Tourism Information and Pleasure Motivation

8/6/2019 Tourism Information and Pleasure Motivation

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TOURISM INFORMATION AND

PLEASURE MOTIVATION

Cees Goossens

Tilburg University, The Netherlands

Abstract: This paper focuses on motivational and emotional aspects of destination choicebehavior. In a marketing context, a conceptual model using push, pull, and hedonic factors isdeveloped for research on evaluations of destination attributes. In this context tourists arepushed by their emotional needs and pulled by the emotional benets. Consequently,emotional and experiential needs are relevant in pleasure-seeking and choice behavior. Froman information processing point of view, it is suggested that mental imagery is an

anticipating and motivating force that mediates emotional experiences, evaluations, andbehavioral intentions. The conceptual model is relevant for managers who want to know theaffective and motivational reaction of customers to promotional stimuli. Keywords: pro-motional information, hedonic response, mental imagery, emotion, motivation. # 2000 Else-

vier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Resume: L'information du tourisme et la motivation du plaisir. Cet article discute desmotivations et des emotions dans le comportement du choix de destination. Visant uncontexte de marketing, un modele theorique a ete etabli a la base de stimulation etd'encouragement ainsi que d'elements hedoniques, an d'etudier l'evaluation des attributsde destinations. Dans ce contexte affectif, les touristes sont stimules par leurs besoins etencourages par des bienfaits e ventuels. Le besoin d'emotions et d'experiences est donc lieaux comportements de choix et d'hedonisme. Du point de vue de l'assimilation del'information, on suggere que l'image mentale est une force motivante et anticipatoire quimodie les experiences affectives, les e valuations et les intentions du comportement. Cemodele est utile pour connatre les motivations et les reactions que produisent les stimuluspublicitaires. Mots-cles: information publicitaire, reponse hedoniste, imagerie mentale,emotion, motivation. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION

According to Crompton (1979), most discussions of tourism mo-tivation have tended to revolve around the concepts of ``pull'' and``push''. The latter factors for a vacation are sociopsychological mo-tives, the former, motives aroused by the destination that do notcome from tourists themselves. Traditionally, push motives havebeen useful for explaining the desire to go on a vacation, while pullmotives have usefully explained the choice of destination. From amarketing communication point of view, for example, it is under-

Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 301321, 2000# 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Printed in Great Britain0160-7383/00/$20.00

Pergamon

PII: S0160-7383(99)00067-5www.elsevier.com/locate/atoures

Cees Goossens is Assistant Professor in the Department of Economic Psychology, TilburgUniversity (PO box 90153, 5000 LE Tilburg, the Netherlands. Email< [email protected]>).He worked for several years at the Department of Leisure Studies, at the same university,

where this article was written. The author is interested in hedonic consumption, experientialaspects of consumer (choice) behavior, information processing, advertising, and marketingissues in tourism.

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standable that researchers focus attention on the pull factors oftourist behavior, since they represent the specic attractions of thedestination which induce travel there once the decision has beenmade (Dann 1981). But what about the pleasure-seeking and

emotional aspects of tourist motivation?The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that research onpleasure motivation in particular should explore the relationshipbetween push and pull factors. Of course, this is not a new idea,though most researchers do not consider both factors as a singleintegrated concept in their theoretical models and empirical studies.But more exactly, the push and pull factors of tourist behavior aretwo sides of the same motivational coin. The psychological factorthat connects both sides is the concept of emotion. From this per-spective, consumers, and in particular tourists, are pushed by their(emotional) needs and pulled by the (emotional) benets of leisureservices and destinations. Consequently, emotional and experientialneeds are relevant in pleasure-seeking and choice behavior. In thisapproach, leisure is a positive and subjective experience ac-

companied by satisfying and pleasurable moods, emotions, and feel-ings (Mannell 1980:77). In particular, experiential processes, suchas imagining, daydreams, emotions, and desires, play an importantrole in hedonic consumption (Hirshman and Holbrook 1982). In thiscontext, it is reasonable to assume that when consumers imaginetouristic behavior, for example, they direct their attention to desir-able feelings and leisure experiences. Emotions and feelings aboutdestination attributes probably motivate tourists to plan a trip. Inshort, if marketers want a full understanding of the motivationalmechanism that triggers the destination choice process, these fac-tors have to be incorporated in models. In addition to this researchapproach, this paper will discuss the role of motivation in a tourismmarketing context. Subsequently, a conceptual model is presented

to stimulate consumer research on the effect of promotional stimulion involvement, modes of information processing, hedonic re-sponses, behavioral intentions, and choice processes.

PLEASURE TOURISM MOTIVATION

In general, motivation occurs when an individual wants to satisfya need. A motive implies action; an individual is moved to do some-thing. Motivation theories indicate that individuals constantly striveto achieve a state of stability, a homeostasis. Their homeostasis isdisrupted when they are made aware of a need deciency. Thisawareness creates wants. But to be motivated to satisfy a need, an

objective must be present. The individuals must be aware of a pro-duct or service and must perceive the purchase of that product orservice as having a positive effect on satisfying that now consciousneed. Then, and only then, will the individual be motivated to buy.It is the role of marketing to create awareness and to suggest objec-tives to satisfy needs (Mill and Morrison 1985:4).

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Tinsley and Eldredge (1995) summarized the results of a 15-yearprogram to investigate the psychological needs gratied by leisureexperiences and proposed a needs-based taxonomy of several leisureactivities clusters, such as novelty, sensual enjoyment, cognitive

stimulation, self-expression, creativity, (vicarious) competition,relaxation, agency, belongingness, and service. Fifteen years earlier,however, Iso-Ahola (1980) considered the question of the origin ofsuch supercial leisure needs. He stated that people do not walkaround with numerous leisure needs in their minds and do notrationalize specic causes of participation if their involvement isintrinsically motivated. There are strong reasons to argue that fre-quently expressed leisure needs (such as escape and relaxation) rep-resent culturally learned stereotypes or explanations for leisurebehavior. Sometimes, however, these needs accurately reect a per-son's basic motivational force: the need for optimal arousal as regu-lated by intrinsic motivation. Weissinger and Bandalos (1995)developed a scale to measure ``intrinsic leisure motivation''. Thisglobal disposition is dened as a tendency to seek intrinsic rewardsin leisure behavior, and consists of four components: self-determi-nation, is characterized by awareness of internal needs, and a strongdesire to make free choices based on these needs; competence,characterized by attention to feedback that provides informationabout effectiveness, ability, and skill; commitment, characterized bya tendency toward deep involvement in, rather than detachmentfrom, leisure behaviors; and challenge, characterized by a tendencytoward seeking leisure experiences that stretch one's limits and pro-vide novel stimuli.

According to Fodness (1994), effective tourism marketing is im-possible without an understanding of consumers' motivations. But a widely-accepted integrated theory of the needs and personal goalsbehind these reasons is lacking. In this context, Fodness stated that

motivation is one of the least researched areas in tourism, both con-ceptually and empirically. Therefore, he developed an easy-to-administer self-report scale that relates leisure tourism to specic,generalizable motivators that resemble the taxonomies of functionaltheorists like Crompton (1979) and Moutinho (1987). In this scale,individual motivation is related to needs and personal goals (pushfactors). The ve reasons for travel can be described in terms of thepotential that a functional approach holds for understanding, pre-dicting, and inuencing the relationship between tourist motivationand behavior. These are the ``knowledge'' function (or cultural andeducational motives); the utilitarian functions ``punishment mini-mization'' (or, the need to escape or stimulus-avoidance) and``reward maximization'' (or pleasure and sensation seeking); andthe value-expressive functions regarding ``self-esteem'' and ``ego-enhancement'' (or social prestige). Fodness' research results indi-cate that these ve dimensions are useful for market segmentation.In addition, he was able to integrate the existing tourism motivationliterature into the functional framework suggested by the results ofhis study. All in all, basic motivation theory describes a dynamic

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process of internal psychological factors (needs, wants, and goals)that generate an uncomfortable level of tension within individuals'minds and bodies. These inner needs and the resulting tension leadto actions designed to release tension, which thereby satisfy the

needs. From a marketing perspective, tourism services and comp-lementary products can be ``designed'' and marketed as solutions toconsumers' needs. But what about the tourists' evaluations andemotional reactions to these products?

Marketing Stimuli and Hedonic Responses

Tourism managers and policymakers ought to know the effect oftheir marketing communication strategies, product innovations, andthe like. By measuring the response of the target group to the mar-keting policy, the organization can better determine the success ofits policy. Figure 1, for instance, can be used to structure this kindof marketing effectiveness research. The left side of this ``disposi-

Figure 1. A Hedonic Tourism Motivational Model



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tionstimulusresponse'' model displays the consumer's needs andmotivesdispositions or ``push factors''. Examples are escape froma perceived mundane environment, exploration and evaluation ofself, relaxation, prestige, regression, enhancement of kinship re-

lationships, and facilitation of social interaction (Dann 1981:192).Furthermore, novelty seeking is often reported as a key motive inthese studies (Dimanche and Havitz 1994). Lee and Crompton(1992), for instance, developed a scale to measure four interrelatedbut distinctive dimensions of the novelty construct related to va-cations: thrill (excitement, sensation), change from routine, bore-dom alleviation, and surprise. These sociopsychological dimensionsare also push factors.

The right side of Figure 1 displays some environmental variablesconfronting the consumer, such as the marketing mix provided bythe producers, including the supply of tourism services, sites, desti-nations, advertising, brands, and symbols. Rojek (1990), forexample, argued that in postmodern society the superstructure ofadvertising, television, fashion, lifestyle magazines, and designervalues has become more important than the economic substructurein explaining human desire and behavior. In a similar vein,Schoeld (1996) stated that, in Baudrillard's view, hyperreal societyis dominated by advertising and electronic mass media, by highlyprocessed communication, and by highly simulated pleasure andspectacle. He argues that one no longer consumes products, butsigns and images. In Figure 1, those factors are marketing stimulior pull factors for the consumer. In a tourism context, Dann (1981)argued, that pull factors of the resort (such as sunshine, relaxedtempo, and friendly natives) both respond to and reinforce push fac-tor motivation. According to Gnoth (1997) the push factors are in-ternally generated drives causing the tourist to search for signs inobjects, situations, and events that contain the promise of reducing

prevalent drives. In turn, pull factors are generated by the knowl-edge about goal attributes which he holds. Mansfeld (1992), empha-sized that tourism motivation is generally considered the stage thattriggers the whole decision process and channels it accordingly.

Figure 1 employs an interactionistic perspective (Hirshman andHolbrook 1986). In this context, the push and pull factors melttogether in the brain of the consumer, so to speak, and the individ-ual is motivated, or not, to take advantage of the supply in the mar-ket. The ``involvement'' concept in particular plays a central role inintegrating the push and pull factors. In general, involvement isdened as an unobservable state of motivation, arousal, or interest.It is evoked by a particular stimulus or situation, and has driveproperties. Its consequences are types of searching, information-pro-cessing, and decision-making (Rothschild 1984). In a leisure andtourism context, Havitz and Dimanche (1990) emphasize the multi-dimensional character of involvementa psychological state of mo-tivation, arousal, or interest between an individual and recreationalactivities, destinations, or related equipment, at one point in time,characterized by the perception of importance, pleasure value, sign

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value, risk probability, and risk consequences. From a hedonic con-sumption point of view, this paper emphasizes the ``pleasure value''and denes involvement as a psychological state of motivation atone point in time characterized by the perception of self-relevance

and the emotional benets of stimuli.Hirschman and Holbrook stated that ``Hedonic consumptionrefers to consumers' multisensory images, fantasies, and emotionalarousal in using products. This conguration of effects may betermed hedonic response'' (1982:93). The present paper argues thatsuch experiential responses occur during consumption and also inthe information gathering and processing stage when tourists areinvolved with promotional information material (marketing stim-uli). In this context, Figure 1 displays such hedonic responses as theconsumers' mental imagery and emotions. These variables reectthe reaction of the individual when the push and pull factors inter-act with each other. Reactions may arise, for instance, when the in-dividual perceives marketing stimuli (such as destinationattributes) and reects upon them. Generally, these responses arisethrough sensory or cognitive information processing (Tybout andArtz 1994). Information is often described as relevant data aboutchoice alternatives (their scores on attributes or characteristics).The data become information if they prove relevant for someoneattempting to make a better choice among competing alternatives.Information may be in a spoken, written, or pictorial format, andmay come from personal, commercial, or neutral sources (Van Raaijand Crotts 1994:12). However, information can also provide fun.Tour operators' brochures, share many similarities with commercialleisure magazines. They are regarded by their users as being `àgood read'', whetting the appetite for the vacation products on offer(Hodgson 1990).

MacInnis and Price (1987) dened imagery as a process (not a

structure) by which sensory information is represented in workingmemory. They notice that the bulk of imagery research has focusedon imagery processing at low levels of cognitive elaboration, such asmentally picturing a (static) stimulus object. In contrast, imageryprocesses at a high level of cognitive elaboration include creativethinking and daydreaming. This paper views imagery as dynamicprocesses like daydreams and fantasies. Further, images are denedhere as conditioned sensory (in particular visual) responses to stim-uli. Images or conditioned sensory responses are, in some cases,inextricably combined with emotional responses (Goossens 1994a;Staats and Lohr 1979). Thus, imagery is conceptualized here as amode of information processing, which includes conditioned sensoryrepresentations (images) in working memory, that are used inmuch the same way as perceptions of external stimuli. The reader who is interested in a more structural and attitudinal approach tothe image concept is referred to Echtner and Ritchie (1993), Poiesz(1989), Reynolds and Gutman (1984), and Walmsley and Young(1998). It is important to note here that the `àttitude'' construct isnot incorporated in Figure 1, because it does not t in the `èxperi-



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ential'' view of consumer research (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982).Nevertheless, the attitude concept is very functional in research oninformation processing and marketing stimuli (Derbaix 1995;Holbrook and Batra 1987; Moore and Harris 1996).

Mental Imagery Processing

According to Bandura (1986), human behavior is mostly purpo-sive, and regulated by forethought. Through the exercise of fore-thought, people motivate themselves and guide their actionsanticipatorily. Images of desirable future events tend to foster thebehavior most likely to bring about their realization. By represent-ing foreseeable outcomes symbolically, people can convert futureconsequences into current motivators and regulators of foresightfulbehavior. Moreover, images are related to emotions and they reectemotional states, can intensify emotional states, and are part of themental maps made of the environment to help one adapt more suc-

cessfully (Plutchik 1984). Obviously, motivation is intertwined withimagery and emotions. Phillips, Olson and Baumgartner (1995)argued that, whereas traditional information processing modelsassume verbal and semantic processing, the so-called consumption vision perspective focuses on visual and imaginal processing. Thisapproach explicitly acknowledges creative sense-making processesconsumers use to anticipate the future. Consumption visions helpconsumers anticipate and make plans to navigate an uncertainfuture by providing concrete, vivid images of the self interacting with a product and experiencing the consequences of product use.Consumption visions allow people to vicariously participate in pro-duct consumption prior to purchase. By forming different visions,consumers can mentally try out different choice alternatives andselect the one that provides the greatest pleasure during consump-

tion and leads to the satisfaction of important values and goals.Although MacInnis and Price (1987) provided several propositions

about the potentially unique effects of elaborated imagery on consu-mer behavior (such as the stimulating inuence of elaborated ima-gery on affective experiences, purchase intentions, and purchasetiming), they pointed out that elaborated imagery research is stillin its infancy, so that theoretical grounding is necessary. Againstthis background, a mental imagery processing model has beendeveloped for high-involvement situations and elaborated imageryprocessing (Goossens 1994a). This model describes how visual and verbal external information is mentally represented. Mental ima-gery is conceptualized as a mode of processing which includes per-ceptual or sensory (in particular visual) representations in working

memory. The model starts from the principle that in an empiricalconsumer context it is not realistic to distinguish pure visual pro-cesses, because mental imagery is generated by an individual's word-image repertoire (Staats and Lohr 1979). Therefore, themodel states that elaborated imagery processes are made up of acontinuous interaction between a person's image and verbal sys-

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tems. Furthermore, the model describes how the represented (visualand verbal) information affects consumers' emotional responses andbehavioral intentions. The cognitive mechanism that activates aperson's emotion system consists of stimulus and response infor-

mation. This mechanism is borrowed from Lang's (1984a) theory, in which emotion is conceived to be a broad response disposition,dened by a specic information structure (``propositional net-work'') in memory. A person can, for example, renew feelings (asopposed to simply recalling them) by mentally reliving an eventthat has already happened. The more vivid the reliving, the strongerthe affect experienced. In such a case, the affect would not simplybe retrieved from memory, but would be regenerated (Carver andScheier 1990:25; Frijda 1988). Thus, imagery, feelings, and mem-ories are interrelated concepts.

According to Aylwin (1990), adults can use three different butinterconnected forms of representation: verbal representation, orinner speech; visual imagery, or ``pictures in the mind's eye''; andenactive imagery, a kind of imagined action or role play. Enactive

imagery is specialized for representing the temporal and affectiveaspects of a stimulus. This temporal perspective of enactive imageryextends to include the possible consequences of action. Enactiveimagery provides an insider's perspective on situations, and allowsaccess to subjective aspects opaque to subjects using verbal or visualrepresentations. Aylwin (1990) states that affective and other subjective constructs are most frequent in enactive imagery. This isconsistent with Lang's (1984a) work, which shows that represen-tations involving active participation are accompanied by moreaffective arousal than purely visual representations. According toGoossens (1994a), this can be explained, because subjects who ima-gine themselves interacting with a specic situation (such asthrough do-it-yourself or experience-it-yourself thoughts) have to

activate relevant ``self-experience'' knowledge structures in memory.By doing this, they indirectly activate the emotional knowledgestructures which go with such situations. In contrast, visual imageryand verbal processing are more detached, with the ``self-experience''knowledge structures not involved, so that it is less likely that thenetwork of corresponding emotional knowledge structures will beactivated. Therefore, it is suggested here that enactive imagery inparticular is an anticipating and motivating force that mediatesemotional experiences, affective appraisals, evaluations, and behavioral intentions.

Emotions, Moods and Affect

Cohen and Areni (1991) suggested that affect is a generaldescriptor of a ``valenced feeling state'' where emotion and moodsare considered to be specic examples of affective states. Emotion isoften described as states characterized by episodes of intense feel-ings associated with a specic stimulus. Moods, on the other hand,are generally described as less intense feelings characterized by dif-



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fuseness and lack of a stimulus object (Frijda 1993). Many studies,for instance in consumer research, are directed primarily to themore general class of affect, what Russell and Snodgrass (1987)termed affective appraisalan attribution to some object, event, or

place of an affective quality (Floyd 1997:85).The emotional and experiential aspects of consumption play animportant role in consumer choice behavior. Specically, the con-cept `àffective choice mode'' is developed to reect decision pro-cesses for highly-involving products that do not lend themselves toextensive (cognitive) information processing. This construct is con-trasted with the conventional `ìnformation processing mode''(Mittal 1994:506). In an advertising context, cognitive involvementoccurs when consumers process attribute-based messages or engagein self-generated cognitive reasoning about message contents.Affective involvement occurs, in contrast, when a person identies anew stimulus with an exemplar (encoding it as similar to somethingin the memory with which an affect is already attached), and thenautomatically transfers that affect to the product or brand itself. Aperson reacts to the stimulus based on prior experiences, theemotional experience the stimulus engenders, or social and person-ality images associated with the product's use. The more expressivethe product, the more likely it would be appraised via `àffectivechoice mode''(Mittal 1994).

Moore, Harris and Chen (1995) reported that individuals havebeen found to differ in the intensity with which they experienceaffect. Affect intensity can be described as the individual differencein the intensity of emotional response to a given level of affectstimulus. The `àffect intensity measurement'' scale assesses thestrength of the emotions with which individuals respond to anaffect-laden stimulus. In this context these authors investigated theextent to which individual differences in affect intensity inuence

the message recipient's responses to emotional advertising appeals.In two experiments, high-affect intensity individuals, compared withthose who scored low on the scale, manifested signicantly strongeremotional responses to the emotional advertising appeal, andshowed no differences in emotional response intensity when exposedto a non-emotional appeal. Both negative and positive emotionsmediated the inuence of affect intensity on attitude formation.Moore and Harris (1996) found that emotional responses mediatedthe effects of affect intensity on attitude toward the ad only whensubjects were exposed to the positive emotional appeal. Otherresearch indicates that emotions or feelings affect attitude towardthe ad and attitude toward the brand (Burke and Edell 1989;Derbaix 1995; Holbrook and Westwood 1989). Research results indi-cate that emotional reports tap information with motivational impli-cations that need not be integrated into attitudes (Allen, Machleit,and Schultz Kleine 1992). The ``need for emotion'' concept has beendened as the tendency or propensity for individuals to seek outemotional situations, enjoy emotional stimuli, and exhibit a prefer-ence to use emotion in interacting with the world. Individuals differ

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in their responses to situations, and attempt to maintain consist-ency in their responses by engaging in appropriate activities. In par-ticular, persons high on the affect intensity dimension have beenpresumed to seek out and prefer emotional stimuli, and enjoy their

stimulation (Raman, Chattopadhyay and Hoyer 1995).Emotions have been differentiated from longer affective statessuch as moods by being more intense, attention getting, and associ-ated with specic objects or events. Individuals are usually aware oftheir emotions while longer emotional states such as moods aremore general and less intense, and may operate beneath conscious-ness. Hull (1990) suggested, that potentially the most signicantimpact of leisure-induced mood is its inuence on the behaviors andcognitions of persons long after they leave the leisure setting. One'spast mood has the potential to color evaluations of new situations,the identication of future goals, and the development of suchplans. Hence, mood may inuence future behaviors, moods, and cog-nitions. In general, people in positive moods have strong tendenciesto provide positive evaluations and act accordingly. In some cases,however, negative mood states result in negative evaluations andactions (the ``congruency'' effect) and in other cases they have posi-tive results (an ``incongruency'' effect). This latter effect is based onthe premise that consumers in a negative mood will be motivated toprocess ad information in hopes of improving their current mood.Motivation will be reected by higher evaluations of the advertisedproduct, relative to those in a positive mood. Those in such a moodwill be less motivated to process the information, and their evalu-ations will be less strongly inuenced by their mood. Results indi-cate that evaluations of a ``feel-good'' (mood elevating) product aremore favorable for subjects in a negative mood relative to those in apositive one (Gardner 1992; Hadjimarcou and Marks 1994). Thereader who is interested in several strategic marketing areas (such

as service encounters, point-of-purchase stimuli and communi-cations) and mood-inducing tactics (such as procedures, personal in-teractions, marketing settings and contexts) is referred toGardner's (1985) model of the role of mood states in consumerbehavior.

Moods can be differentiated along many dimensions such asvalence, intensity, and source. Goodstein (1994) stated that, in par-ticular, their ``sources'' can be used to unify many of the ndingsdiscussed in consumer research: moods formed prior to exposure(pre-states) are qualitively unlike those formed during stimulus ex-posure (reactions). The primary distinction between the two is thatpre-states are generalized affect without focus, and reactions areobject-oriented. As a pre-state, moods function as general, non-specic positive or negative input. As a reaction, they evolve withspecic signalling functions about particular environmental occur-rences. Stated more simply, mood has been conceptualized as anaffective predisposition that is unrelated to the stimulus at hand.Alternately, it has also been conceptualized as an affective reactionwith a known cause, namely the stimulus at hand. Consumers are



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motivated to attain positive affective states and avoid negativeaffective ones. This holds regardless of whether the state is devel-oped prior to or during stimulus exposure. According to Goodstein(1994:527), the means of achieving the desired state depends upon

whether the mood was pre-existing or a reaction to the stimulus. Tosustain a positive one developed prior to stimulus may mean limit-ing processing of incoming information. Yet increasing processingcould prolong a positive mood if the stimulus was the source of it.Likewise, a consumer motivated to terminate a negative mood isapt to process a new stimulus if it was pre-existing. However, a con-sumer is likely to limit processing if the stimulus was the cause ofthe negative mood.

Motivation and Emotion

Recently, Gnoth (1997) stressed that the motivation concept iscomplex both from a cognitive and an emotional point of view.

Cognitions refer to mental representations such as knowledge orbeliefs. Emotions, on the other hand, encompass drives, feelings,and instincts. He argued, for instance, that emotions are particu-larly important in holiday tourism, since it is a pleasure-seeking ac-tivity. Therefore, a tourism motivation model should acknowledgeand operationalize emotional inuences in its formation processes.For this reason, two emotion theories become signicant here.

In general, emotions arise in response to the meaning structuresof given situations; different emotions arise in response to differentmeaning structures (Frijda 1988). According to Frijda (1985:249),emotions can be regarded as manifestations of a concern-realizationsystem. ``Concern'' is the name for the disposition to prefer certainstates of the world over others, which underlie hedonic experienceand motivation. Inputs to the concern-realization system consist of

upcoming and ongoing events. These are continuously scanned fortheir possible relevance to concern satisfaction. Outputs of the sys-tem consist of relevant signals and changes in action readiness inresponse to those signals. These changes are called emotions. Thisview regards emotion as based upon, and at the service of, motiv-ation. The emotions of desire represent action readiness to achievethe preferred states of interests. Frijda (1986:224) argued that feel-ings and emotions are different kinds of experience. Feelings areconcomitants of stimulus reception and imply mere acceptance ornon-acceptance of the stimulus. In other words, feelings are experi-ences of an evaluative nature that stand by themselves. Emotions,on the other hand, are dened as experiences in which evaluation ismanifest through the call for action or through elicitation of action

tendency (behavioral intention). Therefore, emotion implies that aninterest is touched upon and action or activation change is calledfor. In short, certain objects or situations elicit feelings; opportunitiesand risks in obtaining or avoiding those objects or situations elicit

emotions. Regarding hedonistic needs, pleasure and desire are rel-evant emotions which have a strong motivational character.

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Another narrowly related approach to the emotion concept is pro-vided by Lazarus:

When we use the term emotion, especially from a cognitivemoti-vationalrelational perspective, we are referring to a great many

variables and processes such as the eliciting environmental and in-ternal conditions that produce a personenvironment relationship,the mediating process of appraisal of that relationship, the ten-dency toward action, and the coping process, as well as the re-sponse itself, which combines actions, physiological changes, andsubjective experiences in a coordinated fashion. When people usethe term emotion they may have in mind either the whole con-guration or one or another of its components (1990:17).

The cognitive part of emotions involves goals, plans, and beliefs andis about the stakes (active goals) and (coping) options a person hasfor managing the person-environment relationship. Both Lazarus'and Frijda's (1986) emotion theories are related to motivation andcognition. In the conceptual model framed in Figure 1, emotionscan be operationalized by subjective emotional experiences, affective

appraisal, and verbal reports of feelings about leisure products andtouristic attractions. Motivation can be operationalized as beha-vioral intentions towards tourism attractionsrather than motives,as in Fishbein and Ajzen's (1975) attitude theory.

Research Questions

The involvement concept plays a central role in tourism and con-sumer behavior research. Regarding this, Dimanche and Havitz(1994:41) argued, for example, that researchers could explore howto increase tourists' levels of involvement with destinations or ser-vices. An involved consumer is more likely to understand and mem-orize promotional stimuli, and to purchase the product or service

that raised his/her level of involvement. Though none have beenconducted to date, numerous opportunities for controlled exper-imental studies exist in this area. In fact, the conceptual model ofthis paper focuses on related specic issues. Research questionsregarding promotional stimuli include the effect of different modesof information processing on emotional experiences and behavioralintentions; the inuence of emotional information on affective reac-tions and behavioral intentions; when tourists use different choicemodes, and their effect on the travel destination decision is; and thetype of information which increases both the consumers' involve-ment and their ability to perceive more differences in servicesupply. These questions will be discussed and four propositions for-mulated to guide research on consumer information processing.

The importance of emotion and imagery in consumer behavior isnow well-recognized. As Gabriel and Lang stated, ``If the key tomodern hedonism is the quest for pleasure through emotional ex-perience rather than sensory stimulation, then modern consumptioncan be seen as an elaborate apparatus enabling individuals to ima-gine the dramas which afford them pleasure, to dream the scenarios



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which full their desires'' (1995:106). MacInnis and Price (1987)argued that, in the range of leisure services, an important part ofchoosing involves assessing how it will feel (the sensation surround-ing the anticipated hedonistic or leisure experience). From this per-

spective, a denition of high involvement is proposed here forsituations in which consumers gather and process information for adestination decision and for self-pleasing. As such, involvement is apsychological state of motivation at one point in time characterizedby the perception of self-relevance and emotional benets of stimuli.The more emotionally involved consumers are with promotionalstimuli (such as travel magazines), the more likely they will useimagery as a mode of information processing. However, elaboratedimagery processing (fantasies) is a difcult process to control in ex-perimental studies. Therefore, it is suggested here that subjects begiven clear instructions to use their imagination. To simplify mat-ters, two situations regarding touristic information processing andhedonic needs can be distinguished: non-enactive imagery, which isa form of representation in which the consumer is personallyinvolved at a low level; and enactive imagery, a form of represen-tation in which the consumer is personally highly involved with tour-istic information. Enactive imagery is a kind of role play orimagined action (consumption) in which individuals ``try out'' rel-evant (consumption) situations through do-it-yourself or experience-it-yourself thoughts (Goossens 1994a, 1994b). This conceptualiz-ation is comparable with the concepts ``self-relatedness,'' ``highinvolvement,'' and ``constructive processing'' (Bone and Ellen 1990,1992; MacInnis and Jaworski 1989). MacInnis and Price (1987) provided several imagery propositions, some of them related to inten-tions: that there will be a greater change in behavioral intentionswhen elaborated imagery is used, as opposed to discursive proces-sing; that self-related imagery will affect intentions more than ima-

gery that does not include the self; and that the more concrete andemotional the imagery, the greater the change in behavioral inten-tions. Based on this literature and in accordance with Phillips,Olson and Baumgartner's (1995) consumption vision approach, twopropositions may now be offered:

1. enactive imagery has a stronger potential to elicit emotional ex-periences and behavioral intentions than non-enactive imagery;

2. stimulus and hedonic response information will elicit strongeremotional experiences and behavioral intentions than merestimulus information.

Thus, in a self-pleasing information processing context, it issuggested that enactive imagery is a cognitive-affective motivatingforce that mediates hedonistic consumer behavior. Given the preva-lence in Western culture of symbolic representations of touristicproducts and services, both propositions are relevant to marketingcommunication strategies. Urry, for example, stated that ``there isthe probable development of virtual reality technology so that it willbe possible soon to bring tourist sites into one's own room, not just

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through two-dimensional TV/VCR, but through a three-dimensionalreality hardly less articial than Disneyland or indeed a simulatedride on a Grimsby trawler'' (1994:233). Future marketing researchon the role of imagery in information processing should assess its

impact. If enactive imagery intensies the consumer's emotional re-sponses, appraisals, and behavioral intentions, then it is interestingfor marketers to investigate what factors stimulate and triggermental imagery. Regarding the second proposition, marketing com-munication experts should provide brochures, advertisements, com-mercials, and videos that consist both of ``stimulus information''(destination and service attributes) and ``hedonic response infor-mation'' such as consumers' visions, mental images, feelings, moods,emotional experiences, and expressions (Goossens 1994b). This sug-gestion is supported by the proposition ``The greater the use of cuesthat appeal to hedonic needs, the greater consumers' motivation toattend to the ad'' (MacInnis, Moorman and Jaworski 1991). In thepresent paper, it is suggested that enactive and non-enactive ima-gery are independent variables or experimental conditions (such asby giving subjects instructions). In addition, stimulus and hedonicresponse information can be manipulated in promotional material(slides, scripts, pictures, video tapes). The subjects' affective re-sponse can be measured as a dependent variable. Regarding bothpropositions, researchers should focus attention on the intensity ofemotional experiences.

The effectiveness of ``emotional information'' in promotionalstimuli can be tested and measured on three dimensions (pleasure,arousal, and dominance) that compose each emotion. In this regard,Lang (1984b) developed a scale with graphic characters that visuallyrepresent these, which avoids cultural and language problems suf-fered by verbal measures (Morris and McMullen 1994). However,several researchers, including Mehrabian and Russell (1974) and

Westbrook (1987), provided ample evidence to support the use ofverbal approaches to measure affective responses on the three bipo-lar pleasurearousaldominant dimensions: pleasureunpleasant,arousalunaroused, and dominancesubmissive. Pleasure describesfeelings of happiness, fulllment, pleasantness, and enjoyment;arousal represents feelings of excitement, exhilaration, alertness, orsurprise; and dominance refers to feelings of mastery, competence,power, or skill (Floyd 1997; Russell, Ward and Pratt 1981).Recently, Richins (1997) argued that although consumption-relatedemotions have been studied with increasing frequency in consumerbehavior, issues concerning the appropriate way to measure theseemotions remain unresolved. In her article, she describes six empiri-cal studies that assess the domain of consumption-related emotions,that identify an appropriate set of consumption emotion descriptors,and that compare the usefulness of this descriptor set with the use-fulness of other measures in assessing consumption-relatedemotions.

In the marketing literature, Hirshman and Holbrook (1982)describe the imagery construction process (which occurs for experi-



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ential, expressive products) as ``more subconcious and private innature,'' and as having ` latent content that does not appear inovert verbal reports.'' According to Mittal (1988:506) these are alsothe dening characteristics of the `àffective choice mode.'' It is

argued that when products are expressive (when sought for psycho-social goals rather than for utilitarian goals), then the predominantmode of consumer brand selection is the affective choice mode, incontrast to the information processing mode. In this context, Mittalposited the hypothesis ``The more expressive the product, the morelikely it is to be appraised via the [affective choice mode]'' (1988).Because destinations have an expressive potential it is likely thatthe `àffective choice mode'' occurs in the pleasure travel choice pro-cess. This leads to a third proposition:

3. In the information gathering and processing stage, tourists useboth processing modes in destination decisions. They use affec-tive choice mode for expressive destination attributes, such asthe (hedonic) pictures in travel magazines and brochures,

whereas the information processing mode is used to evaluateattributes such as the price and the service quality of touristic ac-commodations. For marketers who want to improve their pro-motional travel information, it is interesting to know which modeof processing is dominant in the destination decisions of differenttarget groups. It is important to note here that expressive leisureproducts or services bought in the `àffective choice mode'' are byno means low-involvement decisions. What matters is not theextent of deliberation, but rather the focus of deliberation: com-ponent features or product attributes in the information proces-sing mode, and holistic, self-implicating object impressions in theaffective choice mode (Mittal 1994:257).

Reid and Crompton (1993:183) discussed ve decision-making para-

digms incorporating the inuence of involvement. This research hasprimarily focused upon identifying possible differences betweenhigh- and low-involvement purchases. Generally, researchers haveconcluded that when the purchase of a product or a leisure serviceis considered to be important to a participant's ego, self-esteem, orneeds, or when there is a high level of nancial, social, or psycho-logical risk, then a high-involvement state is likely to exist. Thisleads to evaluative processing of relevant information about the pro-duct or leisure service, and to a relatively complex decision-makingprocess. A participant with a high involvement level is likely to seekout and use information about the choice alternatives and follow acomprehensive process of decision-making. On the other hand,when the service is less important or relevant and perceived to haveminimal risk associated with it, then they tend to gather little or noevaluative information about choice alternatives and follow rela-tively simple, non-comprehensive decision-making processes. In thiscase, the participant has a low involvement level. Reid andCrompton's (1993) taxonomy of decision-making paradigmsdescribes how participants make decisions about purchasing a

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leisure service. The typology claries and explores two independentvariables purported to determine which of the paradigms is used inthe decision: the participants' level of involvement with the pur-chase, and their ability to differentiate salient attributes of available

choices. The intent of the typology is to guide future researchefforts that examine the relationship between these independentvariables and the decision-making paradigms. Both the involvementlevel, and the ability of the participant to perceive differences in theservice alternatives are classied as either high or low. Consistentwith the consumption vision approach, the present paper suggests afourth proposition:

4. Visual and vivid information on pleasure destination attributes will increase both the consumers' involvement and their abilityto perceive more differences in service supply. Subsequently, thiswill increase their determination in making the right travel desti-nation decision.

This proposition is based on the fact that the vividness of message

information is assumed to inuence consumers' evaluations.Information may be described as vividas likely to attract and holdattention and excite imagination to the extent that it is emotionallyinteresting, concrete and imagery provoking; and proximate in asensory, temporal, or spatial way (McGill and Anand 1989:188).Marketers can use these ingredients to increase consumers' involve-ment with promotional information. Jamrozy, Backman andBackman (1996:920) suggest, that more research is needed to deter-mine the dimensions of involvement in terms of advertisements andsituational involvement. In accordance with different involvementdimensions, informational or emotional advertising strategies mighthave positive effects in marketing to tourists. If they are emotion-ally involved in, for instance, a nature-based destination, they may

respond more favorably to emotional advertising. Others mayrequire more information in order to reduce the risk of making apoor choice. Their responses might vary based on the situationwhat type of trip is being considered, the annual vacation, or justone of many weekend trips. With suggestions like this, the relationbetween promotional stimuli, destination evaluations, decisions,involvement, and decision-making paradigms can be tested in sev-eral research settings.

CONCLUSION

To market tourism services and destinations well, marketersmust understand the factors that lead to decisions and consumptionbehavior. Consumer researchers argue that the ``experiential''aspects of consumption, like consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun,play an important role in consumer choice behavior. In the choice ofmany leisure services, an important part of the choice involves



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assessing how it will feel (the sensation surrounding the anticipatedleisure experience). Regarding the latter, experiential processes,such as imagining, daydreams, and emotions, play an importantrole in vacation choice behavior (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982;

MacInnis and Price 1987; Mannell and Iso-Ahola 1987). In the con-text of tourism motivation, anticipation, and information proces-sing, Liebman Parrinello stated, for example, stated that``Specialized organizations, such as travel agencies, are now in aposition to activate and stimulate motivation not only with the useof more rened photography, but also with the increasingly frequentuse of videos and lms'' (1993:242). For managers, it is relevant toexplore and examine how and under what conditions these market-ing tools are successful in pleasing the target group.

From a hedonic and motivational point of view, this paper empha-sizes the use of experiential information in promotional stimuli.Both feelings of pleasure, excitement, relaxation (push factors), andtouristic attractions like sunshine, friendly people, and culture (pullfactors) are important sources of tourism information. In particular,

a combination of push and pull information and hedonic responses will motivate tourists to plan a trip. Based on these assumptions,this paper presented a conceptual model of the relation betweenpush and pull motives, involvement, information processing, mentalimagery, emotion, and behavioral intention (Figure 1). The model isrelevant for marketing managers who want to know the affectiveand motivational reaction of consumers to promotional stimuli. Inaddition, it functions as the motor of the pleasure destination choiceprocess.&

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Submitted 11 November 1996. Resubmitted 19 May 1998. Resubmitted 31 August 1999. Accepted 8 January 1999. Final version 10 February 1999. Refereed anonymously.Coordinating Editor: Yoel Maneld

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