – which would definitely go a long way but is not enough. Transitioning from a fossil fuel economy is the greatest challenge and the impediments seem insurmountable. How then, can educators, activists, artists, and others vested in making changes to the broader culture have any impact beyond raising awareness? How do we facilitate the translation of this awareness into committed action? Simply, how do we get people to deeply care for our ecological systems, for which we, and non-human species, depend on? There are varying theories emerging from the social sciences on what are the best approaches to fostering environmental care. Studies show that knowledge and information are not enough to change attitudes and behavior, and fiscal incentives (through mandated policies) may work to change our behavior but not necessarily our attitudes, therefore, the behavior doesn't stick if policy becomes lax.4 The term "biophilia" first appeared in 1979, meaning the innate human love of the natural world, a universal affinity toward all living beings. It was Edward O. Wilson, a Harvard biologist, who, in his book Biophilia (1984), proposed the existence of a genetic basis for this human tendency and suggested that there is an instinctive bond between human beings and other living systems or life forms. Initially, his concepts were not easily received but nearly a decade later an anthology of essays forming an academic volume titled The Biophilia Hypothesis appeared with a variety of disciplines represented. Although many of the essays sought to describe our relationship to the natural world through an agricultural lens, others focused on nature's influence on cultural development.5 Another scientist, who considered the biophilic relationship with the natural world, and specifically, natural systems, was Aldo Leopold. Leopold's premise was that in order to engender care for nature, there had to be an aesthetic appreciation. But that appreciation was rooted in knowing about the landscape and knowing it is ecologically "fit", making a distinction between a scenic aesthetic perception and one based on an ecological perspective.6 Cultivating this intrinsic appreciation is not

4 Dobson, 2007, "Environmental Citizenship: Towards Sustainable Development", 277. 5 Stairs, 1997, "Biophilia and Technophilia," 37 6 Gobster, 1995, "Aldo Leopold's Ecological Esthetic: Integrating Esthetic and Biodiversity Values:, 8

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an easy feat, and perhaps primarily accessible to a society with an inclination for leisure, as it requires time spent in a natural setting, even an urban one. Consequently, as Andrew Dobson points out, it is those living in wealthier regions that need to reduce their impact the most.7 The nuances between ecological citizenship and environmental citizenship are slight but discernable. Where one focuses on a personal obligation to reduce one's impact (ecological citizenship as described by Dobson), the other, environmental citizenship, takes a broader definition, as first developed by Environment Canada (the agency overseeing environmental regulation and one which has recently seen massive annihilation at the hands of an ultra conservative government bent of clearing the path for tar sands extraction). Environmental citizenship is based on the idea that we are an integral part of the environment and that our future depends on how we care for our ecosystems.8 At the core of both of these definitions is responsibility and action; personal and on behalf of the environment.

Can an ecological esthetic perception precipitate a biophilic relationship with the natural world? Does having a biophilic relationship with nature predispose one toward environmental or ecological citizenship?

Given the decline of public participation in civic and democratic processes and the drop in the public's priorities when it comes to climate change, motivating people to take decisive action in transitioning from a carbon-intensive economy to one centered on sustainable forms of energy, agriculture and resources, is a sizable challenge. The challenge is exacerbated by the emotional responses of the public toward the enormity and complexity of global warming, and what can be done about it.9 It is here that creative approaches are called for and where artists can be instrumental in conceptualizing and imagining new ways of living, capturing the public's attention to "facilitate a transformational shift of the personal at a deeper level [and] directed at changing, what Leopold termed, our "intellectual emphasis, loyalties, affections, and convictions"".10

7 Revkin, 2012. "Beyond Rio: Pursuing 'Ecological Citizenship'. 8 http://www.cep.unt.edu/citizen.htm 9 Lysack, Thibault, and Powell, 2014. "Fostering Environmental Citizenship", pg 175. 10 Leopold quoted in ibid, pg 176.

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3. DIY STRATEGIES FOR 'LIVING' SYSTEMS

Society is increasingly aware that problems - including environmental ones - will not be solved by government alone. Gradually more and more people are realizing the need to organize themselves and act collectively to influence social change - and are searching for new ways of doing so.11

At the core of ecologically engaged artworks is an ethic of social and environmental justice in its content and/or form, often drawing on systems theory and the complexities found within natural processes.12 The projects presented here activate the interrelationship between social, economic, political, cultural and ecological systems, employing varying approaches to public engagement, whether technological, physical or both. The built environments' 'living' systems (its infrastructure) are inextricably linked to the natural living systems of the larger bioregion. Through the sensitizing of urban infrastructure Marjetica Potrč and Mary Mattingly work across planes; Potrč with communities of developing countries and Mattingly with North American. Although their processes vary, both use do-it-yourself approaches to building structures and systems, servicing the needs of the poor and marginalized (Potrč) and speculating on a potential future (Mattingly). Potrč navigates between art, design, architecture and social science, employing a 'case-study' approach to her creative research, that culminates in both on-site work with communities as well as documents and objects in gallery exhibition form. Her work comes out of an interest in the ad-hoc architectural structures "exist[ing] around the edges and shadows of global metropolises" that she refers to as "informal cities" because of their impromptu formation.13 She observes how these residents live under such conditions and how they solve infrastructural problems without municipal support, without permits and sometimes outside the law. After spending 6 months in barrio La Vega, an informal city on the outskirts of Caracas,

11 Barcena, 1997. "Global Environmental Citizenship." 12 Not all artists presented in this essay consider themselves as 'eco-artists' or that their practice is exclusively 'eco-art'. I use the words 'ecologically engaged' rather than 'eco-art' but borrow nuances of an evolving definition of the term, which falls under the umbrella of 'environmental art'. See the Environmental Art page on Wikipedia.org. 13 Stephanie Smith, "Marjetica Potr�", Beyond Green, 108

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Venezuela, she worked with the local residents to develop the project Dry Toilet (2003), an ecologically safe, waterless toilet in a district in Caracas that has no access to municipal water. Her participatory DIY design projects seek to provide aides to improve living conditions of impoverished populations who are especially vulnerable to climate change effects. As Potrč embeds herself in cities of the developing world (some of the world's fastest growing), Mary Mattingly considers ad-hoc spaces within the industrialized cities of North America. Mattingly's projects seem to plan for survival in impending environmental or economic catastrophe, both of which are deeply intertwined. Her earlier project, Waterpod (2006-2010) (Figure 1), a collaboratively-built floating, eco-habitat, public art project was built atop of a 100 foot barge floating in the Hudson River. Complete with geodesic domes, gardens, chicken coops, outhouse, solar panels and water filtration, the project speculates on rising sea levels and disappearing landmasses. Unlike the city it floats around, its life-supporting systems are made visible and accessible. With her later series, Flock Houses (2011–2014) (Figure 2), she built a group of self-contained mobile ecosystems that migrated around New York City, much like Waterpod did on water. She refers to them as 'living sculptures', an experiment in urban sustainability in the face of "environmental, political, and economic instability, and when dislocation and relocation is important to consider and reconcile".14 Drawing on the DIY movement, the concern here is not an aestheticized sculptural or architectural object, but rather a process in systemic, 'real-time' improvement and constant re-design with input from 'residents', artists and community members who live for a period in the structures. This ability to adapt to evolving conditions relies on an interdependency of community involvement, resourcefulness (especially with repurposed materials), and an ethic of ecological and economic equitability. Mattingly writes:

Part fantastic and part practical living, mobile Flock House living systems are interstitial, are both autonomous and dependent on their local community and human relationships to care for, share amongst, collaborate, and corroborate with. As living systems, they are bridges for informal cross-discipline, cross-boundary, and cross-border notions of perimeter, property, and polity. Flock House represents migratory structures as part of a city's ecology.15

14 Mattingly, Flock House, http://www.flockhouse.org/html/what.html 15 ibid

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Figure 1, the food system of Waterpod (above) and f igure 2, Flock House ( r ight). Mary Matt ingly's l iv ing systems are aimed at self-suff ic iency, ut i l iz ing solar power for energy and water dis infect ion. Food is grown and rain is captured for i rr igat ion and washing. Structures are modular and hand bui l t . With a DIY initiative, both artists initiate projects with communities functioning outside the bounds of regulatory bodies to address or highlight urban problems that include social and environmental inequities. They work within the realm of a counter-corporate system, as Mattingly suggests – a gift economy - using materials that are easily accessible and readily available. By their very nature, the projects advocate for and implement appropriate technologies and focus on living systems. 4. CITIZEN SCIENCE: USING DIY, OPEN SOURCE, AND COLLECTIVE ACTION The rise of the expert amateur is exemplified within the Citizen Science model. "New technology is dramatically increasing the role of non-scientists in providing key data for researchers," writes Diane Toomey of Yale environmet360.16 According to Cornell Ornithologist, Caren Cooper, certainly the Citizen Scientist has enabled her research to ask "amazing questions that transcend single study sites." But she also observes "that these field experiences and this collaborative relationship between members of the public and scientists actually provide meaningful and really transformative experiences for individuals and for communities [because] it can change people's perspectives…it can also empower communities and

16 Toomey, 2013, "How the Rise of Citizen Science Is Democratizing Research", no pagination

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individuals, because the whole point of science is to make reliable knowledge, and that's a powerful thing."17 The accessibility of technology makes it possible to augment, for example, an iPhone with an app that tracks endangered species, to low-tech DIY devices that measure water quality. Environmental activists and NGO's are employing open-source technology and deploying these devices to groups who act as environmental watchdogs while collecting data. Citizen Science is changing the relationship between science and society much like the DIY maker movement is between art and society. The overlap of Citizen Science and the DIY maker movement creates an opportunity for artists, designers, engineers and scientists to work together toward common goals. Whether the project is initiated by an artist, artist collective or a non-profit made up of designers, biologists and engineers, it's the 'getting out there' and pursuing real-time experience that promotes the biophillic relationship – be it in the forest or a city riverbank. It may be a group of concerned citizens wanting to protect their water sources from potential future contamination by industry that they meet regularly to collect baseline data. Or it may be a collective of artists who, through a play on words and humorous, socially engaged artworks, set up a clinic to prescribe 'remedies' for the 'impatient's' environmental health concerns. The Environmental Health Clinic is an unusual clinic where you can receive health care advice for your environmental problem. The clinic dispenses with information and tools in the form of kits, mobile apps or other devices. For example, the Farmacy (a public art project installed at the Socrates Sculpture Park in Queens, NY) consists of multiple rows of white sacks bearing a large red "X" similar to the universal medic symbol of the red cross, that grow herbs and other medicinal or edible plants within a self-contained Ag-Bag (figure 3), which is available as a takeaway kit.

17 ibid.

At the Environmental Health Clinic you make an appointment, just like you would at a traditional health clinic, to talk about your particular environmental health concerns. What differs is that you walk out with a prescription not for pharmaceuticals but for actions.

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In another 'low-tech' and low cost environmental remedy, Natalie Jeremijenko, the artist who founded the clinic, intervenes in every day city experiences with humor and play. In NoPark she converts (or returns) no parking zones such as fire hydrant spots to green cover using low growth mosses and grasses as storm water filtration systems where 99% of the time the spaces remain empty, barring the exception of the rare emergency. In this case, she redefines the 'emergency' as being an environmental one. The project was constructed throughout areas of Manhattan and Brooklyn, giving residents an opportunity to engage with the 'clinicians' during the construction and then enjoying and tending to their new 'micro-park'.

Figure 3, Ag-Bag Kit f rom the project, Farmacy, 2012, (above) and f igure 4, NoPark zone, 2008 (r ight). Natal ie Jeremijenko and the Environmental Health Cl in ic, NYU. Another project with similar intent is Public Lab of Cambridge, Massachusetts. The diverse group is made up of designers, biologists, and engineers who collect broken CD players, old VHS cases and inexpensive webcams, turning them into low-cost, do-it-yourself devices such as a spectrometer, a tool used to detect neurotoxins that would normally cost thousands of dollars. Another example of the inexpensive and innovative devices is Balloon & Kite Mapping. Add a small digital camera, a little assembly and you're ready to take aerial images for making maps of areas for monitoring purposes. Their goal is to make the devices available to underserved communities to address environmental issues. They apply open-source techniques to the development of tools for environmental exploration and investigation. In addition, Public Lab generates knowledge and shares data about community environmental health, while focusing on locally relevant outcomes that emphasize human capacity and understanding.

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Using crowd-sourcing like kickstarter.com, they have been successful in funding four projects. Their website is a resource center, with a wiki that the public can add their comments, feedback and queries. Open source technologies and a culture of sharing contribute to an openness of 'institutional' or 'expert' knowledge and can have a mobilizing affect on communities, particularly with vulnerable and/or under-represented groups. These means have been especially useful in empowering individuals and communities in the face of environmental crisis. Furthermore, they are models for a new kind of 'incubator', encouraging collective innovation without the exclusivity.

Figure 5. Publ ic Lab, Bal loon & Kite Mapping. 5. ALTERNATIVE ECONOMIES: SOCIAL 'ENTERPRISE' AND OPEN CULTURE

"The principles embodied by DIY communities – low barrier to entry, learning, open sharing and creativity – can benefit a variety of other corporate, academic and nonprofit collaborative environments. These values drive the exchange of ideas that lead to new discoveries and innovations."18

The ethic behind open culture - open hardware or software, crowd sourcing, do-it-yourself, street science, citizen science, and so forth, are part of a people's common and the desire for an open society of sharing and equality. It goes without saying that the rise of this ethic and contemporary movement has been facilitated by new technologies. But technological advancements are a capitalistic enterprise mired in patents, competition and exclusivity, completely the opposite of open culture thinking. Each camp accuses the other of being undemocratic. How, then, can new models of economic entities co-exist, and should they co-exist? Open-

18 Kuznetsov & Paulos, 2010, "Rise of the Expert Amatuer:", 8

Public Lab is a community where you can learn how to investigate environmental concerns. Using inexpensive DIY techniques, we seek to change how people see the world in environmental, social, and political terms.

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source ideas can empower amateur inventors, yielding radical innovations that can lead to the creation of technology-focused social enterprises that employ a new business model, placing human and environmental wellbeing over profit. These models place a monetary value on the future of social benefits that are accrued from their activities. Cesar Harada and Gabriella Levine came together for the highly inventive project Protei (2011-ongoing), a revolutionary shape shifting sailing robot that monitors and cleans ocean pollution. With combined backgrounds in music, glass-blowing, sculpture, new media, performance, animation and film, interaction design, cancer research, and architecture, this duo's passion for DIY and open source technology drives the newly formed social enterprise, Scoutbots, the home of Protei. In 2011 Harada raised $30,000 on a kickstarter.com campaign to fund the prototyping of Protei, after quitting a lucrative job at MIT and moving to New Orleans to assist in the oil spill clean up. Observing the techniques being used, most of which were inefficient and toxic to the ocean and the fishermen's health, he designed the initial plans to a small, unmanned sailboat trailing a long material that could capture more oil than the fishing boats. Levine came on board to help prototype the project, implementing a mimetic, snake-like motion to the prototype. They made iteration after iteration with a young team of technologists with varied backgrounds in a rented warehouse in Rotterdam. They worked quickly to design, build, test and then start again, until a well-functioning prototype could be presented for further funding.

Figure 6. Protei (prototype) by Gabrie l la Levine and Cesar Harade of Scoutbots . A robot sai lboat that c leans up oi l spi l ls. From the technologies that they develop to their business model, Harada and Levine firmly believe that social change can happen only if a shift is made that opens the way for inclusiveness, collaboration, and sharing of tools and techniques

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in order to solve many of our environmental, social and economic problems. They believe that profit can be made from sharing rather than patenting inventions. As such, Protei became an international network of shared technology, with contributors testing their own version of the project and then sharing it with the community. In his TED talk, Harada speaks about their philosophy of placing the environment and people first, technology and profits as secondary priorities to their enterprise. 19 Protei is being marketed as a tool available to companies, environmental activist groups, and smaller, simpler versions for educational programs. Another model that has seen proliferation in the last decade is that of maker spaces. From large cities to small towns, maker spaces provide a physical space where members can come together to learn, share, and get feedback on projects they've been developing. This space not only facilitates making, since most people can't afford the equipment a maker space provides, often for very low membership fees, it also provides a social context for community building of 'like-minded individuals'. Although much of the sharing we've seen is with online forums, as makers tend to work in solitude, studies show that 80% of respondents want the in-person connection as it gives participants an opportunity to collaborate, share skill sets, and give/receive feedback on projects, most of which are driven by creativity and personal expression.20 One such space is the nonprofit Genspace, the Brooklyn-based community biolab, dedicated to promoting citizen science and making through access to biotechnology. The lab offers workshops and crash courses, encourages innovation and entre-preneurship, internships and mentoring for students, and more. Genspace was founded in 2009 by a group of science enthusiasts who come from different Figure 8. Spikerbox, a neuroscience

tool that you bui ld yourself . I t is used to measure and observe a var iety of neuroscience phenomena.

19 www.cesarharada.com 20 Kuznetsov & Paulos, 2010, "Rise of the Expert Amatuer:", 8.

DIY Neuroscience at Genspace!

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professions - artists, engineers, writers and biologists, and hence, encourage a diverse membership. At the core of the organization is the alternative educational methods (through affordable workshops and short courses) coupled with the facilities and peers available for supporting experimentation, the operation presents a compelling model for non-institutionalized learning and a popular business model. After meeting with my local maker space organizer, I learned that much of the equipment was donated and the organization is working with the owner of a historical building and the city to move into a larger, renovated space that would become a hub for innovation with the maker space at the forefront of the initiative. Maker spaces generally run on non-profit status with few resources therefore are community supported and, in turn, service the community in which they are within. In the United States there are many communities fell into slumps after industry moved off-shore and many workers were left with no jobs and no skills to move forward with. These post-industrial regions remain depressed, with rampant poverty, low education, and little civic engagement. Although my impression of the maker movement seems geared toward a younger generation with relative affluence, nonetheless I feel that they provide an incentive and opportunity to branch out to marginalized and impoverished community members, and many do make this a goal. This is where artists working in social practice and through partnering with such enterprises, could be catalysts to social change by extending the maker movement and citizen science models to these communities, mobilizing and empowering them in dealing with the environmental issues that often plague and hit these communities the hardest. 6. CLOSING THOUGHTS AND FURTHER QUESTIONS The co-production of knowledge between expert and amateur has been a primary goal of the Citizen Science model and the sharing, collaborative nature of the DIY movement. Ecologically engaged artistic research that draws upon these approaches can help foster a culture of environmental citizenship and contributes toward a cultural heritage rooted in ecological thinking and living. When artists or artist groups engage in scientific pursuits, but without the scientist as the principle investigator, they too are empowered, as agents of change, creatively inventing and deploying tools that can in turn empower the public to bring about political action.

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Whether or not we can effect change at the policy level, we nonetheless have the power, knowledge and tools to make change 'in the front lines' where it is needed most. The challenge of persuading behavioural change may be lessened by activities that take place in the sphere of the natural, be it city green space or rural farms, with tools or devices (that we may have built ourselves) used to investigate, familiarize, and learn about the living world around us. Would it foster a biophilic relationship and result in stewardship? Would it change attitudes and encourage further action to demand policy changes? Would it reduce the apathy and helplessness many feel about mitigating the effects of green house gases? These are questions that may not have an exacting answer but instead point toward goals, a direction, and to more questions. All of which have creative potential. References Barcena, Alicia. "Global Environmental Citizenship". Online: UNEP 25 1972 – 1897. In Our Planet 8.5. January, 1997. Retrieved September 20, 2014. http://www.ourplanet.com/imgversn/85/barcena.html Gobster, Paul H. "Aldo Leopold's Ecological Esthetic: Integrating Esthetic and Biodiversity Values." In: Journal of Forestry (February 1995) pgs 6-10. Accessed: August 1, 2014. http://flash.lakeheadu.ca/~rrempel/ecology/Biodiversity _ Papers/PDF0226Gobster.pdf Kuznetsov, Stacey, Paulos, Eric, 2010, "Rise of the Expert Amateur: DIY Projects, Communities, and Cultures." NordiCHI '10 Proceedings of the 6th Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Extending Boundaries, Pages 295-304 ACM New York, NY, USA ©2010. Accessed: September 19, 2014. http://www.staceyk.org/hci/KuznetsovDIY.pdf Lysack, M, Thibault, B., and Powell, G. "Fostering Environmental Citizenship." In Found in Alberta: Environmental Themes for the Anthropocene. Eds Robert Boschman and Mario Trono. WLU Press: Waterloo, 2014, pgs 173-193. Pre-publication uncorrected proofs. Revkin, Andrew C. "Beyond Rio: Pursuing 'Ecological Citizenship'" In The New York Times, Online edition, The Opinion Pages. June 25, 2012. Accessed: September 20, 2014. http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/25/beyond-rio-pursuing-ecological-citizenship/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0

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Smith, Stephanie. Beyond Green: toward a sustainable art. Exhibition Catalogue, SMART Museum of Art, University of Chicago and Independent Curators International, New York. 2005. Stairs, David. "Biophilia and Technophilia: Examining the Nature/Culture Split in Design Theory", Design Issues: Vol. 13, No. 3, Autumn 1997. MIT Press. 37-44. Toomey, Diane. "How Rise of Citizen Science Is Democratizing Research." Interview with Caren Cooper. Yale Environment 360. January 28, 2014. Online at http://e360.yale.edu/content/print.msp?id=2733. Accessed April 25, 2014.