Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia · 2018-12-18 · unencumbered to pursue career...
9
Kunmin Kim, Task Manager, ADBI Dani Rose C. Salazar, Cesar E.A. Virata School of Business, University of the Philippines Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia brief policy Key Points • Although women make up half the world’s population, only four in every 10 workers are women. Closing the gender gap in the global labor force could result in significant economic gains. • In Asia and the Pacific, women work mainly in the service sector. Most work in jobs lacking formal arrangements—that is, vulnerable employment. In managerial positions as well, there is still a glass ceiling for women. • Legislation and concrete plans of action are required to address gender discrimination in the workplace and promote women’s participation at work. • Governments should direct their efforts into implementing legal frameworks, programs, and policies to help overcome social norms and cultural gender biases and achieve gender equality in the workforce. No. 2018-4 (December) © 2018 Asian Development Bank Institute ISSN 2411-6734 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Policy Workshop: Toward Gender Focused Governance Reform 16–17 August 2018 Bangkok Thailand Organized by the Asian Development Bank Institute. The global population is composed of an almost equal proportion of men and women. In contrast, the global labor force is disproportionately male. Only four in every 10 workers in the global labor force are women. 1 Similar discrepancies between the women’s share in the population and the labor force are reported in Asia and the Pacific, specifically in Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and the Republic of Korea (Figure 1). India has the widest gap (about 23 percentage points) between the population and labor force shares, which are 48% and 25% female, respectively. The gender labor force participation rate shows the contribution of each gender to the labor force, expressed as a percentage of the total population of each gender (aged 15+) in the country (Figure 2). The male labor participation rate in Asia and the Pacific is about 71%–89%. The female labor force participation rate varies widely, from a high of 81% in Cambodia to a very low rate of only 27% in India. The Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam recorded high female participation rates of 77% and 73%, respectively. In Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines and the Republic of Korea, only 50% of the female population is part of the labor force. These discrepancies—in the women’s share in the population and labor force (Figure 1) and the relatively low female participation in the labor force (Figure 2)—point to untapped human resources potential. Therefore, the presence of conditions that hinder the ability of women to realize their full abilities has economic consequences. As defined by the United Nations (UN) Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, UN Women, “gender equality” means that women and men have equal conditions for realizing their full human rights and for contributing to, and benefiting from, economic, social, cultural, and political development. 2 The absence of equality between men and women is a pressing global issue. Gender bias—denying women 1 Statistics on the female population are from World Bank staff estimates based on the age and sex distributions of the United Nations Population Division’s World Population Prospects. Global labor force data are from the International Labour Organization ILOSTAT database, and World Bank population estimates are available at http://databank.worldbank.org/data/source/gender-statistics#. 2 For concepts and definitions with a gender perspective, see UN Women. Gender Equality Glossary.
Transcript of Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia · 2018-12-18 · unencumbered to pursue career...
Kunmin Kim, Task Manager, ADBIDani Rose C. Salazar, Cesar E.A. Virata School of Business, University of the Philippines
Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia
briefpolicy
Key Points • Althoughwomenmake up
halftheworld’spopulation,onlyfourinevery10 workersarewomen.Closingthegendergapinthegloballaborforcecouldresultinsignificanteconomicgains.
• InAsiaandthePacific,womenworkmainlyintheservicesector.Mostworkinjobslackingformalarrangements—thatis,vulnerableemployment.Inmanagerialpositionsaswell,thereisstillaglassceilingforwomen.
• Legislationandconcreteplansofactionarerequiredtoaddressgenderdiscriminationintheworkplaceandpromotewomen’sparticipationat work.
• Governmentsshoulddirecttheireffortsintoimplementinglegalframeworks,programs,andpoliciestohelpovercomesocialnormsandculturalgenderbiasesandachievegenderequalityinthe workforce.
No. 2018-4 (December)
© 2018 Asian Development Bank InstituteISSN 2411-6734
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Policy Workshop: Toward Gender Focused Governance Reform16–17 August 2018 Bangkok Thailand
Organized by the Asian Development Bank Institute.
The global population is composed of an almost equal proportion of men andwomen. In contrast, theglobal labor force isdisproportionatelymale.Only four inevery10workersinthegloballaborforcearewomen.1Similardiscrepanciesbetweenthewomen’sshareinthepopulationandthelaborforcearereportedinAsiaandthePacific, specifically in Indonesia, Japan,Malaysia, thePhilippines, and theRepublicofKorea(Figure1).Indiahasthewidestgap(about23percentagepoints)betweenthepopulationandlaborforceshares,whichare48%and25%female,respectively.
Thegenderlaborforceparticipationrateshowsthecontributionofeachgendertothe labor force, expressedas apercentageof the totalpopulationof eachgender(aged15+)inthecountry(Figure2).ThemalelaborparticipationrateinAsiaandthePacificisabout71%–89%.Thefemalelaborforceparticipationratevarieswidely,fromahighof81%inCambodiatoaverylowrateofonly27%inIndia.TheLaoPeople’sDemocratic Republic (Lao PDR) andViet Nam recorded high female participationratesof77%and73%,respectively.InIndonesia,Japan,Malaysia,thePhilippinesandtheRepublicofKorea,only50%ofthefemalepopulationispartofthelaborforce.
Thesediscrepancies—inthewomen’sshareinthepopulationandlaborforce(Figure 1)and the relatively low female participation in the labor force (Figure 2)—point tountapped human resources potential. Therefore, the presence of conditions thathindertheabilityofwomentorealizetheirfullabilitieshaseconomicconsequences.
AsdefinedbytheUnitedNations(UN)EntityforGenderEqualityandtheEmpowermentofWomen,UNWomen,“gender equality”means thatwomen andmenhave equalconditionsforrealizingtheirfullhumanrightsandforcontributingto,andbenefitingfrom,economic,social,cultural,andpoliticaldevelopment.2Theabsenceofequalitybetweenmenandwomenisapressingglobalissue.Genderbias—denyingwomen
1 Statistics on the female population are fromWorld Bank staff estimates based on the age and sexdistributionsoftheUnitedNationsPopulationDivision’sWorld Population Prospects.Globallaborforcedata are from the International Labour Organization ILOSTAT database, andWorld Bank populationestimatesareavailableathttp://databank.worldbank.org/data/source/gender-statistics#.
2 Forconceptsanddefinitionswithagenderperspective,seeUNWomen.GenderEqualityGlossary.
ADBI Policy Brief No. 2018-4 (December) 2
3 SeetheGlobalGoalsforSustainableDevelopment.Goal5:GenderEquality.4 SeeUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals(2016).
Source: International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT, and World Bank population estimates.
Figure 1 Share of Women in the Labor Force and Total Population, 2017 (%)
51
50
48
50
50
51
50
48
51
48
40
38
50
42
43
38
25
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
VIE
PHI
MAL
LAO
KOR
JPN
INO
IND
CAM
Female workers in the labor force Women in total population
89 79 82
71 73 80 77 75
83 81
27
51 50 52
77
51 50
73
CAM
Male Female
IND JPNINO KOR LAO MAL PHI VIE
Source: International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT, and World Bank population estimates.
Figure 2 Labor Participation Rate by Gender, 2017 (%)
theopportunity to live life at its fullest—is tantamountto throwing away half of the world’s human potential,leading to the stagnation of social and economicprogress.3Consequently,theUNdeclaredgenderequalityasgoal 5 among its 17SustainableDevelopmentGoalsforabetterworldby2030.4
Women20 (W20), an official G20 engagement group,is tasked with formulating concrete recommendationsto advance gender equality in G20 negotiations.W20 advocates women’s economic empowerment asfundamentalforaprosperousworld.Women’sinclusionin the labor market can be improved by increasing
Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia2 3
theirparticipation rateandcounting thevalueofworktraditionallydonebywomeningrossdomesticproduct(GDP)measurements.
In 2015, the McKinsey Global Institute (MGI 2015)estimatedtheglobaleconomicpotentialfromachievinggender parity at $12 trillion–$25 trillion of additionalannual GDP in 2025. Closing the global gender gap inworkcoulddoublethecontributionofwomentoglobalGDP growth between 2014 and 2025.TheMGI furthernarrowed its scope to theAsia andPacific region in its2018genderparityreport. Itconcludedthatadvancingwomen’sequalitycouldresultinanestimated$4.5 trillionof additional annual GDP in 2025 for the countries inthe region (MGI 2018). India, where only 27% of thefemale population is in the labor force, stands to reapthemost fromimprovinggenderequality,estimatedat17.6% above the country’s business-as-usual GDP. Thistranslates to $770 billion of additional annual GDP in2025(Figure3).
Women at Work
Globally,workingwomenarepredominantlyemployedin the service sector—about 57% of the female laborforce.Theservicesector isalsothedominantemployerin Asia and the Pacific (Figure 4). Even in agriculturaleconomies,suchasIndonesia,theLaoPDR,andViet Nam,a largeproportionofwomenarealsoemployed in the
service sector. In contrast, the industry sector,which ischaracterized as providing better-quality jobs (David,Albert,andVizmanos2017a),hiresasmallportionofthefemalelaborforce.
The International Labour Organization (ILO) describes“vulnerable employment” as jobs that are less likelyto have formal work arrangements. These occupationsare more likely to lack decent working conditions,adequate social security, and effective representationby trade unions and similar organizations. Inadequateearnings,lowproductivity,anddifficultworkconditionsthat undermine workers’ fundamental rights arecharacteristics of such employment (ILO 2010). It isalarming thata largerpercentageofwomen thanmeninthelaborforceisexposedtovulnerableemployment(Figure 5). Moreover, most women work in vulnerableemploymentoccupationsinCambodia,Indonesia,India,theLaoPDR,andVietNam.
Labor data from the Philippines show that industrygroups can be classified as either male dominated orfemaledominated (Figure6).Certainpositionsseemtobe filled based on gender, either because of physicalrequirements or social norms. Household, education,andhumanhealthandsocialworkactivitiesarefemale-dominated industries; domestic workers, teachers, andnursesareusuallywomen.Incontrast,male-dominatedindustries include construction, transportation andstorage,fishing,andminingandquarrying.
GDP = gross domestic product, PRC = People’s Republic of China.
Source: McKinsey Global Institute.
Figure 3 Incremental 2025 GDP from Improving Gender Equality
2025 improvement above and beyond business-as-usual GDP, %
Asia and Paci�c average: 11.6
2025 improvement above and beyond business-as-usual GDP, $ billion 2014
14.417.6
IndiaSri Lanka
PRCThailand
CambodiaAustralia
Viet NamNew Zealand
NepalIndonesia
Republic of KoreaMalaysia
BangladeshMyanmar
PhilippinesPakistan
JapanSingapore
IndiaSri Lanka
PRCThailand
CambodiaAustralia
Viet NamNew Zealand
NepalIndonesia
Republic of KoreaMalaysia
BangladeshMyanmar
PhilippinesPakistan
JapanSingapore
11.912.8 11.611.9 9.6 9.2 8.9 8.5 8.2 8.0 7.7 7.2 7.1 6.0 5.49.8
77020 70 4 225 40 25 3 135 160 50 30 10 40 30 325 2 0
2,600
ADBI Policy Brief No. 2018-4 (December) 4
Datashowthatthereisstillaglassceilinginvariouslabormarkets.ILOdataforthePhilippinesshowadecreasingpercentageofwomeninseniorandmiddlemanagementlevels. In 2003, women made up 59% of senior andmiddlemanagers.Thiswascutalmost inhalfto33%in2016(Figure7).Moreover,only30%offirmshadfemaletop managers in 2016 (ILO 2016). Women’s ability tobepartofthedecision-makingprocess isan important
component in narrowing the gender gap. However,the societal expectations for wives and mothers toprioritize their family responsibilities over their careershave led working women to voluntarily opt out ofpromotions, transfer positions, change industries, andscalebackworkinghours (David,Albert, andVizmanos2017b).IntheRepublicofKoreaandJapan,theM-curveof labor supply over the life cycle illustrates women
Figure 4 Female Employment by Sector, 2017 (%)
Source: International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT, and World Bank population estimates.
26
56
29
63
7 17
42
26
18
16
15 13
7
20 10
21
48
26
55
82 82
30
74 74
37
Agriculture Industry Service
CAM IND JPNINO KOR LAO MAL PHI VIE3 5
Figure 5 Vulnerable Employment by Gender, 2017 (%)
Source: International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT, and World Bank population estimates.
45
76
42
9
26
77
20
32
5057
81
56
9
22
89
25
40
62
Male Female
CAM IND JPNINO KOR LAO MAL PHI VIE
Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia4 5
leavingthelabormarkettofocusonchild-rearing(Kim,Lee, and Shin 2016; Nishimura 2016). In contrast,menare not restricted to make this prioritization and areunencumbered topursuecareer advancements (David,
Albert, and Vizmanos 2017a). Women’s childcare andhomemanagementresponsibilitiesarecriticalissuesforwomen in the labor force inmost countries, includingCambodia,Indonesia,Malaysia,andVietNam.
Figure 6 Distribution of Labor Force by Industry Group in the Philippines, 2017 (%)
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority (2016).
4101015
2429
35383843434547
56575860
677273
90
9897
909085
7772
65626257575553
44434240
332927
10
Construction Transportation and storage
Mining and quarrying Fishing
Electricity, gas, steam, and air conditioning supply Water supply, sewerage, and waste management
Agriculture, hunting, and forestry Administrative and support service activities
Information and communication Arts, entertainment, and recreation Public administration and defense
Activities of extraterritorial organizations and bodies Manufacturing
Professional, scientific, and technical activities Real estate activities
Financial and insurance activities Accommodation and food service activities
Wholesale and retail trade Human health and social work activities
Other service activities Education
Activities of households as employers
Female Male
2
Figure 7 Share of Women in Senior and Middle Management in the Philippines, 2003–2016 (%)
Source: International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT.
59 59 59 59 5956 55 54 53
48 48 47
41
33
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
ADBI Policy Brief No. 2018-4 (December) 6
Policies for Women Empowerment and Gender Equality The persistence of gender bias and gender gaps ineconomic opportunities most often stems frompatriarchal attitudes and related social norms (UNDESA 2018). Government intervention, through thelegislationandexecutionofconcreteplansofaction,isacrucialcomponent inaddressingdeeplyrootedgenderdiscriminationandachievinggenderequality.
Legal Framework
Governmentsenact lawstoupholdwomen’srightsandprevent discrimination and violence against women.In 2014, the UN reported that 143 countries hadguaranteed the equality of men and women in theirrespectiveconstitutions.However,52countrieshadnotyetmadethiscommitment(UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals2016).
The Philippines enacted the Magna Carta of Women(MCW)in2008.Thelawaimstoeliminatediscriminationagainst women through the recognition, protection,fulfillment,andpromotionoftherightsofFilipinowomen.Further,theMCWpromotestheempowermentofwomen,pursues equal opportunities for women and men, andensures equal access to resources and to developmentresultsandoutcomes.Amongthesalient featuresof thelaware(i)anincreaseinthenumberofwomeninthird-level(ordirector-level)positionsingovernmenttoachievegenderbalancewithin5years,whilethecompositionofwomeninalllevelsofdevelopmentplanningandprogramimplementationwillbeincreasedtoatleast40%;(ii)equalaccess and elimination of discrimination in education,scholarships, and training; (iii) nondiscrimination inemployment, promotion, and other opportunities inthe field of military, police, and similar services; and(d) the nondiscriminatory and nonderogatory portrayalofwomeninmediaandfilmtoraisetheconsciousnessofthegeneralpublic in recognizing thedignityofwomenas well as the role and contribution of women in thefamily, community, and society through the strategicuse of mass media. The MCW mandates all levels ofgovernmenttoadoptgendermainstreamingasastrategyfor implementing the law and attaining its objectives(PhilippineCommissiononWomen2010).
VariouscountrieshaveenactedlawssimilartotheMCWthatguaranteegenderequalityintheeyesofthestate.TheRepublicofKoreapassedtheActonGenderEquality,
whichaddressestheissuesof(i)gendermainstreaming;(ii) the participation of women in government andleadership positions; (iii) antidiscrimination, sexualharassment,andviolence;and(iv)genderequalityinthemedia,education,andfamily.Cambodia’s5-yearstrategicplan (2014–2018) for gender equality and women’sempowerment, Neary Rattanak IV, provides economicempowerment towomenby increasing their access toskillstraining,employment,productiveresources,socialprotection,anddecisionmakingintheeconomicsector.
TheLaoPDR’sLawontheDevelopmentandProtectionofWomen promulgates the promotion and protectionofgenderequalityinthefamily.Toprotectwomenfromarranged marriages, the law grants adult women thefreedom to choose their partner to build their familieswith.Daughtersandsonsaregrantedequalinheritancerightstopropertyandeducation.Husbandandwivesaregivenequalrightstodecisionmakingwithinthefamilyandinmatrimonialproperties.
Animportantcomponentofthelegalframeworkforthepromotion of women empowerment is the protectionofwomenagainstviolence.InthePhilippines,theAnti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act waspromulgatedin2004,whichdefinesviolencetoincludephysical, sexual, psychological, and economic abuse.The law provides protective measures for victims andprescribespenalties for theabusersand liablepersons.Cambodia has a similar legislature referred to as theNationalActionPlantoPreventViolenceAgainstWomen.
Concrete Action Plans
Concreteplansofactioncreateprogramsandestablishtargets to monitor the progress of these programstoward improving the gender divide. The UNpublished a set of indicators to evaluate each nation’saccomplishmentstowardthetargetsofthe2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,withgoal5beinggenderequality. Discussed below are national plans of actionincorporated into laws that are geared toward closingthe gender gap and mobilizing women to join thelabor force.
TheLaoPDRintegratedgenderequalityintheNationalSocio-EconomicDevelopmentPlan2016–2020.Genderbudgetinginthe5-yearplanincludesincreasingwomenmembership in parliament to 30%, in managementpositionsatprovincialanddistrict levelsto20%,andatthevillagelevelto10%.
Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia6 7
Prime Minister Shinzo Abe of Japan believes thatactivating women to join the workforce will promotethe country’s economic growth.TheAct on Promotionof Women’s Participation and Advancement in theWorkplace came into force on 1 April 2016. The lawpromotes women in the labor force by (i) providingopportunitiestohireandpromotewomen,(ii) improvingtheenvironment so thatwomenandmencanbalancework and family life, and (iii) respecting a woman’schoice regarding herwork and family life balance.Thelaw obliges large employers to report (i) the ratio ofwomenamongitsemployees,(ii) thedifferencesinyearsofservicebetweenmenandwomen,(iii)workinghours,and (iv) the ratio ofwomen amongmanagement-levelemployees. Companies are required to establish andpublishkeyperformanceindicatorstopromotewomen’scareeractivities,includingthoserelatingtorecruitment,continuing employment, working hours and systems,the ratios of manager positions, and the variation ofcareer paths of female employees. Japan’s Ministry ofHealth, Labour and Welfare will issue a certificationto companies that meet the criteria for proactivelypromotingwomen’scareeractivities.
A prerequisite for mobilizing the female labor forceis an environment that allows for work and family lifebalance.TheRepublicofKoreaenactedtheActonEqualEmploymentandSupportforWork–FamilyReconciliationtoaddress(i)equalopportunityandequalpayatwork,(ii) protection against discrimination and harassmentintheworkplace,and(iii)maternityprotectionandthepromotionofworkandfamilylifebalance.TheRepublicofKoreaalsogivesoutfamily-friendlyworkenvironmentcertificationtofirmsthroughtheActonthePromotionof Creation of Family-Friendly Social Environment. Thisstampofapprovalofafirm’sworkenvironmentmaybedisplayedonthecompany’sproductsoradvertisementsforitsservices.
Such certificationof family-friendlywork environmentsused in Japan and the Republic of Korea is critical intoday’ssocialmediaandmarket-driveneconomy.Errantcompanies that harbor work environments hostile towomenarequicklypunishedbythemarket.InJapan,thecosmeticscompanyShiseido receivedbacklash in2014whenthecompanyrequireditsbeautyconsultantswithsmallchildrentoworklateandweekendshifts.Referredto as the “Shiseido shock,” the company was deeplycriticized on social media for what netizens perceivedas a backward step for working women, calling for aboycottofthecompany’sproducts.
Policy Challenges and RecommendationsWhile the female labor force participants in differentcountries face varying circumstances and challenges,commonthreadsneverthelessexist.Amongthecommonhurdles that workingwomen in Asia face are (i) child-rearing and family responsibilities, (ii) employment invulnerablesectors,(iii)theexistenceoftheglassceilingthat promotes the gender divide in education andoccupations, and (iv) inadequate implementation ofexistinglegislation.
Child-Rearing and Family Responsibilities
Patriarchy is deeply ingrained inmost Asian countries.Mothersaretheprimarychildcaregiversandhouseholdmanagers. Working mothers are required to prioritizetheirfamilyresponsibilitiesoverwork.Intheworst-casescenario,irrespectiveoftheireducationalbackgroundorhumandevelopmentpotential,mothersresignfromtheirjobstofocusonchild-rearingandfamilyresponsibilities.Coupled with the high fertility rates in most Asiancountries, Asian women will spend a longer periodoutsidetheworkforceoratscaled-downworkinghours.On the other hand, working fathers are not requiredtoperformthesamebalancingactandaregivenmorefreedomtofocusontheircareerdevelopment.
Women’sworkandfamilylifebalancemaybeaddressedusing a three-pronged approach: equal burdensharing, childcare provisions, and family-friendly workenvironments.
Equal burden sharing. Laws mandating gender-equalprovisions for parental leave will promote the equalburdensharingofhomeandchildcarebetweenmothersandfathers.Governmentsshouldalsoencouragefatherstotakeactiveroles inrearingtheirchildrenbycreatingfather–childrenprogramsandevents.
Childcare provisions. Governments need to establishprogramsthatwillexpandtheaccessibilityofchildcareservices. They can (i) create affordable and qualitychildcare facilities and after-school day care programsor (ii) provide financial assistance to subsidize the costofchildcare.InthePhilippines,low-incomefamiliesrelyonunpaid familymembers to provide childcare.Thesecarersinturnareuntappedhumanresourceswhocouldpotentiallycontributetoeconomicgrowth.
ADBI Policy Brief No. 2018-4 (December) 8
Family-friendly work environments. Governmentsshould encourage the establishment of family-friendlywork environments. Japan and the Republic of Korearewardfirmswithcertificationsforestablishingahealthywork environment for parents. There are also differentfamily-friendlyschemes,suchasofferingflexibleworkinghours and telecommuting. The flextime system allowsemployees to define their own 8-hour working day.This permits both parents to structure their workdayaroundtheirfamilyresponsibilities. Inatelecommutingsystem, employees work from home by connectingtheir computers to thecompany’s internetnetwork.Byworkingathome,employeesbypasstherushhourtrafficandpubliccommute,allowingthemtospendmoretimewiththeirfamilies.
Employment in Vulnerable Sectors
The share of women working in informal sectors andvulnerable employment is larger than thatof themalelaborforce.Thesejobsaremorelikelytobecharacterizedby inadequatecompensation, lowproductivity,difficultworking conditions, and insufficient representation.Governments need to create laws that will promotethe rights of those in vulnerable employment. Theremustbemechanisms forworkers to reportabusesandinstitutionswhereabusedworkerscanseekprotection.
It iscriticaltoequipworkersinvulnerableemploymentwith valuable skills to allow them to take advantageof opportunities in sectors with better pay and betterworkenvironments.Governmentsshouldprovideaccessto affordable skills development training courses sothat these workers can develop their skills to be inalignment with the requirements of jobs outside thevulnerableemploymentsector.Forinstance,scholarshipsfor bachelor degree programs could lead to careeropportunitiesandimprovedearningspotential.
TheWomen’sCenteroftheTechnicalEducationandSkillsDevelopmentAuthorityofthePhilippines, forexample,offers training programs to women, including thosegeared toward traditionally male-dominated skilledoccupations, such as automotive servicing, consumerelectronicsservicing,andmetalwelding.
Existence of the Glass Ceiling
The gender divide in education and labor is crucialto gender equality because it influences labor marketoutcomes,suchaswagesandpositions.Thisdividecanlead to the thickening of the glass ceiling, specificallyinmale-dominated fields. The observed gender divide
maybecausedbythephysicalrequirementsofthejob(e.g., construction), religious associations, and culturalgenderbiases.Themostdifficultofthesetoovercomeisculturalgenderbiasbecausesocialnormsareengrainedinpeople’sconsciousness.
A way to liberate women from cultural biases iseducation. One critical element is to revise the schoolcurricula to eliminate cultural gender biases. Youngergenerationsshouldbegiventheopportunitytochoosetheir careerpathsbasedon their intellect, talent, skills,and other considerations—not solely on their gender.Takendifferently,gendershouldnotdictatetheircareerchoices.
Female students should be encouraged to pursuecareers in science, technology, engineering, art, andmathematics, or STEAM. Traditionally male-dominatedgovernmentsshouldsupporttheaffirmativeactionsthatareneededtoexpandfemaleparticipationinthesefieldsofstudy,suchasbyprovidingscholarshipprograms.
InthePhilippines,theUniversalAccesstoQualityTertiaryEducation Act was implemented in 2018. This lawprovidesa full tuition fee subsidy for studentsenrolledin 190 universities and colleges financially supportedbythenational,provincial,and localgovernments.Thisfreedom frommatriculationwill allow female studentstochoosedegreeprogramsbasedontheirinterestsandacademicproficiency.
Women’s participation in decision making, both ingovernment and at the corporate level, is a criticalcomponent for achieving gender equality. Theirparticipation allows their voices to be heard andgives them a platform to influence decisions that willdirectlyand indirectlyaffect them.Toachieve thisend,governmentsshouldinitiateproactivenationalprogramstohelpwomenbreak theglass ceiling. Suchprogramsmayincludescholarshipsforgraduatedegrees,trainingmiddleandseniormanagers,andimplementingaquotasystem such as a (30% female policy) to increase thenumberoffemaleexecutivesandlawmakers.
Governments need to strengthen legalmechanisms toaddress the gender wage gap, gender discrimination,and sexual harassment. They should all be gearedtoward piercing the glass ceiling. Governments shouldencourage employers to create programs to addressgender awareness and sensitivity in the workplace.Finally, incentives can be given to media companiesto help promote awareness for gender sensitivity andcorrectculturalgenderstereotypes.
Toward Gender-Focused Governance Reform in Asia8 9
Inadequate Implementation of Existing Legislation
Despite the legal frameworks and the various plansof actions that promote gender equality and provideprotection to women, the poor implementation ofthese laws and initiatives remains a common problemamongcountries.Thebiggestchallengestotheeffectiveimplementation of gender equality laws are a lack ofconsequencesforfailuretomeettargets,deficienciesinthelaw,limitedbudget,andlackofinterest.
Conclusion
Whilethegendergaphasnarrowedgreatlyinrecentyears,thereisstillalotofworktobedonetofullyclosethegap.Societal norms and cultural gender biasesmay be thebiggesthurdleforwomentoovercome.Thesearedeeplyrootedinsocialconsciousnessand,therefore,affectboththe home and the work environments. Governmentsmust continue to take a lead role in advancing thecauseofgenderequality.Moreover,governmentsshouldmove beyond writing laws and signing global genderaccords. Instead,theyshoulddirecttheireffortstowardimplementingexistinglegislature,establishingprogramsthatwilldeliverthecommittedgoals,andcreatingwaystoaddresscultural biases.
ReferencesDavid,C.C.,J.R.G.Albert,andJ.F.V.Vizmanos.2017a.Filipino Women in Leadership: Government and Industries.PIDSPolicyNotes
No.2017-22.QuezonCity:PhilippineInstituteforDevelopmentStudies(accessed10August2018).———.2017b.Sustainable Development Goal 5: How Does the Philippines Fare on Gender Equality? PIDSDiscussionPaperSeries
No.2017-45.QuezonCity:PhilippineInstituteforDevelopmentStudies(accessed10August2018).International Labour Organization (ILO). 2010. Vulnerable Employment and Poverty on the Rise, Interview with ILO Chief of
Employment Trends Unit.26January.———.2016.ILOSTAT.Kim,J.Y.,J.W.Lee,andK.H.Shin.2016.ImpactofGenderInequalityontheRepublicofKorea’sLong-TermEconomicGrowth:An
ApplicationoftheTheoreticalModelofGenderInequalityandEconomicGrowth.ADB Economics Working Paper Series.No.473.Manila:AsianDevelopmentBank.https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/179689/ewp-473.pdf
McKinsey Global Institute (MGI). 2015. The Power of Parity: How Advancing Women’s Equality Can Add $12 Trillion to Global Growth.McKinsey&Company.
———.2018.The Power of Parity: Advancing Women’s Equality in Asia Pacific.McKinsey&Company.Nishimura,J.2016.Motherhood and Work in Contemporary Japan.Abingdon,UK:Routledge.p.11PhilippineCommissiononWomen.2010.Republic Act 9710: Magna Carta of Women.Manila.PhilippineStatisticsAuthority.2016.Women and Men in the Philippines: 2016 Statistical Handbook(accessed10August2018).UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocialAffairs(UNDESA).2018.Sustainable Development Goal 5.UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentGoals.2016.Gender Equality: Why It Matters.
Asian Development Bank Institute
ADBI, located in Tokyo, is the think tank of the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Its mission is to identify effective development strategies and improve development management in ADB’s developing member countries.
ADBI Policy Briefs are based on events organized or co-organized by ADBI. The series is designed to provide concise, nontechnical accounts of policy issues of topical interest, with a view to facilitating informed debate.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of ADBI, ADB, or its Board or Governors or the governments they represent.
ADBI encourages printing or copying information exclusively for personal and noncommercial use with proper acknowledgment of ADBI. Users are restricted from reselling, redistributing, or creating derivative works for commercial purposes without the express, written consent of ADBI.
Asian Development Bank InstituteKasumigaseki Building 8F3-2-5 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-kuTokyo 100-6008JapanTel: +813 3593 5500www.adbi.org
![[ENTITY NAME] - Web view(Delete the word “unencumbered”, if there were no encumbrances outstanding at year end.) Estimated Resources. ...](https://static.fdocuments.net/doc/165x107/5a93dd447f8b9adb5c8bd602/entity-name-web-viewdelete-the-word-unencumbered-if-there-were-no.jpg)
