(THESIS) Uplifting Science & research2

UPLIFTING SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,AND RESEARCH

College of Law, Bulacan State University,City of Malolos, Bulacan

May 4,, 2005, 8:00 a.m

ERLINDA P. VILLAMORAN, Ph. D

Director, Research Services Office

Professor, Graduate School and College of Education

Bulacan State University

Malolos, Bulacan 3000

Erlinda P. Villamoran2

Focus of Discussion1 Overview of Basic Concepts

Scientific Method

Steps in the Research Process

– Identification of Problem

– Theoretical Framework

– Research Designs and Methods

– Presentation, Analyses, and Interpretation of

Data

– Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Rules to Follow in Research Writing


2 Workshop Topics

1. Problem Identification

2. Definition of the General and Specific Problems

3. Preparation of the Conceptual Framework Based on the Identified Problems

3.1 Paradigm of the Study

3.2 Hypothesis of the Study

3.3 Definition of Terms

4. Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Mock Data

III Presentation of Outputs [(4.1), (4.2), (4.3), (4.4), (4.5)]

IV Critiquing of Outputs


Scientific Research

Scientific research is a systematic, controlled,

empirical, and critical investigation of natural

phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses

about the presumed relations among such

phenomena.


Paradigm of Inquiry in Scientific Approach

1. Problem-Obstacle-Idea – involves getting the idea out in the open and expressing the problem in some reasonably manageable form

2. Hypothesis - a conjectural statement, a tentative proposition about the relation between two or more phenomena or variables

3. Reasoning-Deduction - the scientist deduces the consequences of the hypothesis he has formulated

4. Observation-Test-Experiment - is only part of the scientific enterprise. If the problem has been well stated, the hypothesis or hypotheses adequately formulated, and the implications of the hypotheses carefully deduced, this step is almost automatic assuming that the investigator is technically competent.


General Order of the Scientific Methods

Identification of a problem

Definition of the problem

Formulation of hypotheses

Projection of consequences

Testing of hypotheses



Identifying a Problem

Theoretical Framework

2.1 Theory Building

2.2 Review of Related Studies

2.3 Review of Related Literature

2.4 Conceptual Framework

2.5 Constructing Hypotheses

2.6 Identifying, Labeling and Controlling Variables

2.7 Definition of Terms



Research Designs and Methods

3.1 Basic Research Designs

3.2 Sampling Procedure

3.3 The Collection of Data

3.4 Selecting Appropriate Statistical Technique

Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations


Classification of Research

Research as a formal, systematic and intensive

process of scientific investigation is always

directed toward the solution of a problem

Basic Research - it develops or enhances theories

Applied research - it tests theories and evaluate

their usefulness in solving actual problem

situations in order to improve a product or

process.

Action Research - Applied research which is

focused on immediate application.


Sources of a Research Problem

Experience and observations.

The vast amount of literature in your own field.

Courses that you have taken.

Journals, books, magazines, or abstracts.

Theses and Dissertation.

Your Professor and Your Classmates.


Elements of a Research Problem

Aim or purpose of the problem for

investigation.

The subject matter or topic to be investigated.

The place or locale where the research is to be

conducted.

The period or time of study during which data

are to be gathered.

Population or universe from whom data are to

be collected.


Criteria in the Selection of a Research Problem

Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication.

Significance for the field represented and implementation.

Interest, intellectual, curiosity, and drive.

Sponsorship and administrative cooperation.

Cost and returns.

Time factor.

Training and personal qualification.

Availability of data or method.

Special equipment and working conditions.


Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem

The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher himself.

It must be within the interest of the researcher.

It must be within the specification of the researcher.

It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.

It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance.

It is researchable and manageable.


Selecting a Research Problem

Analyzing the research problem.

Identifying the variable.

Stating the problem.

Evaluating the problem.

Setting up of a sub-problem.

Presentation of the problem.


Criteria of Problems and Problem Statement

1. The problem should express a relation between

two or more variables. It asks, in effect, questions

like is A related to B? How are A and B related to

C? How is A related to B under conditions C and

D?

2. The problem should be stated clearly and

unambiguously in question form. Instead of saying

for instance, “The problem is . . . ,” or “The

purpose of this study is …,” ask a question.

3. The problem and the problem statement should be

such as to imply possibilities of empirical testing


Significance of the Study

Rational, timeliness and/or relevance of the study should be clearly stated;

Contribution to the accumulation of knowledge, or to filling up a knowledge or gap;

Contribution to building, validating or refining prevailing theories;

Contribution to meeting a pressing need of a specific group like solving a problem or improving certain conditions; possible implications and;

Contribution to refining concepts, improving research instrumentation and methodologies.


Scope/Limitations of the Study

Scope defines the coverage or boundary of the study in terms of the area or locality and subjects or population covered, the duration or period of the study and the research issues are focused.

Limitations are statements which alert the reader of the research report to certain constraints over which the researcher has no control. It also defines the conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of the study and their application or other situations.


Theoretical FrameworkRelevant Theory

A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena

Sources of theories:

– Research literature and the conceptual writings in a discipline

– If a theory did exist or was not well developed, one could conceptualize a theory based on a logical analysis of prior research applied to the phenomenon under study.


Theoretical FrameworkRole of Theory in Research

1. Provides a framework by serving as the point departure for the pursuit of a research problem

2. The theory identifies the crucial factors

3. It provides a guide for systematizing and interrelating the various facets of the research.

4. It helps identify gaps and weak points

5. Theory may light the way for continued research on the phenomena under study


Theoretical FrameworkRelated Literature and Studies

Involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing information on the research problem

Literature refers to the writings of a country or books dealing with a special subject valued as works of arts like drama, fiction, essays, .. etc.”, therefore all written material or article can be called as literature.

Related studies are investigations that are usually published materials like manuscript, theses, and dissertations which are conducted previously to which the present study had similarity and relatedness.


Conceptual Framework / Variables

Conceptual Framework - presents the relationship between the different specific constructs that we want to study. A construct is a clearly defined concept.

Variable is a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties.

1. Dependent Variable (DV)

2. Independent Variable (IV)

3. Moderator Variable

4. Control Variable

5. Intervening Variable


Samples of the Paradigm of the Study

Independent

Variables

IV DV

Dependent

Variables

SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2

Independent

VariablesDependent /

Independent

Variables

Dependent

Variables

IV DV / IV DV



Independent

Variables

IV DV

Dependent

Variables

SAMPLE 3 SAMPLE 4

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

MV Moderating

Variables



Independent

Variables

IV

SAMPLE 5

Dependent /

Independent

Variables

Dependent

Variables

DV / IV DV

MV 1 MV 2


Statistical Treatment Applicable for each Model

Models 1 and 2 – Correlation Coefficient with T-test

for significance of the correlation

Models 3 and 5 – Multiple Regression Analysis and

ANOVA for Single and Combined Effects of the IV’s

on the DV(s) (t and F tests)

Model 4 – T-test for significant difference if

applicable e.g. significant difference between

perceptions of two groups of respondents,

significant difference between pretest and posttest.


Example

Teacher

Style

Student

Personality

Style

Subjects

Class size

Students’

age / sex

Classroom

structuring

& formality

Students’

satisfaction

with the

course


Hypothesis

Hypothesis comes from the Greek prefix “Hypo” meaning beneath or underlying, and the Greek word “thesis” meaning a proportion or statement that can be supported by argument or evidence.

It is a conjectural statement of the significant relationship between two or more variables. It is still doubtful and needs to be tested.

Two types of hypothesis:

1. Null hypothesis

2. The alternative or experimental or research hypothesis

a. Non-directional Hypothesis

b. Directional Hypothesis


Functions of Hypothesis

1. Helps the researcher determine what kind of research is to be done and what methodology may be used;

2. Means of stating assumptions and presenting or providing explanations;

3. Serves as determinations of the relevancy of facts;

4. Aids the researcher present the conclusions of the study; and

5. Provides format for the presentation, analysis and interpretation of research data.

6. Sources for the formulation of new hypothesis.

7. Provides the link between theory and observation;


Research Methodology

Research Designs

Methods and Procedures

Sources of Data

Data Gathering Instruments

Procedure

Statistical Treatment Used

Collection of Data

– Primary

– Secondary


Sources of Primary Data

1. Interviewa. Personal Interview

b. Telephone Interview

c. Interviewing by Mail

2. Observationa. Non-Behavioral Observation

i. Record Analysis

ii. Physical Condition Analysis

iii. Physical Process Analysis

b. Behavioral Observation i. Non – Verbal Analysis

ii. Linguistic Analysis

iii. Extra – Linguistic Analysis

iv. Spatial Analysis


Data Processing

Is a means of converting information either manually or by machine. This involves the following phases:

1. Data Coding . It is a process of grouping the response to a question into categories and assigning numbers, characters, and/or other symbols called codes.

2. Selecting Appropriate Statistical Method

Factors to be considered:a. Variables – a noun that stands for variation within a class of

objects.

b. Relationship of Variables – a statement about variables; two or more groups are compared or relationships among variables are studied within one group

c. Measurement of Scales

d. Sample Size


Measurement Scales

Measurement

of Scales

Characteristics

Nominal Groups and labels data only, report

frequencies or percentages

Ordinal Ranks data; uses numbers only to

indicate ranking

Interval Assumes the difference between

scores of equal magnitude really

mean equal differences in the variable

measured; (actual number)

Ratio All of the above, plus true zero point


Commonly Used Statistical Analyses

Descriptive Statistics - one (1) variable at a time:1. Measure of Central Tendency (mean, median, mode)

2. Measure of variability/dispersion (range, IQR, Standard Deviation, Quartile Deviation, Average Deviation, Coefficient of Variation)

Descriptive Statistics - two (2) variables at a time:

1. Measures of Correlationa. Pearson – for 2 sets of interval data

b. Spearman rho – ordinal – ordinal (easier to compute)

c. Kendall Tau – ordinal – ordinal (reliable for large n)

d. Kendall Partial Correlation Coefficient – 3 sets of ordinal data

e. Point Biserial – nominal – interval data

2. Measures of Association (Q coefficient, phi coefficient)


Commonly Used Statistical Analyses

Inferential Statistics - Used in hypothesis testing

1. Parametric (t-test)

2. Non – Parametric (Mc Nemar, Chi-

square, Wilcoxon, Mann Whitney)

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – comparing

more than 2 groups

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) – for

equating groups


Final Part and Important Considerations

Results and Findings

Summary, Conclusions & Recommendations

Important Considerations

1. Clear and concise title

2. Clearly stated and delimited problem

3. Clearly stated significance of the problem, scope and limitation of the study

4. Testable hypothesis

5. Coherent and relevant review of theories, literature and studies

6. Detailed description of research design

7. Adequate samples

8. Relevant variables

9. Appropriate data gathering technique

10. Valid and reliable instruments

11. Clearly stated results and discussion

12. Properly formatted bibliographical entries


Designing Research Instruments

A.Observation Checklist Guidelines

1. Enumerate (list down) the dimensions (factors) to be observed

2. Define them very clearly. (What they are exactly)

3. Eliminate those that are vague or repetitive.

4. Arrange them on a sheet of paper in a manner most convenient

for observing and recording.

5. Include space for identifying data.

6. Try out form. (This is called a dry run)

7. Revise the form on the basis of the try out and your experience.

8. Write the checklist in its final form.


B. Guidelines in the Formulation of questions

for a Questionnaire

1. Make all directions clear and unequivocal

2. Use correct grammar

3. Make all questions unequivocal

4. Avoid asking biases questions

5. Objective responses

6. Relate all questions to the topic under study

7. Create categories or classes for approximate

8. Group the questions in logical

9. Create sufficient number of response categories

10. Word carefully or avoid questions that deal with confidential or

embarrassing information

11. Explain and illustrate difficult questions

12. State all questions affirmatively

13. Makes as many questions as would supply adequate information

for the study

14. Add a catch-all word or phrase to options of multiple response questions

15. Place all spaces for relies at the left side

16. Make the respondents anonymous


Sample of Bibliographical Entries

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

Alano, Patricio, Management of Human Behavior in

Organizations, Manila, National Bookstore, 1992.

Baldwin, R. G., Incentives for Faculty Vitality, San

Francisco Publishing House: London, 1985

B.JOURNAL AND PERIODICALS

Putman, J.J. “Quicksilver and Slow Death” National

Geographic, 1972.

Waldichuck, M. “Lead in the Environment” Marine

Pollution Bulletin, 1980

C. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Alcala, D., “Personality Dimensions and Status of

Elementary School Principals as Related to their level

Of Job Satisfaction in the Division of Quezon”.

(Unpublished Masteral Thesis, PNC, 1988.)

(THESIS) Uplifting Science & research2

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