Topic 2: Resource Management and Sustainable Production
Transcript of Topic 2: Resource Management and Sustainable Production
Topic 2: Resource Management and Sustainable Production
Materials play a key role in the design, manufacture and use of all products. The historical development of materials should not only be considered in view of the
scientific advances made during the development of a particular material, but also how various developments in unrelated fields later converge and lead to the
development of new manufacturing techniques and materials. These developments should be looked at for their technological impact as well as their social impact on
the design and consumer industries.
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate Ages with them. In the origin of human life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only
natural materials, like stone, clay, skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use
of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel
around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.
Life on Earth began and survived millions of years because of favorable climate conditions. Climate can be
viewed as the renewable resource with Sun's energy as a energy component and oceans as water reservoirs
(material components). Energy of the Sun supports circling of water on the Earth, therefore making life on
Earth possible. Where there is no water, there is no quality life, like for instance in deserts. Earth's climate
changes have reached the level of climate crisis. Solution how to get out of this crisis is very simple: return to
less harmful energy sources. However, lobbies that support use of fossil fuels are too strong in energy market
and at this moment there is no signs of slowing down in the usage of "dirty" energy sources. Such approach
could very easy endanger the future climate conditions, making the life of ecology sensible plants and animals
almost impossible, and since all species live in natural balance that would affect all life on earth.
To avoid this grim prediction of Earth's future, some countries started stimulating energy saving programs and
transition to "clean" energy sources. Globally, there is no major improvement because amount of energy
gained from these clean energy sources is negligible to amount of energy that is gained from fossil fuels.
World energy consumption between year 1850 and 2000 compared to world population increase.
World energy consumption between year 1850 and 2000 compared to world population increase in
same period.
Energy consumption is increasing much faster than population.
This picture shows the world energy consumption from year 1850 to year 2000. We can see that energy
consumption in the first half of the 20th century has doubled, and after this period, in the second half of the
20th century world came to a considerably higher energy consumption.
Renewable & Nonrenewable Energy
Consumption of energy is ten times bigger than it was in beginning of the 20th century. Major energy sources of 20th century were nonrenewable energy sources.
These are:
Coal
Oil
Natural gas
Nuclear energy
Coal, oil and natural gas are also called fossil fuels. Two main problems of nonrenewable energy sources are limited quantity and environment pollution. Combustion of
fossil fuels emits large quantities of CO2 which is a greenhouse gas. This is probably the main reason of global temperature increase in last decades. Nuclear power
plants are not dangerous for the atmosphere, but substances created as the result of nuclear reaction remain radioactive for years, and should be stored in special
chambers. Renewable energy sources do not suffer of similar problems.
Coal and petroleum are arguable the two most important nonrenewable resources. It can take millions of years and extremely rare conditions for these fossil fuels to be
produced in nature. Fossil fuels, however, are easily turned into power and heat with society’s current level of technology, so they are harvested well beyond their
sustainable yield.
Watch Powering the Planet
Renewable sources: A natural resource that can replenish with the passage of time or does not abate at all
A renewable resource is an organic natural resource that can
replenish in due time compared to the usage, either through
biological reproduction or other naturally recurring processes.
Renewable resources are a part of Earth's natural environment and
the largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life cycle
assessment is a key indicator of a resource's sustainability. The
term does not refer, however, to metals, minerals and fossil fuels.
Renewable resources are any type of resource that can be regenerated at a rate that is at least equal to the speed with which humanity can consume that resource.
While considered capable of replenishment over time, resources of this type usually require some degree of planned and responsible cultivation and harvesting in order
to insure the resources are available for future generations.
Most significant renewable energy sources are:
Wind energy
Solar energy
Bioenergy
Hydro energy
Renewable energy sources do not pollute environment in the same amount as nonrenewable do, but they are also not completely clean. This primarily affects to the
energy gained from biomass which has the same effect as fossil fuels, and that is CO2 emissions when combusting, but carbon circle is at least closed in that case.
Biggest problems of renewable energy sources (water energy excluded) are cost and small amount of gained energy. Renewable energy sources have huge potential,
but at this moment our current technology development does not allow us to rely strictly upon them.
Resources and Reserves
Nonrenewable sources: A natural resource that does not
replenish at a sustainable rate; a source that will run out if
the rate of extraction is maintained
Resource reserves: A natural resource that has been
identified in terms of quantity and quality
Renewability: Relates to a resource that can be
replenished over time or is inexhaustible, for example,
hardwood resources considered nonrenewable could be
renewed if all extraction of the resource ceased and the
hardwood resources were allowed to regrow
An example of the economic and political importance of
material and land/sea resources is the extraction of oil.
.
Students should consider the impact of resource security for nations and international treaties
Conflict and resources
Environmental factors are rarely, if ever, the sole cause of violent conflict.
However, it is clear that the exploitation of natural resources and related
environmental stresses can become significant drivers of violence.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) suggests that in the last 60 years, at least 40 per cent of all intrastate conflicts have a link to natural resources, and that this link doubles the risk of a conflict relapse in the first five years. Since 1990, at least 18 violent conflicts have been fuelled by the exploitation of natural resources, whether ‘highvalue’ resources like timber, diamonds, gold, minerals and oil, or scarce ones like fertile land and water. Climate change is also seen as a ‘threat multiplier’, exacerbating threats caused by persistent poverty or weak resource management. The Security Council recognized the possible security implications of climate change.
Often, multinational companies licensed to extract resources have limited
consideration for the local population. Governments need to balance the
economic benefits and political impact of resource extraction.
Watch What wars will be fought in the Future?
Wastemitigation strategies Designing out waste and designing for closedloop recycling will be more important as
resources become scarcer and waste becomes more expensive. Therefore, developing
products for product recovery and dematerialization will become an essential element of
innovation.
Dematerialization Dematerialization is defined by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as
"the reduction of total material and energy throughput of any product and service, and thus
the limitation of its environmental impact. This includes reduction of raw materials at the
production stage, of energy and material inputs at the use stage, and of waste at the
disposal stage” basically, using less material.
Dematerialization improves product efficiency by saving, reusing or recycling materials
and products. It impacts on every stage of the product life cycle: in material extraction;
ecodesign; cleaner production; environmentally conscious consumption patterns;
recycling of waste. It may mean smaller, lighter products and packaging; the replacement
of physical products by virtual products (email instead of paper, web pages instead of brochures); home working, and so on.
The concept of a circular economy requires designers to consider the subsequent use of materials, components and the embedded energy in a product. This can only
be achieved by innovative design and consideration of further cycles of development. Designers must ask themselves the question, “How can this product be made to
be made again?”
Circular Economy
There are three central strands to this concept:
cradletocradle design thinking
design for disassembly
design inspired by nature that favours diversity and in
which there is no waste (biomimicry)
Innovative design techniques might include the use of smart
memory screws, adhesives and circuit boards that can be
dissolved, the use of clips rather than adhesives or screws, and
biological materials that can be safely returned to the biosphere
with no toxic dyes or other materials.
Equally important are the systems in which the product moves:
How will the materials or components be recovered and made use
of again?
One way forward is to develop different business models where
users buy performance through leasing rather than purchasing.
This offers interesting job opportunities in creating reverse supply
chains as well as engaging design challenges and opportunities.
Energy utilization, storage and distribution
The embodied energy in a product accounts for all of the energy required to produce it. It is a
valuable concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energyproducing or energysaving
device.
Embodied energy aims to find the sum total of the energy necessary for an entire product
lifecycle. Determining what constitutes this lifecycle includes assessing the relevance and
extent of energy into raw material extraction, transport, manufacture, assembly, installation,
disassembly, deconstruction and/or decomposition as well as human and secondary resources.
Different methodologies produce different understandings of the scale and scope of
application and the type of energy embodied.
There are many methods of distributing energy including the use of national/international grid systems. The distribution of charging point networks for electric vehicles
should also be considered.
Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical
energy, from generating power plants to electrical substations
located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local
wiring between highvoltage substations and customers, which
is typically referred to as electric power distribution.
Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other,
become transmission networks. The combined transmission
and distribution network is known as the "power grid" in North
America, or just "the grid". In the United Kingdom, the network
is known as the "National Grid".
North American and European power distribution systems
differ in that North American systems tend to have a greater
number of lowvoltage stepdown transformers located close to
customers' premises. For example, in the US a polemounted transformer in a suburban setting may supply 711 houses, whereas in the UK a typical urban or suburban
lowvoltage substation would normally be rated between 315 kVA and 1 MVA and supply a whole neighborhood. This is because the higher domestic voltage used in
Europe (230 V vs 120 V) may be carried over a greater distance with acceptable power loss. An advantage of the North American system is that failure or maintenance
on a single transformer will only affect a few customers. Advantages of the UK system are that the transformers are fewer in number, larger and more efficient, and due
to the diversity of many loads there is reduced waste due to there being less need for spare capacity in the transformers. In North American city areas with many
customers per unit area, network distribution may be used, with multiple transformers interconnected with low voltage distribution buses over several city blocks.
Batteries have had a great impact on the portability of electronic products and, as new technologies are developed, they can become more efficient and smaller.
Battery research is advancing at a growing pace, an indication that the Super Battery has not yet been discovered but might just be around the corner. While today’s
batteries satisfy most portable applications, improvements will be needed to become a serious contender for the electric powertrain. All batteries have one thing in
common: they run for a while, need charging, progressively fade with each cycle and eventually need replacement.
Comparing the Battery with other Power Sources
The battery surpasses other power sources on readiness and efficiency but lacks on longevity and cost.
Energy storage
Batteries store energy well and for a considerable length of time. Primary batteries (nonrechargeable) hold more energy than secondary (rechargeable), and the selfdischarge is
lower. Alkaline cells are good for 10 years with minimal losses. Lead, nickel and lithiumbased batteries need periodic recharges to compensate for lost power.
Specific energy (Capacity)
A battery may hold adequate energy for portable use, but this does not transfer equally well for large mobile and stationary systems. For example, a 100kg (220lb) battery produces
about 10kWh of energy — an IC engine of the same weight generates 100kW.
Responsiveness
Batteries have a huge advantage over other power sources in being ready to deliver on short notice — think of the quick action of the camera flash! There is no warmup, as is the
case with the internal combustion (IC) engine; the power from the battery flows within a fraction of a second. In comparison, a jet engine takes several seconds to gain power, a fuel
cell requires a few minutes, and the cold steam engine of a locomotive needs hours to build up steam.
Power bandwidth
Rechargeable batteries have a wide power bandwidth, a quality that is shared with the diesel engine. In comparison, the bandwidth of the fuel cell is narrow and works best within a
specific load. Jet engines also have a limited power bandwidth. They have poor lowend torque and operate most efficiently at a defined revolutionperminute (RPM).
Environment
The battery runs clean and stays reasonably cool. Sealed cells have no exhaust, are quiet and do not vibrate. This is in sharp contrast with the IC engine and larger fuel cells that
require noisy compressors and cooling fans. The IC engine also needs air and exhausts toxic gases.
Efficiency
The battery is highly efficient. Below 70 percent charge, the charge efficiency is close to 100 percent and the discharge losses are only a few percent. In comparison, the energy
efficiency of the fuel cell is 20 to 60 percent, and the thermal engines is 25 to 30 percent. (At optimal air intake speed and temperature, the GE90115 on the Boeing 777 jetliner is 37
percent efficient.)
Installation
The sealed battery operates in any position and offers good shock and vibration tolerance. This benefit does not transfer to the flooded batteries that must be installed in the upright
position. Most IC engines must also be positioned in the upright position and mounted on shock absorbing dampers to reduce vibration. Thermal engines also need air and an
exhaust.
Operating cost
Lithium and nickelbased batteries are best suited for portable devices; lead acid batteries are economical for wheeled mobility and stationary applications. Cost and weight make
batteries impractical for electric powertrains in larger vehicles. The price of a 1,000watt battery (1kW) is roughly $1,000 and it has a life span of about 2,500 hours. Adding the
replacement cost of $0.40/h and an average of $0.10/kWh for charging, the cost per kWh comes to about $0.50. The IC engine costs less to build per watt and lasts for about 4,000
hours. This brings the cost per 1kWh to about $0.34. [BU1101, Battery Against Fossil Fuel]
Maintenance
With the exception of watering of flooded lead batteries and discharging NiCds to prevent “memory,” rechargeable batteries require low maintenance. Service includes cleaning of
corrosion buildup on the outside terminals and applying periodic performance checks.
Service life
The rechargeable battery has a relatively short service life and ages even if not in use. In consumer products, the 3 to 5year lifespan is satisfactory. This is not acceptable for larger
batteries in industry, and makers of the hybrid and electric vehicles guarantee their batteries for 8 to 10 years. The fuel cell delivers 2,000 to 5,000 hours of service and, depending on
temperature, large stationary batteries are good for 5 to 20 years.
Temperature extremes
Cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction and batteries do not perform well below freezing. The fuel cell shares the same problem, but the internal combustion engine does
well once warmed up. Charging must always be done above freezing. Operating at a high temperature provides a performance boost but this causes rapid aging due to added stress.
[BU0502, Discharging at High and Low Temperatures]
Charge time
Here, the battery has an undisputed disadvantage. Lithium and nickelbased systems take 1 to 3 hours to charge; lead acid typically takes 14 hours. In comparison, filling up a vehicle
only takes a few minutes. Although some electric vehicles can be charged to 80 percent in less than one hour on a highpower outlet, users of electric vehicles will need to make
adjustments.
Disposal
Nickelcadmium and lead acid batteries contain hazardous material and cannot be disposed of in landfills. Nickelmetalhydrate and lithium systems are environmentally friendly and
can be disposed of with regular household items in small quantities. Authorities recommend that all batteries be recycled.
Students should consider the relative cost, efficiency, environmental impact and reliability of different types of batteries.
http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/the_cost_of_portable_power
http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/painting_the_battery_green_by_giving_it_a_second_life
http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_make_batteries_more_reliable_and_longer_lasting_1
http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/bu_1006_cost_of_mobile_power
Life Cycle Assessment The environmental impact can be assessed using an environmental impact assessment matrix and life cycle analysis (LCA).
In the current global scenario, businesses have come to be defined as entities having to satisfy all the “stakeholders”—and not just their shareholders. Rising energy
prices, together with governmentimposed restrictions on carbon production, are increasingly impacting on the cost of doing business, making many current business
practices economically unviable. This, coupled with the need to achieve sustainable growth in an increasingly competitive environment, has encouraged modern
businesses to adopt radically new business models. It has become imperative for all businesses to act in an environmentally responsible manner. Companies are
competing in an increasingly “green” market, and must avoid the financial penalties that are being levied against carbon production.
Life Cycle Assessment is potentially the most important method for assessing the overall environmental impact of products, processes or services. It is also sometimes
referred to as Life Cycle Analysis or LCA.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be used to assess the environmental impacts of a product, process or service from design to disposal i.e. across its
entire lifecycle, a so called cradle to grave approach. The impacts on the environment may be beneficial or adverse. These impacts are sometimes referred to as the
"environmental footprint" of a product or service.
LCA involves the collection and evaluation of quantitative data on the inputs and outputs of material, energy and waste flows LCA considers environmental impacts in a
number of categories, such as resource use, climate change effect, water pollution, waste production, etc. that are associated with a product over its entire life cycle so
that the environmental impacts can be determined.
Describe how life cycle analysis provides a framework within which clean production technologies and green design can be evaluated holistically for a specific product.
A LifeCycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic study of environmental impacts that arise throughout a product’s life from the winning and processing of raw materials,
through component production and product manufacture, to use and ultimate disposal.
Conducting any LCA requires an examination of the “extended product system” – the network of activities that transforms raw resources into products, transports them
to market and enables their use, then finally removes and treats items that are no longer wanted. Such systems exist for services just as they do for manufactured
goods, so LCA can be applied to services as well as to physical products. These extended product systems can be examined in different degrees of detail, too, so
different levels of LifeCycle Assessment can be conducted, from highly approximate to reasonably accurate. Both qualitative and quantitative methods exist, and these
two approaches are often complementary.
LCA Method
Almost all of the LCA methods are characterized by the following steps:
1. Definition describes the product path, assumptions, inclusions, exclusions and functional impact unit.
2. Inventory identifies and measures each input of material, processing and use.
3. Assessment characterises items across the range of relatively scaled environmental impact factors.
4. Interpretation provides opportunity for redesign by allocating environmental impact production.
Qualitative LCA
Qualitative LCAs are often based on a “Matrix” structure (shown later,) with the cells in the matrix used either to record information (such as amounts of
materials or emissions) or scored responses to a predetermined set of questions.
Quantitative LCA
Quantitative studies start with a formal definition of the goal and the scope of the LCA – factors which determine the exact “extended product system” to
be examined.
A second datacollection stage allows a “LifeCycle Inventory (LCI)” to be constructed: this is a catalogue of inputs to and outputs from the system defined in the first
stage of the work. As far as possible, these inputs and outputs will be followed outwards through the system to its interface with the natural environment, rather than
coming from other human activities (electricity inputs, for example, are followed back through generation to the primary fuels).
In the third stage of a quantitative LCA, the environmental effects arising from this catalogue of emissions and consumed resources is modelled. This stage is known as
LifeCycle Impact Assessment.
Life Cycle Key Stages
Preproduction Material Extraction
Production Manufacture
Distribution Transportation
Use
Disposal
The life cycle of a product starts with raw material extraction (preproduction), continues with the fabrication of the relevant semifinished products, includes finishing and
assembling of the final product (production). The distribution of the product and its use and maintenance (utilisation). The cycle concludes with the endoflife operations
(disposal). This last stage includes recycling of materials and, after adequate treatment, final disposal of waste.
Major environmental considerations in life cycle analysis.
Water
Soil pollution and degradation
Air contamination
Noise
Energy consumption
Consumption of natural resources,
Pollution
Effect on ecosystems.
Life Cycle Impact Assessment Matrix
Inputs Outputs
Materials Energy Toxic Emissions Waste
This column is intended for notes on environmental problems concerning the input and output of material. This column should include figures about the application of materials which are nonrenewable or create emissions during production (such as copper, lead and zinc), incompatible materials and inefficient use of nonreuse of materials and components in all five stages of the product life cycle.
In this column energy consumption during all stages of the life cycle is listed. Include energy consumption for the product itself, and of transportation, operating, maintenance and recovery as well. Inputs of materials with extremely high energy content are listed in the first cell of this column. Exhaust gases produced as a result of energy use are included in this column.
The column is dedicated to the identification of toxic emissions to land, water and the air in the five life cycle stages.
The column is dedicated to the identification of waste products in the five life cycle stages.
PreProduction / Raw Material Acquisition
Production / Factory Production
Distribution Transportation of Product
Use or Utilisation by User
End of Life or Disposal
Clean technology Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by the local community and media. The reasons for cleaning up manufacturing
include:
promoting positive impacts
ensuring neutral impact or minimizing negative impacts through conserving natural resources
reducing pollution and use of energy
reducing waste of energy and resources.
The role and scale of legislation are dependent upon the type of manufacturing and the varied perspectives in different countries.
Students should consider how legislation provides an impetus to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing processes and also how manufacturers react to
legislation.
The threat of climate change has added a new dimension to the design and implementation of publicprivate partnership (PPP) projects in various sectors, including
power, transportation, water, sanitation, waste and health. Proactive policy approaches and innovative legal, contractual and commercial frameworks are spearheading
a new generation of PPP projects based on clean technologies designed to meet this challenge.
Kyoto Protocol._ The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the
Kyoto Protocol was that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These
reductions amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the fiveyear period 20082012.
Copenhagen Accords ._The fifteenth session, took note of the Copenhagen Accord of 18 December 2009 by way of decision 2/CP.15. The text of the Copenhagen
Accord can be found here.
Cancun Agreements._ These agreements were reached December 11th, in Cancun, Mexico, at the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference. More on the Main
Objectives of the Cancun Agreements...
Durban Platform._ The 17th Conference of the Parties of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change held in Durban in December 2011 further advanced on
certain components of the Cancun Agreements, it also resulted in a second fiveyear commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol and, thirdly, it launched the Durban
Platform " a process to develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention". This new agreement will be
“applicable to all parties”. Negotiations on the future agreement are to conclude by 2015 and the new agreement is to take effect on 2020.
Students should consider the use of international targets for reducing pollution and waste and the difficulties of getting nations to agree to the targets. On many
occasions, agreeing targets proves difficult as many nations are at different stages in their development. Is it ethical to prevent a developing country from producing
high carbon emissions through industrial development when developed countries have been the main generators of carbon emissions through their own industrial
revolutions and economic development?
Students will need to consider how this legislation is monitored and policed and how it can be promoted for manufacturers.
Often, manufacturing processes are improved in terms of efficiency and amount of embodied energy over time. This incremental development of a manufacturing
process can require major refits and the addition of new elements to a manufacturing process. Radical solutions can make a great and sudden impact; however, they
can require the replacement of a whole system. Students need to consider approaches for cleaning up manufacturing and the advantages and disadvantages of
incremental and radical solutions. They will also need to discuss endofpipe technologies and systemslevel solutions.
Green design Green design refers to the development of products to have a reduced impact on the environment.
Green Design springs from a movement aimed at conserving the world’s natural resources and preventing the effects of industry and pollution destroying the delicate
balance of the world’s ecology. Designers are being encouraged to consider the longterm implications of their designs and materials specifications, perhaps by
avoiding nonbiodegradable plastic or by using recycled products. Human activities have taken the planet to the edge of a massive wave of species extinctions, further
threatening our own wellbeing. 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
During the next century, as population doubles and resources available per person drop by onehalf to threefourths, humankind will have to drastically alter fundamental
ways of thinking and operating in order to survive. The number one challenge that will face today's children as they enter adulthood will be how to reconcile the impact of
their daily lives with the limitations of our global ecosystems.
Most legislation for minimizing or reducing environmental impact of products is based on a green design approach. It is effective because it usually involves incremental
changes to a design and as such is relatively easy to implement, for example, legislation relating to the use of catalytic converters for cars. The timescale for
implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2–5 years) and therefore costeffective.
The Green Aware Segmentation Profiles include not just behavior but also attitudes, opinions,
lifestyles and media usage. Based on the distinctive mindset of consumers towards the
environment, they can help marketers better understand four distinct consumer segments:
Behavioral Green Segment: This group of people thinks and acts green. They have negative
attitudes towards products that pollute and incorporate green practices on a regular basis.
Think Green Segment: This group of people thinks green, but does not necessarily act green.
Potential Green Segment: This group neither behaves nor thinks along particularly
environmentally conscious lines and remains on the fence about key green issues.
True Brown Segment: They are not environmentally conscious, and may in fact have negative
attitudes about environmental issues.The environmental impact of the production, use and
disposal of a product can be modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage.
Green Consumer There has been rapid growth of the Green Consumer, who registers his/her
ecological commitment through buying products, which are supposed to be
planet friendly. Green companies include the British based Body Shop
International and the Belgian based Ecover who offer household cleaning
agents.
Green consuming has certainly not occurred at the expense of global
concerns. Friends of the Earth, for example, have grown from its humble
American beginnings, and now have organisations around the world. It has
launched truly global campaigns on whaling, acid rain pesticides, tropical
rainforests, marine pollution, and nuclear nonproliferation. The
environmental action group Greenpeace, which started in Canada in 1971,
is similarly international with more than one million members in seventeen
countries. The growth of such organisations demonstrate the increase in
green consuming, initially amongst what has been dismissively referred to
as the “brown rice and sandals brigade.”
Greener Products LG Example
Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare and the environment throughout their life cycle—from the extraction of
raw materials to final disposal.
Most strategies for green design involve focusing on one or two environmental objectives when designing or redesigning a product, for example, the use of recyclable
materials.
Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others. Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle
specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energy efficiency.
TakeBack legislation EU WEEE Directive
WEEE stands for Waste of Electronic and Electrical Equipment. First regulated in Europe, it has spread globally. EIATRACK covers existing and newly emerging WEEE
legislation and regulatory changes.
The WEEE Directive is the European Community directive 2002/96/EC on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) which, together with the RoHS Directive
2002/95/EC, became European Law in February 2003, setting collection, recycling and recovery targets for all types of electrical goods.
The directive imposes the responsibility for the disposal of waste electrical and electronic equipment on the manufacturers of such equipment. Those companies should
establish an infrastructure for collecting WEEE, in such a way that 'Users of electrical and electronic equipment from private households should have the possibility of
returning WEEE at least free of charge'. Also, the companies are compelled to use the collected waste in an ecologicallyfriendly manner, either by ecological disposal
or by reuse/refurbishment of the collected WEEE.
LG TAKEBACK & RECYCLING GLOBAL NETWORK
Design objectives
Design objectives for green products relate to three broad environmental categories: materials, energy and pollution/waste. These objectives include:
increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources
minimizing damage or pollution from the chosen materials
reducing to a minimum any longterm harm caused by use of the product
ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in environmental terms and that the product functions efficiently for its full life
taking full account of the effects of the end disposal of the product
ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and environmentally friendly use
minimizing nuisances such as noise or smell
analysing and minimizing potential safety hazards
minimizing the number of different materials used in a product
labelling of materials so they can be identified for recycling.
When evaluating product sustainability, students need to consider:
raw materials used
packaging
incorporation of toxic chemicals
energy in production and use
endoflife disposal issues
production methods
atmospheric pollutants.
Prevention principle: The avoidance or minimization of waste production Waste minimizations involves a number of processes, mechanisms and stakeholders in the production, marketing, packaging, selling and consumption of goods that
produce waste at all stages of the consumption cycle. By implication, it will require a conscious, comprehensive and intentional decision and effort by all stakeholders to
ensure that waste and the secondary effects of poor waste management can be
reduced through waste minimization to increase landfill site lifecycles and the
environment. This may involve additional mechanisms and processes that
include the following:
Improving product and packaging designs to reduce resource
consumption;
Changing marketing and sales approaches to influence consumer
perceptions and behaviour;
“Extended Producer Responsibilities” (EPR) of producers of products,
which may require producers to accept their used products back for
recycling.
Changing procurement policies and practices in large organizations that
should encourage environmentallyaware production and manufacturing;
Encouraging waste separation, streaming and diversion practices;
Creating infrastructure to enable waste to be diverted from landfill sites;
Developing infrastructure for processing waste for reuse/recycling;
Developing markets for recycled materials and products;
Precautionary principle: The anticipation of potential problems
The precautionary principle or precautionary approach to risk management states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the
public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is not harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on
those taking an action.
The principle is used by policy makers to justify discretionary decisions in situations where there is the possibility of harm from making a certain decision
(e.g. taking a particular course of action) when extensive scientific knowledge on the matter is lacking.
The principle implies that there is a social responsibility to protect the public from exposure to harm, when scientific investigation has found a plausible risk.
These protections can be relaxed only if further scientific findings emerge that provide sound evidence that no harm will result.
Ecodesign Ecodesign is a more comprehensive approach than green design
because it attempts to focus on all three broad environmental
categories:
materials
energy
pollution/waste.
This makes ecodesign more complex and difficult to do.
When considering timescales for implementing ecodesign, students should
also understand the factors that can influence it.The environmental impact of
the production, use and disposal of a product can be modified by the
designer through careful consideration at the design stage.
Students need to consider two philosophies related to ecodesign.
Cradle to grave design considers the environmental effects of a product
all of the way from manufacture to use to disposal.
Cradle to cradle design is a key principle of the circular economy.
Cradle to Cradle ® (C2C) is a holistic approach to design popularized by Professor Michael Braungart and William McDonough. Braungart and McDonough
offer Cradle to Cradle ® certification to products that measure up to the standards they set. According to their website (www.c2ccertified.org): “The target is to
develop and design products that are truly suited to a biological or technical metabolism, thereby preventing the recycling of products which were never
designed to be recycled in the first place.”
Students need to be able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its life cycle through LCA. Students should consider the following five stages.
Preproduction
Production
Distribution, including packaging
Utilization
Disposal
Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air contamination, noise, energy consumption, consumption of natural resources, pollution
and effect on ecosystems.
Inputs Outputs
Materials Energy Toxic Emissions Waste
This column is intended for notes on environmental problems concerning the input and output of material.
In this column energy consumption during all stages of the life cycle is listed. Include energy consumption for the product itself, and of transportation, operating, maintenance and recovery as well.
The column is dedicated to the identification of toxic emissions to land, water and the air in the five life cycle stages.
The column is dedicated to the identification of waste products in the five life cycle stages.
PreProduction / Raw Material Acquisition
Production / Factory Production
Distribution Transportation of Product
Use or Utilisation by User
End of Life or Disposal
Another valuable tool for designers of ecoproducts and systems is the use of an environmental impact assessment matrix. A simple example of this matrix follows.
Environmental impact assessment matrix
Environmental area: Air pollution
Activity Risk impact rating (circle one number in each row)
Preproduction: Transport of all materials to factory 5 4 3 2 1 0
Production: Manufacturing process waste output 5 4 3 2 1 0
Distribution: Transport of product to retailers 5 4 3 2 1 0
Distribution: Manufacturing of packaging 5 4 3 2 1 0
Utilization: Use of product during working life 5 4 3 2 1 0
Disposal: Disassembly and recycling of materials 5 4 3 2 1 0
Environmental impact assessment matrices can be infinitely more complex, focusing on one particular stage of LCA at a time and breaking processes down into
individual steps, often focusing on an output in terms of resources used, wasted and byproducts generated and released.
The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the product life cycle can be explored through LCA.
LCA identifies conflicts that have to be resolved through prioritization. It is not widely used in practice because it is difficult, costly and timeconsuming. It is targeted at
particular product categories—products with high environmental impacts in the global marketplace, for example, washing machines and refrigerators. However, in the
reinnovation of the design of a product or its manufacture, specific aspects may be changed after considering the design objectives for green products, such as
selecting less toxic materials or using more sustainable sources. A product may be distributed differently or its packaging may be redesigned.
The complex nature of LCA means that it is not possible for a lone designer to undertake it and a team with different specialism is required. LCA is complex,
timeconsuming and expensive, so the majority of ecodesigns are based on less detailed qualitative assessments of likely impacts of a product over its life cycle. The
simplest example is the use of a checklist to guide the design team during a product’s design development stages.
For example:
minimize the use of packaging
optimize energy efficiency in use
design for disassembly
minimize parts/components
use recyclable materials.
Students should be familiar with the UNEP Ecodesign Manual and be able to identify its major considerations.
Geographical scale Types of environmental problem
Local Noise, Smell, Air pollution, Soil and water pollution
Regional Soil and water overfertilization and pollution, Drought, Waste disposal, Air pollution
Fluvial Pollution of rivers, Regional waters and watersheds
Continental Ozone levels, Acidification, Winter smog, Heavy metals
Global Climatic change, Sea level rise, Impact on the ozone layer
Design for Sustainability Design for Sustainability (D4S), also referred to as sustainable product design, is a globally recognized method for companies to improve profit margins, product quality,
market opportunities, environmental performance, and social benefits. Companies can achieve this winwin situation for shareholders, consumers, and the public by
improving efficiencies in the products and services they design, produce and deliver.
D4S Techniques Basic D4S techniques include interventions similar to those used in cleaner production audits, such as increasing energy efficiency, using recycled materials, designing
for recyclability, reducing toxic materials, extending product life, and providing services in new ways. Life cycle analysis and supply chain management are more precise
tools for evaluating material flows and environmental impacts in a product's life cycle, and can help designers identify additional improvements. In many developed
economies, D4S efforts have also been linked to wider concepts such as productservice mixes, cleaner production, systems innovation and life cyclebased efforts.
The emphasis of the guidelines will vary depending on the type of product to be designed and the target market.
Internal drivers for ecodesign External drivers for ecodesign
Managers’ sense of responsibility Government
The need for increased product quality Market demand
The need for a better product and company image Social environment
The need to reduce costs Competitors
The need for innovative power Trade organisations
The need to increase personnel motivation Suppliers
External drivers and social change
Increasing supply chain pressure (discussed as part of subtopic 2.1 and 2.2)
Public opinion (discussed as part of subtopic 2.5)
Energy costs • Waste charges (discussed as part of subtopic 2.4 and 2.5)
Takeback legislation (detail required as part of subtopic 8.2)
The obligation to provide environmentrelated information (detail required as part of subtopic 8.1) • Norms and standards • Ecolabelling schemes (detail required as
part of HL subtopic 8.2)
Subsidies (discussed as part of subtopic 2.4)
Environmental competition
Environmental requirements in consumer tests
Environmental requirements for design awards
Increasing cooperation with suppliers Ecodesign and other environmental approaches Ecodesign means that the environment helps to define the direction of design
decisions.
Students need to be aware of the following terms in relation to ecodesign principles: • Sustainable development (Awareness of what sustainable development is
required, however this is dealt in detail in HL Subtopic 8.1)
Cleaner production (Topic 2.4)
Life cycle analysis (Topic 2.6)
Converging Technologies
Students will need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of converging technologies. A typical example of converging technology is the smart phone.
Students could consider the smart-phone as a converging technology in terms of the materials required to create it, its energy consumption, disassembly, recyclability and the portability of the devices it incorporates.
Convergence is increasingly prevalent in the IT world; in this context the term refers to the combination of two or more different technologies in a single device. Taking pictures with a cell phone and surfing the Web on a television are two of the most common examples of this trend.
Technological convergence is the process by which existing technologies merge into new forms that bring together different types of media and applications. New
devices and technology usually handle one medium or accomplish some basic tasks; through technological convergence, devices can interact with a wider array of
media types. For example, a new type of media storage often require new players that only play that format. As the technology advances, however, new models might
include additional features like the ability to interface with more devices or play other types of media.
In the past, each entertainment medium had to be played on a specific device. Video displayed on a television through some type of video player, music came through a
tape deck or Compact Disc (CD) player, and video games were played through a console of some sort. Technological convergence has resulted in devices that not only
interact with the media they are primarily designed to handle, but also with a number of other formats.
For example, modern video game developers may create consoles primarily for playing games, but they also design them to play back video and music and to connect
to the Internet. Similarly, new media players are capable of not only playing video or audio from a physical medium, but can also stream data over the Internet, display
photographs on a disc, and view websites online. Where multiple pieces of home entertainment equipment were once necessary, a single device may provide all of the
functionality required.
Telecommunications Advances Different forms of communication media previously used their own technologies. Voice conversations used a telephone, video communication briefly used highend
video phones, and email required a computer. Technological convergence has resulted in computers and handheld devices like mobile smartphones and tablets that
can provide all of this functionality with a single electronic piece of equipment.
Changes in Hardware Such technological convergence also leads to devices that are designed specifically to replace a number of different items. Mobile phones, for example, have moved far
beyond their beginnings as simple voice communication devices and now offer the functionality of personal music players, digital cameras, and text messenger systems.
New devices, such as tablet computers, have been developed simply as a format for convergence, with a single item functioning in the place of numerous earlier
electronics.
Importance of the Internet The Internet is perhaps the most widespread example of technological convergence. Virtually all entertainment technologies, from radio and television to books and
games, can be viewed and played online. Many computers with Internet access offer greater functionality than primary devices like media players or eReaders for digital
books. All of these different types of media have become digitized and made more readily available than ever before.
Advantages and Criticisms While technological convergence gives consumers the convenience of having many devices all in one, saving on both size and cost, there is an initial tradeoff in quality.
When companies introduce new multitechnology formats, the various technologies it is comprised of are usually at a slightly lower standard than on independent
devices. Usually within a year or two, however, this disparate quality is reduced and dedicated devices may become obsolete. Some technology does remain
specialized, however; digital cameras, for example, often remain preferable to phone cameras in terms of image quality and features, especially for professional
photographers.