Chapter Five

The Physicality of Trumpet Playing

The issues discussed so far have included the anatomy of a trumpet mouthpiece, how

design features affect tone and performance characteristics, the role of the

mouthpiece industry and the contributions of specific trumpeters, bandleaders and

arrangers. A survey carried out to determine the trends in the increased range of the

trumpet in lead trumpet parts has also been described. This chapter considers the

‘why’ of performance style and conventions, the impact of this upon tone and the

impact of these considerations on trumpet mouthpiece design. It also considers the

physical demands of the instrument and the ways in which the physical performance

of trumpet playing connotes power.

During the course of this research and for twenty years previous, I have made close

observations in many countries of the world, of trumpet players, especially of lead

players, both on and off the stage. Such observations arise from accompanying them

in almost every situation: at concerts, in rehearsal, in their homes, in their private

practice sessions, on tours, at gigs, festivals, parties, on drinking sessions, on meals

out, on flights, on long coach journeys, through taking lessons with them and given

lessons too, through interviews with them and through reading their books. They

have been watched from close up and from afar. These observations have been

carried out at various locations throughout the world with the majority taking place

in either the UK or in the USA. By far the most productive locations were at the

annual conferences of the International Association for Jazz Education held in New

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York (1998), Anaheim (1999), New Orleans (2000), New York (2001), Long Beach

(2002), Toronto (2003) and New York (2004) and the annual conferences of the

International Trumpet Guild held in Richmond, Virginia (1999) and Manchester, UK

(2002). Another location that proved to be very productive was the Wigan

International Jazz Festival staged in July each year and the monthly Wigan Jazz

Club. The unique opportunity to observe trumpet players during these events, not

only in performance and rehearsal but also socially and whilst travelling, was

invaluable. My friendship with a number of the world’s leading trumpet players also

allowed me the special privilege of lengthy conversations and observations in a wide

variety of surroundings. These trumpet players included: Maynard Ferguson, Bobby

Shew, Pete and Conté Candoli, Buddy Childers, James Morrison, Jon Faddis, Tony

Fisher and Kenny Baker.

In addition to those situations listed in the previous paragraph, more specific

examples where observations were made include:

Spending six weeks in America studying with Bobby Shew

Attending a birthday party of American trumpeter Mannie Klein, at which dozens

of Los Angeles based trumpeters were present.

Spending three days travelling around the UK with American trumpeter Clark

Terry.

Attending recording sessions with Bobby Shew, Kenny Baker, Tony Fisher and

Derek Watkins.

Working on concerts with many trumpeters including Conte Candoli, Buddy

Childers, Maynard Ferguson, Don Rader, James Morrison, Bobby Shew, Dennis

Noday, Tony Fisher, Paul Eshelby, Bruce Adams and Gavin Spowart,

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Spending a week in the company of Maynard Ferguson and his musicians.

Two days working with mouthpiece designer Joe Marcinkiewicz

An evening in discussion with Wynton Marsalis

An afternoon with mouthpiece designer Jerry Callet

Working with numerous students of varying standards, most of whom were

experiencing mouthpiece problems.

Performance Conventions and Connotations of Power

Throughout the period of this research special note has been made of the manner in

which some trumpet players perform, especially lead trumpet players. A great many

trumpet players have been observed performing in a very demonstrative style, as if

perhaps to draw attention to themselves. If all trumpet players performed in this

manner it could be argued that it was necessary in order to respond to the challenges

of the music, especially the high notes. However, there are a number of trumpeters

whose style of performance belies these physical demands. Craig Johnson, Frank

Greene and Scott Engelbright, lead trumpeters with Maynard Ferguson during the

1990s, make trumpet playing appear effortless even when performing in the extreme

high range and at high volumes. Their style of performance may be compared with

the overtly physical styles of players such as Lin Biviano, Paul Cacia, Freddie

Hubbard, Nicholas Payton and even Maynard Ferguson, which leads to questions as

to whether trumpet performance necessitates such exaggerated physical actions.

The existence of a substantial number of players who perform in what might be

termed an ‘easy way’ suggests that exaggerated physical action is not an essential

ingredient in trumpet performance and yet, with so much of it observed during this

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research, for some it is clearly deemed to be a part of being a trumpet artist.

Although at first glance such issues may seem somewhat removed from the specific

phenomenon of the mouthpiece and its design, I wish to examine the suggestion that

in fact the reverse is true, that these issues lie at the very heart of trumpet playing and

may even be responsible for characterising the instrument and that they also have a

decidedly powerful effect on the music and the images projected.

So why do players become involved in exaggerated movement? Where do these

actions come from? Are the actions involuntary? Are they learned or does the

demands of the trumpet bring them out? How do these physical actions compare to

those of players of other instruments? Since the actions attract attention, are they

linked to a desire to be noticed? These questions will now be addressed in the

discussion that follows.

A considerable amount of physical effort is required in the performance of musical

instruments. Some, such as the church organ, the tuba, and the cello require large

amounts of physical effort. The physical demands of the trumpet are considerable, in

fact as Edward Tarr (1988:195) comments ‘...the trumpet remains overall the most

strenuous of all’, this appears particularly true for notes in the high register and

during very loud passages of play. As Henderson (1942:64) observes ‘the principal

difficulty of trumpet playing is the production of the higher notes.’ Whitworth

(1969:9) concurs, stating ‘the trumpet is more taxing physically - especially when

played in the upper register and at great volume - than any other commonly used

instrument.’ Speaking specifically of the role of lead trumpet playing, Airmen of

Note (1978-98) lead trumpeter Vaughn Nark (www.vaughnnark.com2003)

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commented, ‘perhaps more than any other musician, the trumpeter must travel

through the physical to arrive at the musical.’

In order to produce a loud, clear sound on the trumpet, a posture similar to that of the

musician in fig.74 is recommended.

On a basic gestural level, even without a trumpet, the action of putting your arms up

means you are going to do something powerful with your upper body. Additionally,

anything that blows up, expands, becomes bigger, etc., is almost always a signal of

power, even a warning to others, as for example when a cobra expands its head and

neck, a peacock fully displays its tail or a cat’s fur stands on end when the cat sees a

dog. Raising your arms and blowing up your chest - the actions observed in trumpet

playing - are almost the same actions you would use if you were going to engage in

physical action or aggressive behaviour and so is suggestive that the trumpet player

is powerful.

Observation has shown that during performance trumpeters use varying degrees of

physical movement involving such traits as: leaning back pointing the trumpet high

into the air, pointing the trumpet down at the ground, bending of the knees, gyration

of the abdomen, holding the trumpet with one hand, ripping the instrument away

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Fig.74

from the lips at the end of difficult or high passages and moving the instrument from

side to side in time to the music. Additionally, their facial expressions range from

looks of effortlessness to ones of pain, verging on the ‘ready to burst.’ Louis

Armstrong’s style of performance certainly contained many of these traits and indeed

it is quite possible that he may have been the first jazz musician to employ such

physical movement and in doing so set examples of physical performance for others

to follow and imitate. Whether or not that is the case, movement in musical

performance certainly does not appear to be a recent development. Ake (2002:105)

for example, suggests that ‘musicians and audiences of previous centuries were not

strangers to performances drenched in a type of sensual sacrality’ citing an

eyewitness account of a baroque Italian violin concert in which the performer was

described as being ‘agitated like one possessed with an irresistible motion.’

It is acknowledged that musicians learn much about performance from watching, as

well as listening to others (Green 2001:82). Clearly, by their very presence at live

music events audiences place great importance on the visual images of the

performers. In tracing connections between performer and audience Leppert (quoted

in Ake 2002:87) notes that:

When people hear a musical performance, they see it as an embodied activity. While they hear, they also witness how the performers look and gesture, how they are costumed, how they interact with their instruments and with one another, how they regard the audience, how other listeners heed the performers.

In discussing the performance styles of pianists Bill Evans and Keith Jarrett, Ake

(ibid.:82) refers to the ‘pivotal role’ of the body mentioning ‘posture, movement and

even shape’ as being important in communication. Additionally, in referring to

Walser, Ake (ibid.:85) remarks that ‘musical meanings are always intimately bound

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up with the physical enactment of the sound.’ Clearly, music is much more than

notes on the printed page and trumpeters in their physical displays, whether

consciously or subconsciously, are embracing the importance of communicating with

the music and with the audience. They are, in effect, involved in ‘integrating an array

of sensuous experiences’ (Leppart quoted in Ake ibid.:87) and as Ake (ibid.:88)

remarks ‘the jazz musician of today is seen as an “artist” and is expected to act and

play accordingly.’ Ake (ibid: 105) even quotes C.P.E. Bach, stating ‘a musician’s

facial expressions are oftentimes - and should be - conscious choices, inseparable

from “the music” which help the listener to understand our meaning.’

It is not only the trumpeter who is involved in these physical displays, players on the

whole range of instruments have been observed in what might be termed responding

to or getting inside the music. This discussion will return to the performance styles of

other instruments later, however, what is important at this stage is to consider how

the physical style of a trumpet player can attract audience attention and how this

might have links to mouthpiece design. Physical display of the type that has been

mentioned certainly helps the musician to attract attention to their performance.

What also assists in this process is possession of a tone that can be heard – a tone that

perhaps stands out from the rest. As discussed earlier, mouthpiece design can affect

tone, for example it may help to produce a brighter, more cutting tone, or a louder,

fuller tone. These are characteristics that make the player more easily heard and thus

able to stand out from the other instrumentalists on stage. On numerous occasions

during this research trumpeters have been observed with tones that were without

doubt audible and easily recognisable but which, according to audience members,

were not exactly pleasing to the ear. On describing such a player, trumpet enthusiast

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Con Rouffignac commented, ‘Sometimes he sounds like a bee in bottle and other

times like a ruddy screech owl’ (personal communication 1998). Angie Haddock, a

member of the audience at the Wigan International Jazz Festival, credited one well-

known player as sounding like a ‘kazoo’ (personal communication 2000). It must

also be acknowledged that in recognition of doing more than playing what is printed

on the page some trumpeters appear to have gone in search of a tone that they feel is

appropriate to the music. In order to achieve such results mouthpiece design has

often provided the answer. The example that has received most media coverage, as

well as recognition in the music business, is the change that Wynton Marsalis made

during the mid-1990s. Marsalis admitted to being dissatisfied with his tone,

especially on recordings and changed to using a trumpet and a mouthpiece design (by

Monette) that differed greatly from the Vincent Bach equipment that he had used for

a number of years (personal communication 2001).

During research for this thesis the word ‘power’ has been mentioned on many

occasions by the interviewees, in books and within the promotional material from

mouthpiece companies. King (1992:62) for example, comments that ‘Hard-bop

masters Clifford Brown and Freddie Hubbard magically combine the power of great

big-band-style with an inviting smoothness and warmth…’. Yamaha (2004) credit

the very shallow cup and narrow backbore of their Vizzutti signature series

mouthpiece as having ‘bright tone and power in the high register’, while Callet

(2004) describes his ‘Super Chops’ trumpet as the ‘stratospheric power-trumpet’.

There are two ways in which power is seen to be expressed in the context of trumpet

playing. Firstly, power is associated with a player having a strong sound. The second

type of power is that which is felt or assumed (or desired) by lead players when they

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have control, musically speaking, over the band. The nature of the sound of the

trumpet and the role of the lead player combine to produce an important and highly

influential role, one that is well respected in the music profession. Jeff Anderson

(2001), musical director of the Indianapolis Jazz Orchestra states, that the drummer

and lead trumpet are ‘unquestionably the most important parts of any big band jazz

ensemble’ and is of the opinion that ‘the lead trumpet establishes the sound, style and

direction of the ensemble.’

Both conceptions of power are reflected in the physical performance, even in the

stance of the trumpet player, where the mannerisms of the player make the art of

playing the trumpet look difficult – perhaps more difficult than it actually is (see

figures 75-77). According to Frith (1998:125) ‘audiences remain uneasy about

musical instruments that appear to require no effort to be played.’ Frith’s observation

may go someway to explaining why trumpeters appear to create the illusion that the

instrument is extremely hard to play.

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Fig.75. Mike Vax Fig.76. Maynard Ferguson

The often-exaggerated actions of trumpeters also seem to magnify to on-lookers the

influence that they have on the music being played. While many trumpeters fall into

this category the following example should suffice. Earl Gardner, lead trumpet with

the Vanguard Jazz Orchestra, was observed constantly motioning to other musicians

in live performance, yet the purpose of these instructions was unclear. In most

circumstances signals to direct the music are given in a subtle and concealed way.

Gardner’s unusual facial expressions and exaggerated body movements were, by

contrast, clear for all to see. At a performance at the Village Vanguard, the home of

the Vanguard Orchestra, in August 2003, a member of the audience commented

‘Why is he forever doing those things’. It is hard, if not impossible, to assess the

value of Gardner’s antics (or any other lead trumpeter for that matter) to the other

musicians in the band. It is quite possible that they make no difference to the overall

sound of the orchestra but are instead part of Gardner’s style of performance, a form

of gesturality which attracts attention to the effort and intensity with which he

approaches an ensemble performance.

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Fig.77. Freddie Hubbard

The demonstrative physical mannerisms mentioned in this discussion are reflected in

the musical performance styles of many players. A wide variety of musical devices,

some specific to trumpet playing, are commonly used by brass musicians. These

include high note shakes, lip trills, large interval rip-ups, octave leaps, falls, turns,

exaggerated vibrato (induced by both lip and hand) and turns. Often the use of these

devices is not specifically called for either in the printed music or by the director,

mostly their use arises as a result of the lead trumpeter’s style of performance and

indeed, on recordings these often become the means by which some players are

identified. It would appear that in addition to contributing to the music, these

devices also serve as away of demonstrating the flair and energetic performance of

an individual musician. As Tagg (2000:192) comments:

The octave leap is reminiscent of post and hunt calls and will thereby communicate to the listener the excitement, energy and action involved in these situations.

The use of these devices is an indication that the player possesses a good technique.

Although few audience members are likely to have any detailed understanding of

trumpet technique, the attention created by the use of these devices was observed on

many occasions during this research. For example, during a concert in January 2001

by Gordon Goodwin’s Big Phat Band in Long Beach, California, lead trumpeter,

Wayne Bergeron, executed several extremely high and sudden shakes causing an

immediate excited response from the audience. Intelligent mouthpiece selection

plays an important part in the ease with which a player can execute a particular

device such as a shake and the effectiveness of that device to the listener. For

example, lip trills require good flexibility on behalf of the player and as discussed

earlier certain components of a mouthpiece affect flexibility.

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To examine the distinctiveness of trumpet performance consideration needs to be

given to other instrumentalists working in jazz and big band as well as within other

genres of music. As Frith (1998:219) comments the ‘musician’s body is also an

instrument’ and that ‘in musical terms the instrument we play thus determines the

instrument our body must be (standing up, sitting down, bowing or blowing, hitting

or pulling).’ Observations undertaken in this research of dance bands and big bands

at professional, amateur and youth level indicates that it is most often the trumpeter

whose style of performance, both musically and physically, stands out from the other

players. Of the hundreds of performances attended and observed players other than

trumpeters were very seldom observed displaying such mannerisms. In many cases

players were characterised by their total lack of physical response, a situation that

changes when jazz performances become the focus of the attention. Here many

players are involved in some kind of physical response to the music whether it be

trumpet, saxophone, trombone, piano, bass and even vocals. In jazz performances

bodily movement and wide ranging facial expressions are far more noticeable with

players of all instruments. For example, in discussing the piano playing style of Keith

Jarrett, Ake (2002:106) observes that Jarrett’s movements are ‘accepted as an

integral part of the musical experience’ and that ‘his beatified/agonized movements

and equally wrenching/ecstatic vocalizations make it clear to even the casual

observer that he is not on stage simply to play the piano.’

In moving further afield from jazz to rock music, physical movement of the

performers becomes even more exaggerated to a point where it is expected and very

much a part of the culture. As with the trumpet, the guitar can be understood to

symbolise power. In discussing the electric guitar, Michael Chanan (1994:256) refers

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to the instrument as ‘a symbol of masculine power.’ In describing feedback, the

continuous sound that occurs when the pickups of the strings are in close proximity

to the speaker of the amplifier, Chanan (ibid:257) states that ‘the guitarist will

describe a feeling of power when playing this way.’ Observation of performances by

almost any guitarist from Chuck Berry to Manic Street Preacher’s James Dean

Bradfield shows a wide range of ever present physical mannerisms, some for which

the performers have become well known. Mannerisms that characterised guitarist’s

performances include Chuck Berry’s special walk and Jimmy Hendrix’s plucking of

the strings with his teeth and playing at the back of his neck.

Keith Jarrett’s gyrating style of performance has already been mentioned as an

example of a pianist’s physical style. Other instrumentalists known for their unusual

or exaggerated physical mannerisms include the often–photographed, high angled

hold of tenor saxophonist Lester Young, keyboard player Rick Wakeman and

drummer Butch Miles. A number of players have even become known for their

physically understated performance styles. These include trumpeter Chet Baker and

pianist Bill Evans. Ake (2002:88) described Evans as ‘more reminiscent of a “nerdy”

eighth-grade science teacher than of a professional musician’ and who ‘usually

refused to recognise that an audience existed at all’ (ibid: 97).

Although it has been acknowledged that much about performance is learned and

copied from watching others perform, it may also be stated that every performance

contains elements of style that are individual, even original, to each particular

performer. Frith (1998:208) refers to the subject of performance and includes

discussion on the work of anthropologist Richard Bauman, stating:

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…this is what enables an audience to judge them: by measuring what’s original, personal to this performance, against the conventions of performance form in general.

Thus it is the original elements which distinguish a performance alongside the

resonances that it might hold with earlier performance styles and codes. The

observation of this research indicates that many trumpeters are indeed highly

individual in their physical styles of performance. Ernie Garside, for example,

provides the following description of Maynard Ferguson:

When Maynard blows a long note, he produces a gyrating movement of his hips and rather enlarged stomach. For some reason this is so exaggerated that one starts to feel rather embarrassed by its suggestive nature. Often when he plays a high note, he will lift one hand from the instrument and wave it around as if to say “ Look guys I can do this with one hand. Can you? (personal communication 1998).

However, whilst trumpet players do bring a considerable degree of originality into

their performances, often their playing styles or gesturality may echo that of a star

performer that they may have studied or even idolised. Birmingham based trumpeter

Bryan Corbett for example, displays obvious stylistic traits of Miles Davis. Corbett

uses a clip on radio style microphone that enables him to walk around during

performance during which he often points his trumpet down at the ground, even at

times turning his back on the audience. A further example is provided by inspection

of the photograph shown in fig.79 in which Ernie Garside and Maynard Ferguson are

shown in performance. Garside has clearly adopted the exact same pose as his idol,

Ferguson.

Iconography of Trumpet Playing

Despite the clear significance of gesturality to the performance conventions of

trumpet playing, the physical display or on-stage personas of trumpet players appear

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not to be discussed amongst the musicians themselves. Whilst audience members

frequently made comment on this topic, the absence of discussion by musicians

perhaps illustrates the way in which such conventions are naturalised within a music

culture as if they were the result of spontaneous impulse in reaction to the music.

What trumpeters would instead relentlessly discuss in great detail was: how good

high notes sound, how easy they are to achieve on a particular mouthpiece, how high

a particular musician can play, how bad they feel when they split a note, or how

frustrating they find it when they cannot reach a high F or a high G within a

performance. The constant attention given to these features by trumpeters

demonstrates the emphasis placed on accuracy, professionalism and strength in

performance. Additionally, in engaging in such conversation trumpeters are

arguably, albeit subconsciously, reinforcing certain theories: high notes dominate,

the trumpet can be heard above the rest and split notes are a sign of weakness and

failure.

Inspection of photographs of trumpeters provides the opportunity to consider how the

conventions within playing are upheld and reinforced in images of musicians as,

almost without exception, they illustrate the physicality of trumpet performance and

serve to strengthen the message of power.1 Although the subjects of these images are

the players and the trumpet itself, the ‘mise en scène’ of these images is the

responsibility of other professions. Photographs and film images (or television) are

methods by which the trumpet player is represented. Be it still-photography or a

moving image, it is the person behind the camera and not the trumpet player, who 1

? Hundreds of images of trumpet players were considered in the process of this research. This observation took place in a number of countries in the world e.g. America, Australia, South Africa, Britain, Singapore, It was impossible to find images of trumpet players that projected anything but power. It appeared as though the artists/photographers etc. had purposely set out to project and enhance that image.

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chooses the best angles from which to portray the musician. British photographer

William Ellis observes:

From a photographer’s point of view, you focus on the player and wait. When the pose is right you shoot. With trumpeters this is almost always when the instrument is held high and they are leaning back. Admittedly, with Miles it was different. To me, this is when you see the true image of the player and the instrument. Loud and powerful (personal communication 2002).

With the exception of Miles Davis2 and Chet Baker, the image is almost always of an

instrument held at ninety degrees to the player’s body, arms locked and, as described

by Robert Walser ‘projecting an image of strength, of focused power’ (personal

communication 2003). Consideration of a variety of photographs of trumpet players

serves to illustrate this point3 (See figs.78, 79 and 80). In addition to projecting an

image of power, these photographs appear to signal that the trumpet is a difficult

instrument to play and that it requires a great deal of strength

2 In the last twenty years of his life, Miles Davis adopted an unorthodox stance. He would point the trumpet at the ground often turning his back on the audience. His trumpet was amplified through a microphone attached to the bell of the trumpet enabling him to roam around the stage rather than having to rely on a microphone attached to a static upright microphone stand. The unconventional stance of Miles Davis was perhaps his way of performing. 3 Literally hundreds of photographs were available that illustrated the stance described. Almost any photograph of a trumpet player could have been used. These particular photographs were chosen because of the sharpness of focus and because the trumpeter was particularly clear.

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Fig.78. Jon Faddis

Fig.80. Terell Stafford

Fig.79. Ernie Garside and Maynard Ferguson

In a similar way to photographic depictions Hollywood films have often depicted the

trumpet as a symbol of male power. In his discussions on the role of the trumpet in

Hollywood films Krin Gabbard (1995), suggests that this connotation of power is

often portrayed as bound up with masculinity, indeed he refers to Louis Armstrong

as the ‘first of many African American jazz artists to attract international attention by

establishing phallic authority with that most piercing of instruments, the trumpet.’

(ibid:105) In drawing attention to trumpeters that he considers project an image of

power through their style of performance, Gabbard refers to Dizzy Gillespie, who he

describes as trying to simulate an erection when he bent the bell of his trumpet

upwards (ibid:105) and to Gillespie protégé Jon Faddis, whom he describes as an

‘exceptionally phallic trumpeter’(ibid:112). Gabbard also refers to Maynard

Ferguson as playing ‘as high as possible in order to establish his power unself-

conciously and without irony’ (ibid:109)

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In particular, Gabbard focuses on how the trumpet is used in Hollywood films such

as All the Fine Young Cannibals, Birth of the Blues, Young Man with A Horn, The

Five Pennies and Mo’ Better Blues, to represent issues such as success or failure. For

example, he relates the splitting of high notes and the inability to hit the right notes to

sexual failure. Part of the skill in trumpet playing is correctly judging the note as

every note can be under or over-pitched. Unlike instruments such as the piano and

guitar, where the position of the note can actually be physically seen, the trumpet

player has to create a mental image of where each note lies. This, combined with the

use of the correct lip vibrations and the valves, allows the notes to be generated.

Difficulties in achieving this often result in split notes (see glossary in the appendix)

and thus, the trumpet can be regarded as being ‘insecure’. In fact, when viewed from

the perspective of western orchestral music only the French horn is regarded as being

more insecure. As Baines (1993:221) confirms, the French horn is ‘the most difficult

instrument in the orchestra – i.e. that from which one heard the most wrong notes.’

Gabbard (1995:115) comments ‘that often within the cinematic depiction of trumpet

performance the trumpet player’s inability to hit the right notes is a metaphor for his

sexual or masculine inadequacy’.

At its most obvious level playing the trumpet is as much a physical performance as,

for instance, playing a game of soccer. There have been many reports of managers of

sports teams forbidding players to see their wives or girlfriends on the eve of a game

as if to suggest that sexual activity has a negative effect on performance. Gabbard

(ibid:115) relates to this stating:

…excessive masculinity is constantly undermined by performance anxiety as well as by the fear that sex with a woman will limit a man’s strength in a variety of “manly” pursuits such as sporting events.’

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In his discussions Gabbard (ibid:106) also makes reference to the ‘post-phallic

qualities’ of trumpeter Terence Blanchard, suggesting that the display of maleness

and power are absent. Gabbard (ibid:112) relates to the trends of performance by

trumpeters of the late 1980’s and 1990s, using Wynton Marsalis and Terence

Blanchard as examples of players ‘backing away from phallic posturing.’

Based on that which has been discussed in previous chapters, on what has been

observed in photographs and that which has been observed during the period of the

research, there appears to be strong links between the image of the trumpet as

discussed by Gabbard and the conclusions on mouthpiece design that are being

formed here. It has been observed for example, that during certain periods

trumpeters appear to seek attention either by their physical mannerisms or in their

style of musical performance. It has also been noted that certain designs of

mouthpiece aid performance in the upper register helping to generate a cutting sound

and assisting in the production of a powerful tone. It has also been noted through

photographs how, in what seems to be attempts to project the trumpet as a powerful

instrument and one that requires strength to play it, players appear to draw attention

to themselves by their posture. What also seems to be the case is that this kind of

behaviour has increased through the 1950s onwards into the 1970s peaking at a time,

when according to the survey of lead trumpet parts, the use of high notes also peak.

Mouthpiece design during this period appears to follow a similar line of

development, responding to the needs of players, going from deep and heavy, to

shallow and light. As extreme high notes perhaps become less fashionable in the late

1980s, then mouthpiece trends move gradually back to favour heavier and deeper

models. Such models, according to the claims of manufacturers, assist the

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development of a darker, more expressive tone. The observations of this research

confirm that although the developments in trumpet playing have followed these

trends, the overuse of high notes and demonstrative styles of performance are still

commonly found amongst trumpet players.

Valued Performance Characteristics

The fundamental question that appears to underpin the whole development of

trumpet style is ‘What constitutes a good performance?’ Clearly this is a question

that can be answered in many different ways and depends to a large degree on the

criteria used in assessment and the personal judgement of the appraiser. Opinions

from trumpeters as to what constitutes a good performance are likely to vary

considerably from opinions of non-trumpeters. Similarly, opinions from younger

people are likely to vary from opinions from an older age group. Chapter Six

addresses some of these issues through a listening test.

Trumpet playing, especially during the twentieth century, has, as we have

documented, been affected by considerable changes to a point where it may be

considered that the whole nature of the instrument has changed. In jazz alone there

are a wide range of styles that each require a different style of performance. Some

players such as British traditional jazz player Kenny Ball, have specialised in the

performance of one style while others, for example British trumpeter Tony Fisher,

have earned their living as all round players. This is not to say that because players

remain with one style in their public performance they are not accomplished players

in other styles. Scottish trumpeter Bruce Adams, for example, is as impressive a

dixie-land jazz trumpeter as he is a high note player. Stylistically, the two styles are a

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long way apart from each other and yet Adams performs both and everything in

between, to an extremely high standard.

Consideration of performances involving trumpeters reveals a long list of variables,

some that the general listener is unlikely to have any knowledge of. There are, for

example, three instruments that may be used by a player, each creating subtle

changes in the timbre. These are trumpet, cornet and flugelhorn.4 As we have seen,

the possible variations in model of mouthpiece used are huge. Five different types of

mute are commonly used to change the tone of the instrument. These mutes include

the following types: straight, cup, harmon, bucket and plunger. There are numerous

clearly defined styles of jazz including traditional jazz, swing, main-stream, bebop,

west coast jazz, avant-garde, contemporary big band, smooth, jazz funk and jazz

rock. The playing of improvised solos is usually optional and some players specialise

in this area of playing. Some players become lead players while others remain as

section players. Some become recognised high note specialists. Many players choose

only to play classical music, an area of music that again has a wide stylistic range,

including baroque, classical and romantic. This can involve playing within a

symphony orchestra, a chamber ensemble or solo work. Wind bands and brass bands

are other options that many players choose. So it can be seen that the trumpet (or

cornet) is heard in a wide range of settings, all of which can be affected by other

variables.

The observations of this research indicate that three features of trumpet performances

can be particularly isolated as generating a positive response from audiences. Firstly,

4 The flumpet, an instrument developed by Dave Monette for Art Farmer may also used, but its use is extremely rare.

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high notes appear to produce the biggest audience response, as when a trumpet

player produces a screaming high note, audience members often jump to their feet,

punch the air and shout ‘Yeah’. On many occasions trumpet players were observed

‘playing to the crowd’ by taking advantage of the audiences apparent liking of high

notes. Well aware of the situation, Dave Billings, a member of the Wigan Jazz Club

commented:

Every time he [Malcolm Melling] hits a high note he looks over at you and at the audience to see if we have noticed and the more that we appear to notice, the more he does it (personal communication 1999).

Some trumpeters, presumably in their efforts to be heard and to impress audiences,

often ‘hang-on’ to a high note a second or so after the band has finished and then pull

the instrument away from the lips with an exaggerated ‘ripping’ action as if to say

“Look that was me”. In efforts to restrict this practice many arrangers have actually

written instructions on the parts for trumpet players not to ‘hang-on’ or at least

implied it by writing instructions such as ‘off on 1.’ Few observers however seem

annoyed by this style, in fact the opposite often appears to be true as audiences seem

to find this flourish an exciting aspect of performance. Often, people form the

opinion from this practice that trumpet players are big-heads and even egotists. 5

As California based trumpet player Carl Saunders (2003) observes:

lead trumpet players too often express themselves by hanging over after cut-offs, adding notes not written in the arrangement (often with questionable note choices), etc.

In attempting to heighten the enjoyment of the audience, some bandleaders appear to

have encouraged trumpeters to exaggerate their mannerisms, for example hanging-

5 At the 1993 Wigan International Jazz Festival, during a concert featuring Arturo Sandoval, the sound engineer insisted on four monitor speakers to be set facing Sandoval. When asked if he thought that four monitors may be rather excessive he replied, ‘That’s the way the boss wants it, he’s a total egomaniac’ (Sound engineer to Arturo Sandoval - personal communication 1993).

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on. Buddy Rich, a band leader well known for his zero tolerance of untidy playing6

seems to have encouraged lead trumpeter Lin Biviano to hold on to the final notes of

pieces at the end at on an album titled A Different Drummer (1973). The track

‘Superstar’ clearly shows Biviano displaying this type of playing.

Secondly, many audiences show a great liking for melodies and ballads played with

rich tone and emotional style. Performances of works such as these generate an

entirely different audience response. Audience members usually watch the player

sitting motionless with great intensity, in total silence whilst never taking their eyes

off the player. Often at the end of the piece there is a long silence before the applause

– a different kind of applause to that for high notes – no shouting or whistling. Great

audience response was observed at performances of these types of pieces by Clark

Terry, Pete Candoli, Freddie Hubbard, Art Farmer, Bobby Shew, Dusko Goykovich,

Kenny Baker, Roy Hargrove and Guido Basso. This kind of response has parallels

with classical music concerts where there are also often moments of silence before

applause erupts. As if in respect of the emotions of the performers and that too of the

listener, the audience waits to let the mood of the music really take its effect.

From the observations of this research it appears that audiences do more than

respond to musical performance, they actually contribute to it. At performances

specifically featuring trumpet players audience members (usually trumpet players

themselves) clearly placed themselves at the back of the room from where, as well as

being in the best position acoustically, they could gain a better view of the players. It

was from this position that they delivered their loud applause and varied

6 A secretly made and infamous recording exists of Buddy Rich giving his band members what can perhaps be called a ‘team-talk’. Made during the interval of a concert, in which the trumpet section appear to have made mistakes and played untidily, he threatens them with dismissal if they don’t play better during the second half of the show.

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vocalisations. This in turn appeared to generate a positive response, not only amongst

the musicians on stage, but also amongst the more reserved members of the audience

(quite often non-trumpet players). In discussing performances of Indie music

Fonarow (1995:360) refers to ‘different modes of participation’ for audience

members: modes that are ‘dependant upon where the individual members place

themselves in the venue’. As with Indie music, jazz often takes place in venues that

differ from traditional concerts which have assigned seating’ (ibid:360). The majority

of performances involving trumpeters observed as part of this research also took

place in less traditional venues where audiences ‘distribute themselves in space’

(ibid:360). Fonarow observes that audiences positioned nearest to the stage are

predominantly male and that they comprise the youngest and most frenetic members

(ibid:361). As already mentioned the most frenetic audiences for trumpet

performances are almost always situated at the back of the room. Like Indie

audiences these were observed to be almost exclusively male, comprising the

youngest members. However, in contrast to Fonarow’s observations, those seated

near the front of the stage for performances involving trumpeters are usually the

older members of the audiences and are almost always couples. The activities of the

audience for trumpet performance and the composition of that audience are issues

that appear to have potential for future research.

Thirdly, audiences show definite delight in hearing high-speed passages of trumpet

playing especially if they are played high and loud. Once again this type of

performance often generates a vocal and physical response from the audience.

Players who have been observed in such performances are James Morrison, Jon

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Faddis, Lew Soloff and Arturo Sandoval. On hearing fast, high and loud

performances by these and other players audiences were observed going wild.

In considering the discussions that have taken place on mouthpiece design it appears

that the needs of trumpeters in terms of their mouthpiece requirements, however

diverse, can be met in order to take into account the wide varying performance

situations that a player is likely to meet. The skill, it would seem, is to be able to

select equipment that is suitable for the style of music being performed. In all that

has been discussed, the role of the audience should not be underestimated. Those

who watch and listen, either in live performance or via recording of one type or

another, are to a large extent responsible for whether the artist succeeds or fails. With

this in mind the audience’s perception of the trumpet and of trumpeters will now be

examined and discussed.

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