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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING
1. Overview of Metal Forming
2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in
which plastic deformation is used to change
the shape of metal workpieces
The tool, usually called a die, applies stress
that exceed the yield strength of the metal
The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Stresses in Metal Forming
Stresses to plastically deform the metal are
usually compressive
Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
However, some forming processes
Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
Still others apply shear stresses
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Material Properties in Metal Forming
Desirable material properties:
Low yield strength
High ductility
These properties are affected by temperature:
Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
Other factors:
Strain rate and friction
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Basic Types of Deformation Processes
1. Bulk deformation
Rolling
Forging
Extrusion
Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
Bending
Deep drawing
Cutting
Miscellaneous processes
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Bulk Deformation Processes
Characterized by significant deformations and
massive shape changes
"Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low
surface area-to-volume ratios
Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets
and rectangular bars
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 5.1 Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling
Rolling
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 5.2 Basic bulk deformation processes: (b) forging
Forging
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 5.3 Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion
Extrusion
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 5.4 Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing
Wire and Bar Drawing
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Sheet Metalworking
Forming and related operations performed on
metal sheets, strips, and coils
High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting
metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
Often called pressworking because presses
perform these operations
Parts are called stampings
Usual tooling: punch and die
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 5.5 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending
Sheet Metal Bending
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 5.6 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (b) drawing
Deep Drawing
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 5.7 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (c) shearing
Shearing of Sheet Metal
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Material Behavior in Metal Forming
Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because material is plastically deformed
In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by stress-strain relation ship, where stress:
nK
where K = strength coefficient; strain and
n = strain hardening exponent
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Temperature in Metal Forming
Both strength and strain hardening are
reduced at higher temperatures
In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Temperature in Metal Forming
Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly
above
Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
Minimum or no machining usually required
These operations are near net shape or net
shape processes
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Advantages of Cold Forming
Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Better surface finish
Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product
No heating of work required
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Disadvantages of Cold Forming
Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of
scale and dirt
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount
of forming that can be done
In some cases, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
Dividing line between cold working and warm
working often expressed in terms of melting
point:
0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Advantages of Warm Working
Lower forces and power than in cold working
More intricate work geometries possible
Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Hot Working
Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
Recrystallization temperature = about one-half
of melting point on absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing
advantage of hot working above this level
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of
the metal - far more than possible with cold
working or warm working
Why?
Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less
than at room temperature
Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
Ductility is significantly increased
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Advantages of Hot Working
Workpart shape can be significantly altered
Lower forces and power required
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can
be hot formed
Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
Advantageous in cases when part is to be
subsequently processed by cold forming
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Disadvantages of Hot Working
Lower dimensional accuracy
Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
Shorter tool life
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metalworking lubricants are applied to
tool-work interface in many forming operations
to reduce harmful effects of friction
Benefits:
Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
Better surface finish
Removes heat from the tooling
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©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant
Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet
metal drawing, etc.)
Hot working or cold working
Work material
Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
Ease of application
Cost
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BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES
IN METAL FORMING
1. Rolling
-flat rolling and analysis,shape rolling, rolling Mills
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
3. Forging
-open die forging, impression die forging, flashess forging, forging hammers, presses and dies.
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
5. Extrusion
-types of extrusion, analysis, extrusion dies and presses, other extrusion process, defect in extruded products
6. Wire and Bar Drawing
-analysis of drawing, drawing practice, tube drawing
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Bulk Deformation
Metal forming operations which cause
significant shape change by deforming metal
parts whose initial form is bulk rather than
sheet
Starting forms:
Cylindrical bars and billets,
Rectangular billets and slabs, and similar
shapes
These processes stress metal sufficiently to
cause plastic flow into desired shape
Performed as cold, warm, and hot working
operations
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Importance of Bulk Deformation
In hot working, significant shape change can
be accomplished
In cold working, strength is increased during
shape change
Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape or net shape processes
The parts require little or no subsequent
machining
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Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between
opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped
between opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die
opening, thereby taking the shape of the
opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar
is reduced by pulling it through a die opening
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Deformation process in which work thickness
is reduced by compressive forces exerted by
two opposing rolls
Figure 19.1 The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).
Rolling
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The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:
Pull the work into the gap between them by
friction between workpart and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its
cross section
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Types of Rolling
Based on workpiece geometry :
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
Shape rolling - square cross section is
formed into a shape such as an I-beam
Based on work temperature :
Hot Rolling – most common due to the
large amount of deformation required
Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and
plate stock
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Figure 19.2 Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill.
Rolled Products Made of Steel
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Figure 19.3 Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
Diagram of Flat Rolling
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Flat Rolling Terminology
Draft = amount of thickness reduction
fo ttd
where d = draft; to = starting thickness; and tf = final
thickness
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Flat Rolling Terminology
Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting
stock thickness:
ot
dr
where d= draft, r = reduction
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Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross
section rather than flat (rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work through rolls
that have the reverse of desired shape
Products include:
Construction shapes such as I-beams,
L-beams, and U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and rods
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A rolling mill for hot flat rolling. The steel plate is seen as the glowing strip in lower left corner (photo courtesy of Bethlehem Steel).
Shape Rolling
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Rolling Mills
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
Two-high – two opposing rolls
Three-high – work passes through rolls in both directions
Four-high – backing rolls support smaller work rolls
Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
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Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (a)
2-high rolling mill.
Two-High Rolling Mill
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Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (b) 3-high rolling mill.
Three-High Rolling Mill
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Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (c) four-high
rolling mill.
Four-High Rolling Mill
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Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll
diameters
Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (d) cluster mill
Cluster Mill
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A series of rolling stands in sequence
Figure 19.5 Various configurations of rolling mills: (e)
tandem rolling mill.
Tandem Rolling Mill
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Thread Rolling
Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies
Important commercial process for mass producing bolts and screws
Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
Advantages over thread cutting (machining): Higher production rates
Better material utilization
Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance due to work hardening
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Figure 19.6 Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle,
and (2) end of cycle.
Thread Rolling
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Ring Rolling
Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of
larger diameter
As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal
elongates, causing diameter of ring to be enlarged
Hot working process for large rings and cold
working process for smaller rings
Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel
tires for railroad wheels, and rings for pipes,
pressure vessels, and rotating machinery
Advantages: material savings, ideal grain
orientation, strengthening through cold working
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Figure 19.7 Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and
increase the diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of
process.
Ring Rolling
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Defects in rolling
Defects are undesirable because they
adversely strength.
The defects may be caused by inclusions
and impurities in the original cast metals.
- wavy edges- due to roll bending
- cracks- due to poor material ductility.
-Zipper cracks
-alligatoring- due to non-uniform bulk
deformation
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Forging
Deformation process in which work is
compressed between two dies
Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating
from about 5000 B C
Components: engine crankshafts, connecting
rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet
engine turbine parts
Also, basic metals industries use forging to
establish basic form of large parts that are
subsequently machined to final shape and size
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Classification of Forging Operations
Cold vs. hot forging:
Hot or warm forging – most common, due
to the significant deformation and the need
to reduce strength and increase ductility of
work metal
Cold forging – advantage: increased
strength that results from strain hardening
Impact vs. press forging:
Forge hammer - applies an impact load
Forge press - applies gradual pressure
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Types of Forging Dies
Open-die forging - work is compressed
between two flat dies, allowing metal to flow
laterally with minimum constraint
Impression-die forging - die contains cavity
or impression that is imparted to workpart
Metal flow is constrained so that flash is
created
Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die
No excess flash is created
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Figure 19.9 Three types of forging: (a) open-die forging.
Open-Die Forging
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Figure 19.9 Three types of forging: (b) impression-die
forging.
Impression-Die Forging
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Figure 19.9 Three types of forging (c) flashless forging.
Flashless Forging
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Open-Die Forging
Compression of workpart between two flat dies
Similar to compression test when workpart has
cylindrical cross section and is compressed
along its axis
Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
Common names include upsetting or upset forging
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Open-Die Forging with No Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die
surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs,
so that radial flow is uniform throughout workpart
height and true strain is given by:
where ho= starting height; and h = height at some point
during compression
At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value
h
holn
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Figure 19.10 Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart
under ideal conditions in an open-die forging operation: (1) start of
process with workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final size.
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
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Open-Die Forging with Friction
Friction between work and die surfaces
constrains lateral flow of work, resulting in
barreling effect
In hot open-die forging, effect is even more
pronounced due to heat transfer at and near
die surfaces, which cools the metal and
increases its resistance to deformation
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Figure 19.11 Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in
open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of
process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape.
Open-Die Forging with Friction
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Impression-Die Forging
Compression of workpart by dies with inverse
of desired part shape
Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die
cavity into small gap between die plates
Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an
important function during compression:
As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow
into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by
cooling against die plates
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Figure 19.14 Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just
prior to initial contact with raw workpiece, (2) partial
compression, and (3) final die closure, causing flash to form
in gap between die plates.
Impression-Die Forging
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Impression-Die Forging Practice
Several forming steps often required, with
separate die cavities for each step
Beginning steps redistribute metal for more
uniform deformation and desired
metallurgical structure in subsequent steps
Final steps bring the part to final geometry
Impression-die forging is often performed
manually by skilled operator under adverse
conditions
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Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of impression-die forging compared to machining from solid stock:
Higher production rates
Less waste of metal
High strength
Favorable grain orientation in the metal
Flaws are seldom found and work is high reliability
Uniform in density and dimensions
Limitations:
Not capable of close tolerances
Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features needed
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Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling
whose cavity does not allow for flash
Starting workpart volume must equal die
cavity volume within very close tolerance
Process control more demanding than
impression-die forging
Best suited to part geometries that are simple
and symmetrical
Often classified as a precision forging process
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Figure 19.17 Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact
with workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final punch
and die closure.
Flashless Forging
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Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
Apply impact load against workpart
Two types:
Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from
falling weight of a heavy ram
Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram
by pressurized air or steam
Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted
through anvil into floor of building
Commonly used for impression-die forging
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Figure 19.19 Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and
heating units at the right of the scene (photo courtesy of
Chambersburg Engineering Company).
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Figure 19.20 Diagram showing details of a drop hammer
for impression-die forging.
Drop Hammer Details
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Forging Presses
Apply gradual pressure to accomplish
compression operation
Types:
Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive
motor into linear motion of ram
Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates
ram
Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram
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Upsetting and Heading
Forging process used to form heads on nails,
bolts, and similar hardware products
More parts produced by upsetting than any
other forging operation
Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines
called headers or formers
Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is
headed, then piece is cut to length
For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then
used to form threads
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Figure 19.22 An upset forging operation to form a head on a
bolt or similar hardware item The cycle consists of: (1) wire
stock is fed to the stop, (2) gripping dies close on the stock
and the stop is retracted, (3) punch moves forward, (4)
bottoms to form the head.
Upset Forging
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Figure 19.23 Examples of heading (upset forging) operations: (a)
heading a nail using open dies, (b) round head formed by punch,
(c) and (d) two common head styles for screws formed by die, (e)
carriage bolt head formed by punch and die.
Heading (Upset Forging)
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Swaging
Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a
workpiece radially inward to taper it as the
piece is fed into the dies
Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod
stock
Mandrel sometimes required to control shape
and size of internal diameter of tubular parts
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Figure 19.24 Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the
dies rotate as they hammer the work In radial forging, the
workpiece rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as
they hammer the work.
Swaging
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Trimming
Cutting operation to remove flash from
workpart in impression-die forging
Usually done while work is still hot, so a
separate trimming press is included at the
forging station
Trimming can also be done by alternative
methods, such as grinding or sawing
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Figure 19.29 Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the flash after impression-die forging.
Trimming After Impression-Die Forging
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Extrusion
Compression forming process in which work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape
Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out
of a toothpaste tube
In general, extrusion is used to produce long
parts of uniform cross sections
Two basic types:
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion
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Figure 19.30 Direct extrusion.
Direct Extrusion
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Comments on Direct Extrusion
Also called forward extrusion
As ram approaches die opening, a small
portion of billet remains that cannot be forced
through die opening
This extra portion, called the butt, must be
separated from extrudate by cutting it just
beyond the die exit
Starting billet cross section usually round
Final shape of extrudate is determined by die
opening
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Figure 19.31 (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or
semi-hollow cross sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross
sections.
Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes
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Figure 19.32 Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a
solid cross section and (b) a hollow cross section.
Indirect Extrusion
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Comments on Indirect Extrusion
Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion
Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
Lower rigidity of hollow ram
Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it
exits die
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Advantages of Extrusion
Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
Limitation: part cross section must be
uniform throughout length
Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion
Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
In some operations, little or no waste of material
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Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above
its recrystallization temperature
Reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more size reductions
and more complex shapes
Cold extrusion - generally used to produce
discrete parts
The term impact extrusion is used to
indicate high speed cold extrusion
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Extrusion Ratio
Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as
where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of
the starting billet; and Af = final cross-sectional area of
the extruded section
Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
f
ox
A
Ar
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Figure 19.35 (a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion;
(b) effect of die angle on ram force.
Extrusion Die Features
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Comments on Die Angle
Low die angle - surface area is large, which
increases friction at die-billet interface
Higher friction results in larger ram force
Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow
during reduction
Turbulence increases ram force required
Optimum angle depends on work material, billet
temperature, and lubrication
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Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die
Simplest cross section shape is circular die orifice
Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
As cross section becomes more complex, higher
pressure and greater force are required
Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure can
be assessed by means the die shape factor Kx
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Figure 19.36 A complex extruded cross section for a
heat sink (photo courtesy of Aluminum Company of
America)
Complex Cross Section
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Extrusion Presses
Either horizontal or vertical
Horizontal more common
Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically
driven, which is especially suited to
semi-continuous direct extrusion of long
sections
Mechanical drives - often used for cold
extrusion of individual parts
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Wire and Bar Drawing
Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced
by pulling it through a die opening
Similar to extrusion except work is pulledthrough die in drawing (it is pushed through in
extrusion)
Although drawing applies tensile stress,
compression also plays a significant role since
metal is squeezed as it passes through die
opening
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Figure 19.40 Drawing of bar, rod, or wire.
Wire and Bar Drawing
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Area Reduction in Drawing
Change in size of work is usually given by area
reduction:
where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original area
of work; and Ar = final work
o
fo
A
AAr
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Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing
Difference between bar drawing and wire
drawing is stock size
Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod
stock
Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire
sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are
possible
Although the mechanics are the same, the
methods, equipment, and even terminology are
different
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Drawing Practice and Products
Drawing practice:
Usually performed as cold working
Most frequently used for round cross sections
Products:
Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and shopping carts
Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes
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Bar Drawing
Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the
stock is pulled through one die opening
Beginning stock has large diameter and is a
straight cylinder
Requires a batch type operation
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Figure 19.41 Hydraulically operated draw bench for
drawing metal bars.
Bar Drawing Bench
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Wire Drawing
Continuous drawing machines consisting of
multiple draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated
by accumulating drums
Each drum (capstan) provides proper force
to draw wire stock through upstream die
Each die provides a small reduction, so
desired total reduction is achieved by the
series
Annealing sometimes required between dies
to relieve work hardening
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Figure 19.42 Continuous drawing of wire.
Continuous Wire Drawing
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Features of a Draw Die
Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to
prevent scoring of work and die
Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing
occurs
Bearing surface - determines final stock size
Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back
relief angle (half-angle) of about 30
Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides
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Figure 19.43 Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire.
Draw Die Details
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Preparation of Work for Drawing
Annealing – to increase ductility of stock
Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface
and draw die
Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to
allow insertion through draw die
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SHEET METALWORKING
1. Cutting Operations
-shearing, blanking & punching, analysis, others sheet
metal operations
2. Bending Operations
-v-bending, edge bending, analysis, others bending and
forming operations
3. Drawing (deep drawing)
-mechanics of drawing, analysis, others drawing
operations, defects in drawing
4. Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
-operations performed with metal tooling, rubber forming
processes
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SHEET METALWORKING
5. Dies and Presses for Sheet Metal Processes
-dies and presses
6. Sheet Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses
-strech forming, roll bending & forming, spinning, high
energy rate forming
7. Bending of Tube Stock
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Sheet Metalworking Defined
Cutting and forming operations performed on
relatively thin sheets of metal
Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to
6 mm (1/4 in)
Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
Operations usually performed as cold working
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Sheet and Plate Metal Products
Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and
industrial products such as
Automobiles and trucks
Airplanes
Railway cars and locomotives
Farm and construction equipment
Small and large appliances
Office furniture
Computers and office equipment
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Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
High strength
Good dimensional accuracy
Good surface finish
Relatively low cost
Economical mass production for large
quantities
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Sheet Metalworking Terminology
Punch-and-die - tooling to perform cutting,
bending, and drawing
Stamping press - machine tool that
performs most sheet metal operations
Stampings - sheet metal products
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Basic Types of Sheet Metal Processes
1. Cutting
Shearing to separate large sheets
Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet
metal
Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2. Bending
Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
Forming of sheet into convex or concave
shapes
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Typical Engineering Stress-Strain Plot
Typical engineering stress-strain plot in a tensile test of a metal
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Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting
edges: (1) just before the punch contacts work; (2) punch
begins to push into work, causing plastic deformation;
Sheet Metal Cutting
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Figure 20.1 Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:
(3) punch compresses and penetrates into work causing a
smooth cut surface; (4) fracture is initiated at the opposing
cutting edges which separates the sheet.
Sheet Metal Cutting
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Shearing, Blanking, and Punching
Three principal operations in pressworking that
cut sheet metal:
Shearing
Blanking
Punching
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Shearing
Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight
line between two cutting edges
Typically used to cut large sheets
Figure 20.3 Shearing operation: (a) side view of the
shearing operation; (b) front view of power shears
equipped with inclined upper cutting blade.
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Blanking and Punching
Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a blank) from surrounding stock
Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is scrap, called a slug
Figure 20.4 (a) Blanking and (b) punching.
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Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
Distance between punch cutting edge and die
cutting edge
Typical values range between 4% and 8% of
stock thickness
If too small, fracture lines pass each other,
causing double burnishing and larger force
If too large, metal is pinched between cutting
edges and excessive burr results
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Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
Recommended clearance is calculated by:
c = at
where c = clearance; a = allowance; and t = stock
thickness
Allowance a is determined according to type of
metal
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Sheet Metal Groups Allowances
Metal group a
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all tempers 0.045
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass,
soft cold rolled steel, soft stainless steel
0.060
Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel, half
hard and full hard
0.075
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Punch and Die Sizes
For a round blank of diameter Db:
Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance
For a round hole of diameter Dh:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance
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Figure 20.6 Die
size determines
blank size Db;
punch size
determines hole
size Dh.; c =
clearance
Punch and Die Sizes
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Purpose: allows slug or blank to drop through
die
Typical values: 0.25 to 1.5 on each side
Figure 20.7
Angular
clearance.
Angular Clearance
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Cutting Forces
Important for determining press size (tonnage)
F = S t L
where S = shear strength of metal; t = stock thickness,
and L = length of cut edge or circumference of cut edge.
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Straining sheetmetal around a straight axis
to take a permanent bend
Figure 20.11 (a) Bending of sheet metal
Sheet Metal Bending
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Metal on inside of neutral plane is compressed,
while metal on outside of neutral plane is
stretched
Figure 20.11 (b) both
compression and
tensile elongation of the
metal occur in bending.
Sheet Metal Bending
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Types of Sheet Metal Bending
V-bending - performed with a V-shaped die
Edge bending - performed with a wiping die
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For low production
Performed on a press brake
V-dies are simple and inexpensive
Figure 20.12
(a) V-bending;
V-Bending
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For high production
Pressure pad required
Dies are more complicated and costly
Edge Bending
Figure 20.12
(b) edge
bending.
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Stretching during Bending
If bend radius is small relative to stock
thickness, metal tends to stretch during
bending
Important to estimate amount of stretching, so
final part length = specified dimension
Problem: to determine the length of neutral axis
of the part before bending
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Bend Allowance Formula
where Ab = bend allowance; = bend angle; R= bend radius; t= stock thickness; and Kba is factor to estimate stretching
If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33
If R 2t, Kba = 0.50
)tKR(A bab +360
2=α
π
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Springback
Increase in included angle of bent part relative
to included angle of forming tool after tool is
removed
Reason for springback:
When bending pressure is removed, elastic
energy remains in bent part, causing it to
recover partially toward its original shape
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Figure 20.13 Springback in bending is seen as a decrease in bend
angle and an increase in bend radius: (1) during bending, the work is
forced to take radius Rb and included angle b' of the bending tool, (2)
after punch is removed, the work springs back to radius R and angle
‘.
Springback
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Bending Force
Maximum bending force estimated as follows:
where F = bending force; TS = tensile strength of sheet
metal; w = part width in direction of bend axis; and t =
stock thickness. For V- bending, Kbf = 1.33; for edge
bending, Kbf = 0.33
D
TSwtKF bf
2
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Figure 20.14 Die opening dimension D: (a) V-die, (b) wiping die.
Die Opening Dimension
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Drawing (Deep drawing)
Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped,
box-shaped, or other complex-curved,
hollow-shaped parts
Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity
and then punch pushes metal into opening
Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells,
automobile body panels
Also known as deep drawing (to distinguish it
from wire and bar drawing)
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Figure 20.19 (a)
Drawing of
cup-shaped part: (1)
before punch
contacts work, (2)
near end of stroke;
(b) workpart: (1)
starting blank, (2)
drawn part.
Drawing
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Shapes other than Cylindrical Cups
Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks),
Stepped cups
Cones
Cups with spherical rather than flat bases
Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body
panels)
Each of these shapes presents its own unique
technical problems in drawing
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Other Sheet Metal Forming on Presses
1. Other sheet metal forming operations
performed on conventional presses
Operations performed with metal tooling
Operations performed with flexible rubber
tooling
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Makes wall thickness of cylindrical cup more
uniform
Figure 20.25 Ironing to achieve more uniform wall thickness in a
drawn cup: (1) start of process; (2) during process. Note thinning
and elongation of walls.
Metal Tooling - Ironing
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Figure 20.28 Guerin process: (1) before and (2) after. Symbols
v and F indicate motion and applied force respectively.
Rubber Forming - Guerin Process
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Advantages of Guerin Process
Low tooling cost
Form block can be made of wood, plastic, or other
materials that are easy to shape
Rubber pad can be used with different form
blocks
Process attractive in small quantity production
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Dies for Sheet Metal Processes
Most pressworking operations performed with
conventional punch-and-die tooling
Custom-designed for particular part
The term stamping die sometimes used for
high production dies
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Figure 20.30 Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation.
Punch and Die Components
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Figure 20.31 (a)
Progressive die;
(b) associated
strip development
Progressive Die
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Figure 20.32 Components of a typical mechanical drive stamping press
Stamping Press
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Metal Tooling
Gap frame
Configuration of the letter C and often
referred to as a C-frame
Straight-sided frame
Box-like construction for higher tonnage
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Figure 20.33 Gap frame
press for sheet
metalworking (Photo
courtesy of E. W. Bliss
Co.); capacity = 1350 kN
(150 tons)
Gap Frame
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Figure 20.34 Press brake (photo courtesy of Niagara Machine &
Tool Works); bed width = 9.15 m (30 ft) and capacity = 11,200
kN (1250 tons).
Press Brake
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Figure 20.35 Sheet metal parts produced on a turret press, showing
variety of hole shapes possible (photo courtesy of Strippet Inc.).
Metal Tooling
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Figure 20.36 Computer numerical control turret press (photo
courtesy of Strippet, Inc.).
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Figure 20.37
Straight-sided frame
press (photo courtesy of
Greenerd Press &
Machine Company,
Inc.).
Straight Sided Frame Press
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Power and Drive Systems
Hydraulic presses - use a large piston and
cylinder to drive the ram
Longer ram stroke than mechanical types
Suited to deep drawing
Slower than mechanical drives
Mechanical presses – convert rotation of motor
to linear motion of ram
High forces at bottom of stroke
Suited to blanking and punching
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Operations Not Performed on Presses
Stretch forming
Roll bending and forming
Spinning
High-energy-rate forming processes
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Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously
bent to achieve shape change
Figure 20.39 Stretch forming: (1) start of process; (2) form die is
pressed into the work with force Fdie, causing it to be stretched and
bent over the form. F = stretching force.
Stretch Forming
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Large metal sheets and plates are formed
into curved sections using rolls
Figure 20.40 Roll bending.
Roll Bending
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Continuous bending process in which
opposing rolls produce long sections of
formed shapes from coil or strip stock
Figure 20.41 Roll
forming of a
continuous
channel section:
(1) straight rolls,
(2) partial form,
(3) final form.
Roll Forming
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Spinning
Metal forming process in which an axially
symmetric part is gradually shaped over a
rotating mandrel using a rounded tool or roller
Three types:
1. Conventional spinning
2. Shear spinning
3. Tube spinning
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Figure 20.42 Conventional spinning: (1) setup at start of
process; (2) during spinning; and (3) completion of process.
Conventional Spinning
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High-Energy-Rate Forming (HERF)
Processes to form metals using large amounts
of energy over a very short time
HERF processes include:
Explosive forming
Electrohydraulic forming
Electromagnetic forming
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Explosive Forming
Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or
plate) metal into a die cavity
Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose
energy is transmitted to force part into cavity
Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace
industry
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Figure 20.45 Explosive forming: (1) setup, (2) explosive is
detonated, and (3) shock wave forms part and plume
escapes water surface.
Explosive Forming
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Electromagnetic Forming
Sheet metal is deformed by mechanical force
of an electromagnetic field induced in the
workpart by an energized coil
Presently the most widely used HERF process
Applications: tubular parts
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Figure 20.47 Electromagnetic forming: (1) setup in which coil is
inserted into tubular workpart surrounded by die; (2) formed part.
Electromagnetic Forming