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TOPIC 1

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FEM 3002, CREDIT HOUR = 3(2+1)

Your Instructor: Dr. Zarinah Arshat

Department of Human Development and Family Studies

Faculty of Human EcologyUniversiti Putra Malaysia

Room: Blok B, 1st Floor, FEM

Contact #: 03-89467139; 012-2611674

Email: zarinah_upm@putra.upm.edu.my

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COURSE OBJECTIVESFEM 3002 is a compulsory course for the Bachelor Science (Human Development) programme. At the end of this modul students will be able to:

discuss the philosophy of research, and the concepts of science and the scientific methods.

describe the research design in human development describe the steps in preparing and conducting a

research project analyze and interpret research data and prepare a

research report.

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Introduction to research design and analysis in Human Development. Meaning of science, scientific research and its application in Human Development. Research planning process, data analysis and interpretation, report writing and presentation of research findings.

(Pengenalan kepada rekabentuk dan analisis penyelidikan di dalam Pembangunan Manusia. Pengertian Sains, penyelidikan saintifik dan penggunaannya di dalam Pembangunan Manusia. Perancangan dan proses penyelidikan, analisis dan interpretasi data, penulisan dan penyampaian hasil penyelidikan).

COURSE OBJECTIVES

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COURSE EVALUATIONNo. Item %

1. COURSEWORK 60

i) Mid-semester Test 25

ii) Assignment 1: Research proposal (10 pages)

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iii) Assignment 2 : On-line SPSS Tutorial Exercise (30 pages)

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2. FINAL EXAM (Comprehensive) 40Total 100

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1. Beins, B. C. (2003). Research methods: A tool for life. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

2. Charles, S. (2007). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (3rd. ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Miffin Co.

3. Creasey, G. L. (2006). Research methods in lifespan development. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

4. Devlin, A. S. (2006). Research methods: Planning, conducting and presenting research. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth

5. Gravetter, F. J. (2006). Research methods for the behavioral sciences. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth

6. McBurney, D. H. (2004). Research methods (6th ed.). Australia: Thomson/Wadsworth

7. Trochim, William M. (2006). The Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Edition. Internet WWW page, at URL: <http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/>

REFERENCES

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Test & Exam Structure:

Objective and Subjective

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OUTLINE

I. What is Research?II. Definition of Research by Past ScholarsIII. Philosophy of ResearchIV. Why do we do Research? V. Characteristics of ResearchVI. Classification and Types of Research

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I. WHAT IS RESEARCH?

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RE

SEARCH

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Old French word “cerchier”, meaning to search or seek.

The word “re” means again.

So, the search is done many times.

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Why Re? Why do so many times?

To be sure ……To be certain ……

…………that something really occur…………that something really happen…………that a phenomena really exist

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Through repetitive experiments:

Madame Curie discovered radium.Alexander Graham Bell --- telephone.Wright Brothers --- aeroplane.Other examples?

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Basicly, the word research means:

StudyExplorationExaminationInvestigationInquiry

What is Research?

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Research is a / an ……….……. seeking activity investigation facts finding discovering activity solving problem activity data collection activity establishing empirical evidence structured activity using the scientific

method

Research Concept

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II. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH BY PAST SCHOLARS

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Scholar Meaning Kerlinger (1973) An effort to analyze data using the scientific method

in a formal and systematic way. Its purpose is to find answers to questions or problems.

Grosof & Sardy (1985) Proces, prosedure, or strategy using the scientific method.

Touliatos and Compton (1988)

An effort in discovering new ideas, describing situations and events, as well as describing phenomena.

Ahmad Mahdzan(1992) Systematic method used by humans to increase knowledge.

Salkind (1994) A process of discovering new knowledge.

Barbie (2001) An investigation using the scientific method that is frequently used by human to describe/predict events or future happenings.

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III. PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH

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PHILOSOPHY OF RESEARCH

The term philosophy derives from a combination of the Greek words

philos = lovesophia = wisdom

Nature of knowledge and belief.

In research the concerned is on the investigation of what distinguishes mere belief from knowledge.

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SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

1. INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE2. AUTHORITATIVE KNOWLEDGE3. LOGICAL KNOWLEDGE4. EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE

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1. Intuitive Knowledge belief, faith, intuition, etc. based on feelings, not hard, cold "facts."

2. Authoritative Knowledge information from people, books, a

supreme being, etc. Its strength depends on the strength of

these sources.

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3. Logical Knowledge based on reasoning from "point A" (which is generally

accepted) to "point B" (the new knowledge).

4. Empirical Knowledge based on demonstrable, objective facts

(gathered thro’ observation and/or experimentation).

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Research often makes use of all four of these ways of knowing:

1. INTUITIVE (when coming up with an initial idea for research)

2. AUTHORITATIVE (when reviewing the professional literature)

3. LOGICAL (when reasoning from findings to conclusions)

4. EMPIRICAL (when engaging in procedures that lead to these findings)

The empirical knowledge, is what most modern research acquisition aims at establishing, which is known as empirical research.

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IV. WHY DO WE DO RESEARCH?

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WHY DO WE DO RESEARCH?

To discover new information.

To expand existing knowledge.

To investigate specific questions or problems

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To validate past information

To investigate existing phenomena.

To determine new uses of, and applications for, existing goods and services.

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It provides answers for questions like what, where, when, how and why.

Brings out information that might not be discovered in ordinary course of life

It contributes to theory and generalizations Verifies existing theories and facts.

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May enable us to predict events Helps in establishing inter-relationships and derive

explanations Helps developing new tools, concepts and

theories to study phenomenon.

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Research essential for Advancement of scientific knowledge and/or development of newer technologies improvement of quality of life

‘Today’s research is for tomorrow's advancement’

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For students in social science, research is directed toward

finding, applying & interpreting data

that can promote betterment in individual and family life, and of the society.

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V. RESEARCH CHARACTERISTICS

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RESEARCH CHARACTERISTICS Originates with a question or problem. Requires clear articulation of a goal. Follows a specific plan or procedure. Often divides main problem into subproblems. Guided by specific problem, question, or

hypothesis. Accepts certain critical assumptions. Requires collection and interpretation of data. Cyclical (helical) in nature.

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VI. CLASSIFICATION & TYPES OF RESEARCH

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II. Classification & Types of ResearchCLASSIFICATION TYPES

I). Application 1. Pure/Basic Research2. Applied Research

II). Objectives 1. Descriptive research2. Exploratory3. Correlational 4. Explanatory

III). Types of information sought

1. Quantitative research2. Qualitative research3. Mixed methods

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CLASSIFICATION BY APPLICATIONPURE/BASIC (Fundamental

research)APPLIED RESEARCH

• Address theoretical issues • Produce solution to a specific issues/problem

• Expand existing knowledge • Seek additional knowledge• Explore the unknown • Solve immediate, practical

problem• Emphasize explanation • Emphasize application

• Complex methodology • Simple methodology• Seeks answers, solutions, developments, and/or uses related to topics/problems that are new & different

• Uses known information, products, and/or services

• Long-term application • Short-term application

E.G., OF PURE RESEARCH What is the strength of Malaysian familes?

Developing family strength inventory of Malaysian families.

Why does deviant behavior occur?Stimulate new ways of thinking about deviance.

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E.G., OF APPLIED RESEARCH Factors related to adolescents’ conduct problem.

Information relevant for parents, educators, police, policy makers, etc., who are trying to prevent delinquency.

Action research, social impact assessment research are popular examples of applied research.

Most social science research are applied in nature.

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CLASSIFICATION BY OBJECTIVESDescriptive Exploratory Correlational Explanatory

•Describe systematically a situation/topic of interest.

•e.g., describe the attitude of UPM students toward smoking.

•Explore areas of limited knowledge.•Feasibility/pilot study.

•May result in full study.

•Also use to develop, refine, and/or test measurement tools and procedures

•e.g., describe the prevalence of smoking amongst UPM students.

•Determine the extent of the existence of a relationship between 2 or > aspect of a situation.

•e.g., what is the relationship between smoking and the incidence of heart attack?

•Clarify why and how there is a relationship between 2 aspects of a situation.

•e.g., why cigarette smoking results in heart attack?

CLASSIFICATION BY INFORMATION SOUGHTASPECTS QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Views on the world

Assumed social facts have objective truth, removed from individual beliefs.

Assumed that truth is constructed from social, individual or group definition of a situation.

Research Purpose

Describe reason for change in social facts through measurement and objective analysis.

Emphasize more on understanding social phenomena from the perspective of the actor based on his/her participation.

Approach Use approach such as experimental or correlation that distant a person from clearly understanding social facts.

Use approach such as ethnography that can help in understanding a research situation clearly.

Researcher’s role

Researcher removes self from the subject to avoid bias.

Researchers immerse self in the research phenomena.

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QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVEData are in the form of numbers.

Data are in the form of words

Deductive process Inductive processTheory-based from onset. No theoretical emphasis

onsetReality is objective Reality is subjectiveResearcher is independent from subject

Researcher interacts with subjects

Value-free and unbiased Value-laden and biasedContext-free Context-boundGeneralization for explanation/ understanding & prediction

Patterns, theories developed for understanding

Accurate & reliable through validity and reliability

Accurate and reliable through verification

Statistical report Narrative report40

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QN QLObserve using structure questionnaire

Observe/ask questions with open-ended answers

Data entry Record what is said and/or done

Data analysis InterpretData interpretations Return to observe/ask

more questions(recurring cycle 2-4

Draw conclusions Theorizing

General Sequence for Qn & Ql. Method

• Collect both quantitative & qualitative data

• Develops rationale for mixing• Integrates data at different stages of

inquiry• Employs both qualitative and

quantitative data analysis• Both statistical and narrative reports.

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Mixed methods

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TOPIC 2

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OUTLINE

I. Identifying problemII. Developing hypothesisIII. Data CollectionIV. Data analysisV. Report Writing

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PROCESS OF RESEARCH

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A CLEAR CUT STRUCTURE

Beginning

Middle End

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(I) Identifying problem (2) Developing hypothesis (3) Data collection (4) Data analysis (5) Report writing

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5 steps in research process:

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I. IDENTIFYING PROBLEM

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Research begins with a problem. This problem need not be Earth-shaking.

Identifying this problem can actually be the hardest part of research.

In general, good research projects should: Address an important question. Advance knowledge.

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II. DEVELOPING HYPOTHESIS

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II. HYPOTHESIS

A successful hypothesis becomes a scientific theory.

• What is a Hypothesis:

hunch or expectations that social scientists have about relationships between or among variables,

commonly but not always expressed as the expectation that variation in an independent variable will “cause” or be associated with variation in a dependent variable.

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A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.

For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states,

“This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety.”

Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your experiment or research.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

contains at least 2 variables. states the relationship between 2 variables. stated in a simple, clear, accurate and specific

form. present the study variable in an operational

term. can be tested to determine the extend to

which it can be supported or rejected.

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can be deduced from theory, past research or observation, thus, it must be consistent with the existing knowledge or what is already known.

provides the guide for which research strategy to use.

help to identify the type of data to be collected. help to identify which statistic to use in analyzing

data. facilitate in how to reach a conclusion in solving

the research problem.

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FORMS & CLASSES OF HYPOTHESIS

Form Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis

Classes Directional Non-directional

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NULL HYPOTHESIS also known as statistical hypothesis or zero

hypothesis. (). labelled as H0 states that there is no difference or relationship

between the groups or variables measured. statement to be rejected.

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ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS also known as the research hypothesis or working

hypothesis. labelled as Ha. states that there is a difference or relationships

between groups or variables that are being measured.

statement to be accepted.

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DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS is a hypothesis that specifies the direction of the

predicted relationship that is whether the predicted relationship will be positive or negative.

enough evidence to deduce for the direction of the expected results (IV on DV).

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NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS

is a hypothesis that does not indicate the direction of the expected research results.

positive or negative results of the investigation will not be stated.

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SOME EXAMPLESNull There is no significant

relationship between number of hours studying and test score.

Alternative There is a significant relationship between number of hours studying and test score.

Directional Students who study longer hours will get higher score on the test.

Non-directional

Number of hours studying will influence test score.

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III. DATA COLLECTION

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DATA COLLECTION

Can influence the quality of an investigation. Popular procedure include

Test and measurement scale Observation Questionnaire Interview

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IV. DATA ANALYSIS

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DATA ANALYSIS

Ways to use/organize/manipulate data in order to reach research conclusions.

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PROCESSING DATA

1. EDITING DATA2. CODING DATA3. DEVELOPING A FRAME OF ANALYSIS4. ANALYSING DATA

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V. REPORT WRITING

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Contains a description of the research that encompass the results

Must inline with your objectives Using the APA styles

WRITING QUANTITATIVE REPORTS

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TOPIC 3

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OUTLINE

I. Meaning and Purpose of Research DesignII. Types of Research Design

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I. MEANING AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

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What is Research Design?

A plan, structure and strategy of investigation to obtain answers to research questions or problems

It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data

(Kerlinger, 1986:279).

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Purpose of Research Design

identify the most appropriate method in conducting research

identify research variable & how to operationalize it

the robust and objective research

Answer questions and make decision related to aspects such as research purpose, information/data resources, location & appropriate time to conduct the research

identify the most economical method in conducting the research

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II. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

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TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental Research Non-Experimental Research

• True Experimental Designs

• Quasi-Experimental Designs

1.Historical Research

2.Descriptive Researcha)Case Studiesb)Survey Research

3.Developmental Researcha)Longitudinal Researchb)Cross-Sectional Research

4.Correlational Research

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A . NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

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HISTORICAL RESEARCH/HISTORGRAPHY

What? Attempt to identify: Source of Data

Limitations

Study past events

i). Factors from the past that have impact on the present of the future.

ii).Factors from two or more periods in the past that may be compared and may or may not be related to the present or the future.

iii).Factors from one or more periods in the past that are compared with or related to the future.

•Documents•Oral histories•Remains, remnant, and relics

Generalizability

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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCHWhat? Case Study Survey

Describe the current state of affairs of some phenomenon at the time of the study.

Study an individual or an institution as detailed as possible.

Basic tools:Indepth interviewQualitative observation

Study directly the characteristics of population thro’ surveys.

Examines the frequency & relationships betw. psychological and sociological variables --- attitudes, beliefs, prejudice, opinion.

Basic tools:QuestionnaireInterviews

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CASE STUDY SURVEY RESEARCH

ADVANTAGES i. Focus on one individual or one thing, allows close examination

ii. Encourage use of several techniques.

iii.Richer data.iv.Suggestions

directions for further study.

i. Give broad picture of phenomenon studied.

ii. Survey research is efficient.

iii.Can yield remarkably accurate results

DISADVANTAGES

i. time consumingii. biased view of one

personiii.provide depth, not

breadthiv. not for establishing

any cause- and-effect links

v. generalizability is limited

Biasi. Interviewer biasii. Questionnaire bias

Uncooperative respondents

iii.Refused to answer as in mail surveys

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Developmental ResearchStudy patterns and sequences of growth and/or change as part or function of time.

Longitudinal Research Cross-Sectional Research

• Examines one group of people repeatedly over time,

• Examine change over an extended period of time.

• Study same respondents studied according to age increment

• Examines several groups of people at one point in time.

• Examine age differences rather than age changes.

• Study different respondents with different age categories.

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ADVANTAGES

Longitudinal Research Cross-Sectional Research

Reveals extensive detail on the process of of development

Inexpensive

High comparability of (the same) groups

Short time span

Allows for the study of continuity between widely differing groups

Low dropout rate

Allows modified cause and effect speculation about the relationship between variables

Requires no long-term administration or cooperation between staff and participants

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DISADVANTAGESLongitudinal Research Cross-Sectional Research

Expensive to conduct Limits comparability of groups

Potential for high dropout rate (mortality/attrition)

Gives no idea as to the direction of change that a group might take.

Examines people of the different chronological age

Examines people of the same chronological age who may be of different maturational ages.

Reveals continuity of development on a person-by-person case.

Reveals nothing about the continuity of development on a person-by-person case.

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Correlational Research

Describes the linear relationship between 2 or more variables

no hinting on the effect of one variable to another

Determine the extent to which variations/change in one factor/variable,

Corresponds/relates to variations in one or > other factors/variables.

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Focus on the amount of variance shared between 2 variables.

That is the more 2 things have in common, the more strongly related they will be to each other

(e.g., relationship between reading & mathematics vs. reading & physical strength.

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B

A B

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Frequent measure used to assess degree of relatedness is the correlation coefficient

a numerical index reflecting the relationship between 2 variables.

expressed as a number between -1.00 and +1.00

Strength increases as amount of variance one variable shares with another increases.

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The important quality of a correlation coefficient is not its sign, but its absolute value.

A correlation of -.75 is stronger than a correlation of +.65, just as a correlation of +.58 is weaker than a correlation of -.70.

Pearson product moment correlation – search detail.

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Correlations can be direct/positive as one variable changes in value, the other changes in the

same direction.

Correlations can also be indirect/negative as one variable changes in value in one direction, the other

changes in the opposite direction.

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B . EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Focuses on analyzing the cause and effects of a phenomenon.

To test the presence of a distinct cause and effect:

A does cause B to happen?A does not cause B to happen?(change in one factor are causally related to

changes in the other – there are not just related; i.e., they share something, but one directly affects the other)

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True Experimental Research Design

Expt. design delineates several procedures that must be followed by researchers, as follows:

1. Determines control group randomly which, based on statistical characteristics is similar to the experimental or treatment group

(similar in statistic characteristics of the population used so that the subjects of the study are comparable and not extreme, for example, heights not exceeding 7 feet, between the two groups).

2. Control and experimental groups originate from the same population (this will help to determine similarities in terms of statistics)

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3. Subjects in the control group are not exposed to the treatment, intervention or changes or variable(s) that will be manipulated.

4. Both groups must comprise equal numbers of subjects.

5. Conduct pre-test for the dependent variable for both control and experimental groups.

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6. Conduct post-test for the dependent variable for both control and experimental groups.

7. Your study is complete after the post-test. You can conduct the post-test as many times as needed even when the experiment is taking place. Your research results are interpreted based on the differences in the post-tests between the experimental and control groups.

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QUASI EXPERIMENT

is designed to parallel true experiment. not lower in value than true experiment. sometimes better and more realistic than the true

experiment.

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sometimes known as expo-facto research since, done after phenomena took place.

IV is difficult to manipulate as in the true experiment. does not emphasize the element of randomness as in

the true experiment.

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subject is not randomly selected to be in any kind of situation.

subjects are chosen based on the IV ( e.g., age & sex).

the validity for the quasi experimental research is lower than the true experimental research.

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Quasi experimental research can be classified according to three categories:

1) Quasi experiment using ‘subject variables’ Comparison between different subjects Pre-test and post-test measurements of the dependent variables

2) Quasi experiment using ‘environmental variable’ (time –series design) Comparison among the same subjects Several observations made on the same subject for a period of time

3) Quasi experiment involving time panel/cohort: Testing for developmental change. For example, comparing the

academic achievement of PJJ students cohort of May 2003/04 with those of May 2005/6

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E.G., QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH1). The Effects of Taking Breakfast

Experimental Group?Control Group?

2) The Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Unborn ChildExperimental Group?Control Group?

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