THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and …...1 THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and...

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1 THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and professionalization Perspectives and Tensions emerging from workplace, professional bodies, and educational curriculum affecting PR as a Corporate Communication function in Nigeria PhD student: Oludotun Kayode Fashakin Department of Business Communication Aarhus University Primary Supervisor: Professor Finn Frandsen Co-Supervisor: Associate Professor Constance Kampf JANUARY 2016

Transcript of THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and …...1 THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and...

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THESIS PROPOSAL

Institutionalization and professionalization Perspectives and Tensions emerging from workplace, professional bodies, and educational curriculum

affecting PR as a Corporate Communication function in Nigeria

PhD student: Oludotun Kayode Fashakin

Department of Business Communication

Aarhus University

Primary Supervisor: Professor Finn Frandsen

Co-Supervisor: Associate Professor Constance Kampf

JANUARY 2016

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Contents 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Research Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 8

1.2 Research questions ........................................................................................................................ 8

1.3 Research objectives based on Research questions ........................................................................ 9

3. Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................................... 10

3.1 Approaches to PR ....................................................................................................................... 10

3.1.1 Functionalist Approach ........................................................................................................ 11

3.1.2 Relational Approach ............................................................................................................ 11

3.1.3 PR as Corporate Communication ......................................................................................... 15

3.2 PR Professionalization ................................................................................................................ 17

3.3 Neo-Institutionalization .............................................................................................................. 20

3.3.1 Institutionalization Process .................................................................................................. 21

4. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 24

4.1 Philosophy of Science ................................................................................................................. 25

4.2 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 27

4.2.1 Case Study ........................................................................................................................... 27

4.2.2 Research Method.................................................................................................................. 28

4.2.3 Analysis strategy .................................................................................................................. 30

4.2.4 Inductive-explorative research ............................................................................................. 32

4.3 Delimitation ................................................................................................................................ 33

5. The pilot study .................................................................................................................................. 33

5.1 Prelimenary findings ................................................................................................................... 34

6. Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................................................... 35

7. References ......................................................................................................................................... 36

8. Appendices ........................................................................................................................................ 43

Appendix 1: Pilot Study components ................................................................................................ 43

Appendix 1.1: Interviewee Profiles .............................................................................................. 43

Appendix 1.2 Pilot Study findings within Activity systems ......................................................... 44

Appendix 2: PhD Plan: Activities overview and next steps ............................................................. 46

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1. Introduction

Tensions emerging from workplace, professional bodies and PR educational curriculum

Nigeria’s Public Relations (PR) environment is affected by four interrelated concerns emerging from

1) organizations perceived practitioner incompetence, 2) predominant one way communication PR

practices, 3) inter-profession jurisdictional battles and 4) inconsistent PR education scope and

curricula. These concerns influence PR practices of Nigerian organizations, Nigerian Institute of

Public Relations – NIPR and PR educators in Nigeria respectively, which can be understood as actors.

These actors interconnect because their actions affect one another and the environment they share.

Their contradicting practices lead to tensions. Engestrom (2000) maintains that contradictions in the

activities of interdependent actors within an activity system or environment lead to tensions between

them, which in this case are deterrent to PR effectiveness and the actors’ respective image in Nigeria.

PR should be recognized as a respectable profession in Nigeria because it had established a

professional body (NIPR) since 1963, attained a chartered status1 as far back as 1990 (NIPR), and

gained international recognition and membership to the Global Alliance for Public Relations Institutes

(Global Alliance, 2015). In addition, PR practices are argued to date back to precolonial Nigeria in

which traditional rulers used public information strategies to communicate to their subjects and

evaluated their strategies with citizens’ compliance (e.g. Amujo & Melewar, 2011; Otubanjo &

Amujo, 2013, Akpabio 2009). PR education has also been available in Nigeria at diploma, BA, MA

and PhD levels across educational institutions for over a decade. These should be sufficient for PR to

be regarded as a legitimate profession that can contribute to organizations PR and corporate

communication strategies from a c-suite position. However, PR still finds it hard to command the

respect of organizations and fellow professions and as such continues to struggle for a voice in

Nigeria.

1) Perceived practitioner incompetence

Perceived practitioner incompetence involves assumptions about the skill quality of PR professionals.

These assumptions are characterized by questioning the PR practitioners’ knowledge and expertise.

For example, Dr. T. Otubanjo, a corporate communication researcher from Lagos Business School

(LBS), argues that Nigerian organizations in specialized industries such as oil and gas or banking and

finance are unsatisfied with PR professionals that are perceived to either lack the requisite

competences to strategically contribute to their organizations or find it hard to understand or evaluate

1 The chartered status signifies the highest level of professionalism that signifies professional competence and professional status for professions. The chartered status is globally recognized and attained through rigorous assessment by professional bodies that eventually award the status to distinguished individuals that have gone through the accreditation process. NIPR attained the chartered status in 1990 under Decree No. 16 (now an Act of the Federal Republic of Nigeria)

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practitioners’ contributions and value to their organization (personal communication, May 25, 2015).

Industry experts in online reports also argue that there exists a general perception that almost anyone

could claim to be a PR practitioner in Nigeria (Badmus, 2013; Akingbolu, 2010; T. Otubanjo,

personal communication, May 25, 2015) due to the perceived low entry barriers to the profession.

NIPR membership and certification test in combination with any education required by the

professional body as license to practice may also not be enough to ensure highly competent

professionals. Other well respected professions such as those within accounting, medicine, law etc.

requires specific education, certification, specialization as well as strict code of conduct and law

enforcement. More so, Amujo and Melewar (2011) criticized NIPR’s test/certification for not being

rigorous enough to prepare practitioners for organizations demands.

Concerns related to perceived practitioner incompetence affects practitioners’ roles and functions. For

instance, PR practitioners have often had to receive tasks and direction, and report to

persons/superiors with little to no PR knowledge or experience (T. Otubanjo, personal

communication, May 25, 2015). Practitioners’ voice has also been restricted as they are denied

membership to dominant coalition while having to continually prove themselves to organizations,

which implies a lack of professional recognition (Akingbolu, 2010). Organizations simply dictates

what is to be done (Badmus, 2013; T. Otubanjo, personal communication, May 25, 2015: D. Idagu,

personal communication, May 19, 2015) while the practitioners simply perform communication or

other assigned tasks. This contrasts the strategic boundary spanning functions and strategic

contributions that PR practitioners could offer organizations from dominant coalition positions (e.g.

Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002; Grunig & Pepper, 1992; Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 1994) such as

expert prescriber, communication facilitator and problem-solving process facilitators respectively

(Broom & Smith,1979; Dozier, 1984).

2) Predominant One way communication PR practices

Predominant one way communication PR practices relates to Nigerian organizations PR

communication direction, considerations for audiences and practitioner tasks. These PR practices are

characterized by a high preference for press agentry and public information (Grunig & Hunt 1984),

whereby information only flows from organizations to the audience and not vice versa. For instance,

D. Idagu, a PR consultant and NIPR certification tutor, argue that Nigerian organizations appear to

limit their PR practices to media relations activities such as public awareness, press releases,

appearance on tv and daily newspapers. He also argues that persons with a lot of contacts in the media

are highly sorted after for PR positions by organizations (personal communication, May 19, 2015).

For him, these result from their limited PR understanding and a lack of cognizance for practitioner’s

input and audiences’ preferences or feedbacks.

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In their 2011 study of the contemporary issues of PR in Nigeria, Amujo and Melewar found that

earlier practitioners had journalistic backgrounds and thus generally adopted press agentry and media

relations approaches, which Idagu equally confirmed. These practices appear to have become taken-

for-granted and thereby make up institutionalized PR practices2 in Nigeria. Dr. T. Otubanjo equally

maintains that many organizations’ practices are mere propaganda, CEO image laundering, while also

categorizing giving bribes (brown envelops) and running errands as PR functions. These have earned

Nigerian PR professionals the “errand boy” nickname (PRNigeriaonline, 2009; D. Idagu, personal

communication, May 19, 2015; Ajilore, personal communication, May11 .2015). However, one way

approaches is not synonymous to unethical practices. Nevertheless, propaganda has been widely

criticized for its deceitful tendencies, while associating PR with bribery dents its credibility in

Nigeria.

However, organizations within Nigeria’s crude oil extraction industry are compelled to adopt two-way

PR practices. In a United Nations social development study, Idemudia (2007) noted that a lot of two-

way based CSR initiatives are undertaken by oil companies, which includes community development

programs and poverty reduction initiatives. Nevertheless, organizations’ top-down implementation

approach remains unsuccessful. He argued that a bottom-up approach where audiences’ feedbacks and

participation in the implementing such initiatives would have more positive impact as organizations

survival is largely dependent on the cooperation from the local communities. Organizations in the oil

industry cannot afford to ignore their audiences in their PR practices because they have to extract

crude oil from local communities where they also have installations. In these instances, organizations

risk operation interruptions or installations destruction by unhappy community members that may

have suffered from oil spill, or not have benefited from organizations CSR initiatives.

Concerns about the predominant one-way practices indicate a disconnect between institutionalized PR

practices of Nigerian organizations and the scope of PR that includes both one and two way practices.

Such practices contrasts NIPR’s ideals and code of professional conduct, while also presenting a

fraction of what PR educators are teaching to future practitioners. This could render the PR education

unpopular. Furthermore, one way practices continue to misrepresent NIPR and uphold a general

misconception of PR, which negatively affects the image and credibility of PR, PR professionals and

PR education respectively.

3) Inter-jurisdictional battles

Inter-jurisdictional battles involve PR’s inability to hold a monopoly over particular functions within

the organizational setting and thus have to compete with other professions. Jurisdictional claims as

laid out by the power approach (Freidson, 1986; MacDonald, 1995; Freidson, 1970a; Abbott, 1988;

2 Institutionalized practices in this sense represent dominant and/or taken-for-granted practices that organizations adopt,

which in no way connote negative, ineffective or unethical practices unless when explicitly stated.

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Parkin, 1979 etc.) and the professional project (Larson, 1977) within the sociology of professions

includes use of their expertise and occupational dominance by professions to retain control over

specific functions and autonomy to self-regulate, gain financial rewards and determine who qualifies

to practice a profession. These help a profession to maintain a monopoly over particular functions,

which make up their jurisdiction.

PR in Nigeria exists in a highly contested space. This makes it hard for PR to lay or establish any

ethical or solid claim over functions/jurisdictions that appears to overlap that of corporate

communications, marketing/advertising and journalism respectively. These claims are peculiar to the

Nigerian context because the competing communication professions are rigorously certified and have

a history of being regarded as professions and thus much more respected by organizations than PR

professionals (Otubanjo, personal communication, May 25, 2015; Ajilore personal communication,

May11 .2015). More so, organizations may not also be interested in overlapping functions across

various units that are inefficient and counter productive as it encourages sub-optimization (Gronstedt,

1996).

Concerns about jurisdictional claim is compounded by a Zerfass et al., (2011) finding in the European

Communication Monitor (ECM) annual survey in which PR professionals would most prefer what

they do to be regarded as corporate communication because the PR title is perceived to carry negative

connotations for their profession. Despite being a European study, this might have caught on in

Nigeria as most private organzations in Nigeria appears to prefer titles such corporate affairs,

corporate communication, public affairs, CSR etc. for departments or persons carrying out PR

functions. More so, The Lagos Business school only has PR as a subset/subject area under corporate

communication, which has implications for NIPR as they appear to be gradually relegated to being

subsets of other professions and respective subject areas.

4) Inconsistent PR education scope and curricula

Inconsistent PR education scope and curricula involves concerns about the various modes of acquiring

PR education, noticeable PR curricula content differences, and varied amount of PR related subject

areas covered by available PR educations. PR education can be acquired through NIPR’s professional

diploma, that is equivalent to a Bachelor degree, or from other Nigerian educational institutions.

However, curricular contents vary across thses institutions. For instance, Covenant university and

Babcock University’s curriculum includes PR with financial publics (“Financial PR” and “PR &

Financial Publics”), which is not included in that of NIPR. This implies varied amount of skills

acquired from different institutions. Furthermore, PR bachelor degree education is also available as as

a subject or major under corporate communications (e.g Lagos Business School) and mass

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communication (e.g. University of Lagos, Convenant University, Babcock University, Nigerian

Institute of Journalism), which implies varied scope, focus and curriculum respectively.

Concerns about inconsistent educations’ scope and curricula resulting from PR being taught from

either a corporate communications or a journalistic perspective places PR as a subset of these fields.

This in turn influences the orientations and competences of practitioners from such schools. Amujo

and Melewar (2011) found that a lot of PR practitioners with journalistic background often prefers to

approach PR with the press agentry and public inoformation models. Idealy, NIPR members/PR

practitioners in general should have specific and similar knowledge and competences, however,

varying orientations, scopes and quantity of acquired knowledge suggests otherwise. This appears to

reflect in the perceived practitioner incompetence in specialized industries, because despite having a

PR degree or professional status, it is uncertain if the obtained PR qualification is robust enough to

prepare practitioners for particualar organizational tasks and/or c-suite position.

Amujo and Melewar highlighted and made recommendations for attending to some of these concerns

in their 2011 study on contenporary challenges of PR in Nigeria. However, the concerns persists and

continues to question organizations PR assumptions and practices, as well as PR professionalization

and PR education respectively within the Nigerian context. More so, the underlying factors

responsible for the interrelated contextual concerns as well as the contributions of the respective

actors are not entirely understood. Furthermore, the contextual components that make up the specific

applications aspects of the normative global PR theory (e.g. Sriramesh & Vercic, 2009; Grunig,

Grunig, & Dozier, 2002) appears to be too broad to attend to the specific concerns that this study

seeks to explore. More so, The assumption that PR would be effective in most parts of the world by

simply adopting the generic principles and adapting practices to contextual variables (e.g. local

culture, political system, activism, economy and the media) offers a top–down approach starting from

these broad categories. This would require a long and complex trail for understanding specific PR

concerns, especially in Nigeria.

In contrast, this study applies a bottom-up approach that involves a rigorous analysis of the

perspectives and practices of each of the identified actors using Engestrom’s (2000) Activity theory

(AT) framework. This functions as a means to understand the respective actors’ perceptions,

assumptions and actions as well as the contradictions and subsequent tensions they create within the

environment they share. Each actor is seen as first belonging to individual and interconnected activity

systems, and secondly existing within a larger activity system/environment with systemic

interdependences. Consequently, these systems interact and depend upon one another, either directly

or indirectly, and are affected by the activities of one another. PR practice in Nigeria is argued to be

influenced by the organizations PR practices (PR approaches), NIPR’s values (PR professionalism

and competences) and PR educators’ curricula (knowledge and competences) respectively.

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Activity theory (AT) works with a systemic view that focus on the context, situation and everyday

practices (Naardi, 1996) relating to the phenomenon under study. AT comprises a network of

relationships existing between various activity systems that are within a larger system where

contradictions exists, and are manifested as disturbances or tensions (Engestrom, 2000, 2006). AT has

been successfully used to study work design in organizations, human-computer interactions, conflict

monitoring, communities’ practices etc. but appear to have been ignored within PR related studies.

Nevertheless, AT’s components are relevant and applicable to this study, especially as this study

focuses on tensions arising from practices that are based on differing perspectives of interdependent

actors/systems within a larger Nigerian PR system. Hence, this study attempts to explore and

explicate existing contradictions because they have implications for each actor and contextual PR

understanding in Nigeria. Such findings could initiate discussions and subsequent actions that would

contribute to contextual PR knowledge, scholarship and effective practices in the Nigerian context.

1.1 Research Purpose The purpose of this study is to explicate the nature of PR and the existing contradictions and tensions

within Nigeria’s PR environment for understanding the often experienced but uninvestigated aspects

of PR. Findings are expected to initiate discussions and knotworking3 activities between affected

actors that could enhance more informed and effective contextual PR understanding and practices.

1.2 Research questions The following is the overarching research question of this study which is followed by 4 sub questions:

How and why do the perspectives of Nigerian organizations, NIPR and PR educators influence

PR practices in Nigeria, and how does that cause and contribute to the tensions within Nigeria’s

PR environment?

1. What is the corporate perception of PR by c-suite members of Nigerian organizations, and why

have they adopted their current PR practices?

2. What perceptions does NIPR hold for PR Professionalism and practitioner role in Nigerian

organizations and why is PR professional certification structured in its current form?

3. What do Nigerian PR educators understand as essential PR knowledge and skills, and how do

they interpret and reflect that in the PR education they offer?

3 Knotworking refers to collaborative work between systems towards developing mutually beneficial outcomes that are

based on symmetrical interactions and exchanges between parties involved (Engestrom, 2000, 2006).

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4. How and why do the tensions within Nigeria’s PR environment question assumptions of

contextual PR understanding?

Figure 1: Nigeria’s Public Relations Environment

Figure 1 has been inspired by Engestrom’s Activity theory framework. The figure depicts the current state of Nigeria’s PR environment as understood by this study.

The direction of the arrows shows the actors that are affected by the actions of the other actor and thus the direction of tensions. The triangles and circles

represent each of actor and their goals/ desired outcomes respectively. The overlapping parts of the circles indicate areas of agreement or consistencies between the affected actors’ outcomes while the rest of the circles cover areas of contradictions resulting from their respective practices. Despite the fact that these are different types of actors with respective varying outcomes, the interdependent nature of their relationship and impact of their actions on one another suggests that there must be significant amount of consistencies between their outcomes,

unlike the minor overlaps depicted in the figure. Hence, the larger areas of inconsistences and contradictions depicted in figure 1 indicate more tensions

than collaboration between the actors.

1.3 Research objectives based on Research questions Objective one: To determine Nigerian organizations’ understanding of PR and their practices.

Objective one would be achieved through interviews with c-suite members from at least two different

organizational sectors to see if perceptions vary and has impacts on predominant PR practices in such

sectors. C-suite members’ perspectives are important because they determine organizations’ overall

strategy, assigns roles, approves what and how things are done in the workplace; hence, they have rich

insight about organizations underlying rationale for their practices. Inquiries here concentrate on 1)

their perceptions of PR, 2) how that impacts on their PR approaches, PR practitioner assigned role(s)

and tasks respectively.

Objective 2: To understand the NIPR’s perspectives and/or rationale behind PR

professionalism and certification requirements in Nigeria. NIPR as a professional body is

responsible for certification of PR professionals in Nigeria for which they develop PR education,

training courses and tests. Certification indicates membership and PR professionalism, which is also

the legal requirement for PR practice in Nigeria. Interviews would be conducted with NIPR’s

leadership and the Standing Committee members responsible for NIPR Membership, Professional

Practices as well as Training and Development respectively. Inquiries into their perceptions and

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practices offer rich insights for understanding PR professionalization as well as the scope of NIPR

certification.

Objective 3: To understand Nigeria’s PR educators’ perspectives about the essential PR

knowledge and skills for practitioners to be effective in the workplace and get to the top of their

career. PR educators are responsible for the skill acquisition of future PR practitioners for which

they develop PR education with curricula for students to learn and be prepared to competently

perform in the workplace. Hence, interviews would be conducted with PR academics that are

responsible for designing PR educations in Nigerian Universities (such as Babcock University, Lagos

Business School, Covenant University) and the Nigerian Institute of journalism. Areas of inquiry here

include their perceptions about the 1) academic requirement for competent PR professionals 2) PR as

a field of study or function under mass communication or corporate communication with respective

curriculum scope.

Objective 4: To map and discuss the PR perceptions and practices of the three actors as well as

existing tensions between them using the activity theory framework. This is required to explore

and explicate how and why the activities of the respective actors contribute to the existing tensions

within Nigeria’s PR environment. This involves placing the themes derived from the individual

actors’ responses into their activity systems and discussing the implications for each of them and the

PR environment which they share.

3. Theoretical Framework In a bid to understand and explain Nigeria’s PR practices and implications for the concerned actors

this section discusses theories with the three core areas of this study, which also guide the data

collection for this study. Since this study is situated within PR, theoretical approaches within the field

are looked into as they provide a theoretical background for understanding Nigerian organizations’ PR

assumptions, goals and consequent approaches respectively. This would be followed by an

examination of the sociology of professions as a way to understand the strengths and weaknesses of

the three approaches to professions in order to identify adopted approaches towards PR

professionalism and discuss their implications for PR professionals and organizations in Nigeria. The

last part looks into the (neo) institutionalization theories for gaining a general understanding of the

dominant PR practices as well as how and why they have been institutionalized in Nigeria.

3.1 Approaches to PR Discussions and research on PR have focused a lot on Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) four models that help

in understanding the diversity in functions, practices and communication directions of PR approaches

that could be summed up as mostly functional and to some extent relational PR approaches. In general

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PR scholars have largely taken sides with the majority of the earlier scholars appearing more on the

functionalist side and the more recent ones on the relational side.

3.1.1 Functionalist Approach

Botan and Taylor (2004) noted that the functionalist approach dominated the earliest PR practices that

viewed publics and communication as tools for achieving specific organizational ends. With roots in

the works of Ivy Lee and E. Bernays, the perspective is characterized by one way communications

and media relations PR practices such as press agentry, public information/awareness, propaganda etc.

for achieving desired publicity for organizations (Grunig & Hunt, 1984). This involves strategically

supplying organizational messages to their environment through information subsidies and

relationships with the media. These are argued to means for promoting favourable organizational

image that enhances organizations’ business performance, which advances organizational goals. The

functionalists are more concerned about the internal workings of the organization while ignoring

relationships with their environment and as such remain unadaptable to changes within the

environment (Morgan, 1986, 1997; Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Bell & Bell, 1976; Grunig & Grunig,

1989). The approach has also been heavily criticized for its inherent manipulative and unethical

tendencies (James 2009).

3.1.2 Relational Approach

With roots in the works of Ferguson (1984), the relational PR approach emphasizes the importance of

developing and nurturing mutually beneficial relationships through dialogues with the publics that

organizations depend upon (Kent & Taylor, 2002; Botan & Taylor, 2004; Botan, 1997). The dialogue

and resultant relationship are characterized by management of communication, mutual trust,

commitment, satisfaction, understanding (Grunig & Huang 2000; Hon & Grunig, 1999) reciprocity

and mutual benefits (Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 1994). The open systems part of the systemic view and

the excellence theory were the earlier contributors into the relational approach, which have met a lot

of criticism and have since been further developed by notable PR scholars.

The systemic view

The systemic PR view has roots in the works of von Bertalanffy’s (1969), Myers and Myers (1982)

and Katz and Kahn (1978) that concentrates on how organizations interacts with their internal and

external environments. The open system view is characterized by interrelationships and

interdependences amongst actors within the system, as well as continuous monitoring that ensure

organizations’ awareness of the required adjustments to their environment (Katz & Khan, 1978). This

is then utilized by organizations to maintain a balance with their environment (Gregory, 2000). This

systemic view comprises both closed (functionalist) and open (relational) systems respectively, which

proposes a range of PR strategies with varying outcomes and contributions to organizations survival.

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Within the open system are the organismic and adaptive systems. The former monitors its

environment and use audiences’ feedback to craft effective messages for persuading their audience(s)

to change their behaviour to the one desired by organizations (Gregory A. , 2000; see also two-way

asymmetric model Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Professional PR, Grunig & Grunig 1989).The latter is

characterized by organizations’ ongoing interactions, collection and utilization of audiences

feedbacks, learning from the environment, adapting to environmental demands (Buckley, 1967) and

continuous proactive activities for maintaining the relationships (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 1994)

Furthermore, White and Dozier (1992) noted the boundary spanning role of PR practitioners for

interacting with their environment and relaying back findings to management and counseling them on

the required adjustments. These are argued to be the means through which organizations can strike a

balance with their environment and survive.

The systemic view was extended through the International Association of Business Communicators

(IABC) funded study from which the excellence theory was developed (Grunig, 1992; Dozier,

Grunig, & Grunig, 1995; Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002). Based on its findings, the theory

acknowledges the competing values of organizations and publics and proposes the two way

symmetrical communications as ideal for effective PR practice. Such practice is characterized by

quality relationships between organizations and strategic stakeholders/publics towards attaining

mutual goals that reduces negative publicity costs and increases revenue by providing products and

services needed by stakeholders.

The theory proposes generic principles that are argued to be applicable to different contexts which

includes 1) PR practitioner membership to dominant coalition and/or administrative role with decision

making powers, 2) PR as a critical management function that is not subordinate to other functions, 3)

cooperation between PR and other functions, 4) adoption of symmetrical system for internal and

external communication, 5) inclusion of diversity of race, gender, ethnicity etc. for PR positions, and

6) ethics in PR practice (Grunig, Grunig, & Vercic, 1998). These have been extended to the global

PR theory that incorporates the generic principles with specific applications that gives consideration

to contextual variables (cultures, political systems, level of economic development, activism and the

media) that must be attended to differently in various contexts (Sriramesh & Vercic, 2009; Grunig,

Grunig, & Dozier, 2002) .

The excellence theory’s sole preference for two-way symmetrical communication and its relational

component have met immense criticism, especially from critical PR scholars. Critical PR scholars that

include postmodernist and feminist scholars focus on faulty arguments, biases, injustices and

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unconscious assumptions about organizations and PR practices. They question practices that are

argued to uphold the sole interest of the powerful in the society (Dozier & Lauzen, 2000).

Postmodernist Holtzhausen (2000) argues that the symmetrical model is another tool for organizations

to indirectly dominate and exert power over their environment for their own benefit. More so, McKie

and Munshi (2007) maintain that the quality exchanges promise of the symmetrical communication

are misleading as power imbalances characterize organizations interactions with the publics while

L’Etang (2005) called for more studies into how PR serves some classes more than others. Leichty

and Springston (1993) focused on the collaboration component of symmetrical communication. They

argued that collaboration is not always possible, especially when stakeholders are highly

confrontational, unreasonable, unwilling to negotiate, repugnant or with conflicting stance (see also

Cancel, Mitrooka & Cameron, 1999). In adition, Pieczka (1996) rejected the normative and

prescriptive stance of the symmetrical model which potrays a narrow view that conflicts can always

be resolved through negotiations. Pieczka (1995), Cheney and Christensen (2001) equally agreed that

the model is somewhat idealistic and eschews modernist principles (Pieczka, 1996; Holtzhausen,

2005) as well as harmony in society that are argued to be hardly realistic (Pieczka (1996).

As an alternative to the excellence theory, a range of contingency theory oriented models proposing

continuums that combined the two-way symmetrical and asymmetrical models were developed.

Murphy’s (1991) mixed motives model proposed a continuum with options ranging from pure conflict

to pure cooperation, which she argues describe the behaviour of PR practitioners. Dozier, Grunig and

Grunig (1995) later introduced the “new model of symmetry as two way practice” with asymmetries

that favour organizations on one extreme, while the other extreme favour publics. The middle part

contains a symmetrical space (win-win zone) for both parties to negotiate and persuade one another.

In addition, Cancel, Cameron, Sallot, and Mitrook (1997) built on Murphy’s ideas to develop the

contingency theory of accommodation that proposed a continuum involving pure advocacy and pure

accommodation, while strategic choices are argued to depend on the current needs of both

organizations and their publics.

Further developments within the relational approach includes the Organizational Public Relations

(OPR), Rhetorical PR theory and co-creational PR all aiming to clarify the linkages between PR

objectives, efforts and relational approaches and outcomes respectively, in attempts towards

demonstrating PR’s value to organizations and society.

Organization Public Relations (OPR)

The purpose, direction, planning, execution and evaluation of PR within organizational contexts make

up OPR’s focus, which attracted contributions from PR scholars, especially since the late 1990s.

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Ledingham, Bruning, Thomlison & Lesko, 1997) maintain that OPR is something existing between

organizations and their publics through actions that impact their economic, cultural, political and

social outcomes. Concepts such as openness, trust, involvement, investment and commitment are

argued to be dimensions of OPR that influence the publics’ perception of satisfaction with the

organization (Ledingham & Bruning, 1998 in Ledingham & Bruning, 2000).

Ledingham and Bruning (1998, 2000) posit that OPR helps organizations to go beyond building

relationships to nurturing and maintaining them. Broom, Casey, and Ritchey (1997) highlighted the

reciprocal nature of the interactions and exchanges between organizations and their publics. Broom

and Dozier (1990) as well as Grunig, Grunig and Ehling (1992) focused on how to measure OPR. The

former employed a co-orientational approach that seeks to evaluate the perceptions, intentions and

objects of interest for both organizations and publics regarding expectations, actions and outcomes of

OPR. The latter however concentrated on the quality of OPR through measurements of reciprocity,

trust, mutual legitimacy, openness, mutual satisfaction and understanding respectively. They

emphasized the importance of OPR to organizational goals through which PR practitioners could

demonstrate their value contributions to organization through the long term beneficial relations with

the publics.

Wilson (1994) focused on the notion of corporate social responsibility for OPR with the goal of

developing relationships with all the stakeholders’ in the organizations’ community. These are argued

to enhance corporate credibility based on demonstrated corporate commitment, trust and mutual

respect towards the community. Positive communication between organization and their publics are

argued to facilitate community relationships. PR practitioners are however argued to function as the

“corporate conscience” that represents the community’s voice and interests within the organization

who counsels organizations on their strategies towards the community.

Rhetorical approach

The rhetorical approach views organizations as “rhetors” seeking to influence their stakeholders

through ongoing dialogue and negotiation. The approach is characterized by active stakeholder

participation that engenders information sharing, argument and counter argument that bring contested

issues to light (Toth, 2009) thereby fostering coalition building through what Burke (1969) called

“wrangle in the market place”. These are used for accessing the publics’ “zones of meanings” (see

Heath, 2005) that enhances organizations strategic adaptation to their publics’ position (Heath, 2001).

The negotiated rhetorical codes forces organizational reflectivity and consideration for the value-laden

arguments and position of their publics (Heath, 2001). More so, the publics’ meaning assigned to

organizations’ rhetoric contributes to organizational awareness that influences their PR strategies and

subsequent actions.

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The rhetorical approach is argued to ensure ethical PR practices (Heath & Frandsen, 2008). More so,

organization’s attempts to manipulate stakeholders are argued to be short termed as they risk being

exposed by flaws and incongruence between chosen rhetoric and their publics’ position (Heath, 2001)

that would be detrimental to their credibility. Consequently, PR practitioners’ tasks are argued to

include ensuring that organizations are able to engage in collaborative decision making, which

signifies identification with the publics’ interests and values. Nevertheless, Ihlen (2002) criticized the

rhetorical approach for underestimating organizations’ tendency for rhetorical manipulation.

Co-creational approach

Botan and Taylor’s (2004) focuses on meaning making processes involving co-creation activities

between organizations and their publics that work in a partnership towards developing shared

meanings, interpretations and goals respectively. The approach adopts a long term orientation in

which interactions between publics and organizations enhances the development of relationships

between them overtime, while communication simply facilitates negotiations about required changes

and adjustments for maintaining their relationship.

3.1.3 PR as Corporate Communication

Despite Nigerian PR’s inability to establish itself as a distinct and well respected profession that can

also maintain expertise monopoly in Nigeria, PR in many cases is viewed as a corporate

communication (CC) function in Nigeria, which is another issue that is worth discussing in order to

understand the justification for such practices in Nigeria.

CC is argued to provide management with an instrument that integrates and coordinates all

organizations’ communications for managing the complex communication functions that

organizations must undertake (Argenti, 1996; Cornelisson, 2014) thereby enhancing a favourable

basis for relationships with the publics they depend upon (Van Riel, 1995; Van Riel & Fombrun,

2007) through consistent communication about what they do and represent (Christensen, Morsing, &

Cheney, 2008).

Frandsen and Johansen (2013a) maintain that CC has been institutionalized as an organizational

practice, an academic discipline and as a broad scope of how organizations handle their internal and

external communications since the early 1990s. This implies a norm whereby all communication

related functions of organizations, including PR, exists under the CC umbrella. The multidisciplinary

nature of CC implies a much more holistic communication approach from an organizational stand

point, as it integrates a variety of functions under one unit for organizations. This is however expected

to clarify the potential or justifications for PR to be situated within corporate communication for this

study.

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Cornelissen (2014) describes CC as a management function that offers a framework for the effective

coordination of all internal and external communication with the overall purpose of establishing and

maintaining favourable reputations with stakeholder groups upon which the organization is dependent

(p.5). Van Riel (1995, p.26) defines it as an instrument of management through which all consciously

used forms of internal and external communications are harmonized as effectively and efficiently as

possible with the objective of creating a favourable basis for relationships with groups upon which the

company is dependent.

Based on these definitions, it appears that some CC components overlap that of PR as it involves

communications with stakeholders that can affect organizations. Also, the core themes within CC

such as corporate identity (Van Riel, 1995; Hatch & Schultz, 2004), image and reputation (Dowling

2001; Cornelissen, 2014) as well as relationships between organizations stakeholders (Johansen &

Nielsen 2011; Kantanen 2012; Huth, 2012) are some of the goals that PR sets out to achieve.

Nevertheless, CC’s holistic communication approach (Oliver, 1997) integrates various disciplines

such as PR, investor relations, employee relations, community relations, advertising, media relations,

labour relations, government relations, technical communications, crisis communications; marketing

communications etc. (Goodman 1994, 2006; Kitchen 1997; Varey, 1997) thereby offering synergistic

value that PR may be unable to offer alone. In addition, the approach helps organizations to avoid

sub-optimization (Gronstedt, 1996) that could be inefficient and often counterproductive.

PR continues to exist with inherent contentions as its remains a distinct field of study and profession

on one hand, while it continues to be institutionalized as a function under CC in Nigeria across

particular organization fields. Such contentions extends to various titles given to those carrying out

PR functions such as Public Relations Officer (PRO), media or Public relations officer, Protocol

officer, information officer, Corporate Secretary, Corporate affairs officer/manager, Communication

officer, community relations manager etc. However, one must have it in mind that in Nigeria, these

titles are mostly given to persons carrying out CC functions and in other cases given to people doing

only PR, which is unlike other professions such engineering, accounting, law etc. with standard titles.

These implies gross inconsistences in PR practitioners’ roles, and assigned tasks across organization

fields, that could be a contributing factor to the misconception of PR and the way that organizations

use it, which has consequences for practitioners, organizations and PR image respectively.

For the purpose of this study, PR is situated as a function under CC as an observation of corporate

websites shows companies to be more vocal about community relations, investor relations or CSR and

corporate affairs but not PR activities. Also, LinkedIn searches show that practitioner titles with PR in

them appear more in the Public sectors than in the private sectors. This may not be enough evidence

to justify placing PR under CC, nevertheless, this study risks losing vital and relevant data by

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situating the study only within PR as various applications and usage of PR as CC across organization

fields are noticed.

More so, since this study is situated within organizational contexts, attempts to avoid inefficiencies

resulting from sub-optimization or function overlaps, jurisdictional battles makes the notion of PR as

a CC function to be logical from an organizational perspective, thereby offering richer insights for this

study. Nevertheless, the fact that PR professional institutions and scholars view PR as a distinct

profession and a field of study contradicts viewing PR as a function or subset under the CC field of

study. This however represents another potential tension between PR professional body and scholars

on one side and organizations and CC scholars on the other side as their perspectives impacts on

practitioner roles, functions and contributions to organizations strategy.

Equally relevant is the competence and skills level of PR professionals and their ability to lay a solid

claim on their jurisdiction when compared to CC professional from an academic perspective. Since,

the broad scope of CC implies that its curriculum covers much more disciplines when compared to

PR. This suggests that CC professionals might be preferred candidates as they would be perceived to

offer more value to organizations than a PR professional that is presumed to possess a narrow

knowledge base that offers a fraction of what CC offers that could render PR education unpopular

from a career driven perspective.

3.2 PR Professionalization Professions could be understood from literatures within the sociology of professions and institutional

theories from which three approaches have been developed. The trait (see also criterion approach by

Flexner, 1915) and power/conflict approaches appears to have dominated earlier studies about

professions while the institutionalist approach was later developed.

Traits approach

The traits approach to professions, allied with Parson’s (1954) functionalist assumptions, focused on

lists of characteristics that separated professions from occupations (Etzioni, 1969; Millerson, 1964)

based on a body of knowledge, formal training, self-regulation, code of conduct etc. (Freidson, 1986;

Caplow, 1954; Wilensky, 1964; Johnson, 1972). The approach was however criticized for being an

unrealistic ideal-typical representation of professions (Larson, 1977) which presents an oversimplified

differentiation of professions from occupations (Hoyle and John 1995) that are viewed as self-

descriptions for creating self-fulfilling prophecies to attain professional status (Hughes, 1958).

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Power Approach

The criticism of the trait approach in the 1970s led to the development of the power approach that

focused on the power struggles between distinctive groups (Faulconbridge and Muzio, 2007) over

jurisdictions. The power approach emphasized occupational dominance (Freidson, 1970a) and control

over work and specific tasks/services (i.e. jurisdiction in Abbott, 1988). In this sense, professions use

their expertise, superior political and organizational resources to retain professional power and

autonomy to self-regulate, gain financial rewards and determine who qualifies to practice particular

professions (Abbott, 1988). In addition, Larson’s (1977) professional project’ emphasized the agency

of professions in achieving market power and social status as well as importance of retaining

jurisdiction over services and using skills scarcity to maximize rewards (Parkin, 1979). For Larson

(1977), such skills emanate from a cognitive base that combines knowledge from codification, that is,

formal education and indeterminacy that that is understood as talent, firsthand experience or non-book

knowledge (Freidson, 1970b).

The dominance of the power approach might have attended to the limitations of the traits approach;

however, much more recent studies maintain that the sociology of professions ignores the

organizational settings where professions utilize their skills, powers and exercise their claim over their

jurisdiction (Suddaby, Gendron, & Lam, 2009). In addition, the power approach does not give

cognizance to the broader institutional context of professions as well as the professionals’ activities

within large and complex organizations (Hinings, 2005; Leicht and Fennell, 1997) that are often

characterized by managerial pressures and professions proletarianization (Oppenheimer, 1972).

Institutionalization Approach

Muzio, Brock and Suddaby (2013) proposed the institutionalist approach as a much more realistic

alternative to the trait and power approaches and emphasized the connections between

professionalization and institutionalization that are argued to be inseparable components.

Institutionalization scholars developed concepts such as institutional work (Lawrence & Suddaby

2006) and institutional entrepreneurship (DiMaggio, 1988) to highlight the purposeful and strategic

actions of actors such as professions or organizations for creating, maintaining or disrupting

institutions thereby becoming key agents in institutionalization processes (Scott, 2008).

Leicht and Fennell (1997) and Muzio, Brock and Suddaby (2013) maintain that powers, status and

activities of professionals are conditioned by opportunities and control allowed by organizations.

More so, Brint and Karabel (1989) argue that professionals are only able to exercise their power

through their position within organizations. This contradicts the enormous powers that professions are

argued to possess when engaging in jurisdictional struggles with other entities such as other

professions, state or even organizations (Suddaby & Viale 2011; Rao, Monin, & Durand, 2003;

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Abbott, 1988; Burrage, Jaraush, & Siegrist, 1990). This contradiction is however expanded by the

proletarianization and adaptive theses respectively.

The proletarianization thesis is similar to Haug’s (1973) deprofessionalization where practices are

characterized by controls from authority, routines, division of labour, formalized role structures etc.

that are perceived to be means to organizational efficiency (Oppenheimer, 1973) and commercial

goals (Singh & Jayanti, 2013). These imply professionals’ conformity (Suddaby & Viale, 2011) and

loss of autonomy within such organizations (McCann, Granter, Hyde & Hassard, 2013). In such

instances, organizations determine what, how and whom should carry out functions and thereby

influence and reconfigure professions’ juridictions and institutionalization process respectively.

Furthermore, Ramirez (2013) noted how bureaucracies are used for interfering into professional

associations’ activities through organizations attempts at influencing the norms of professions

practices or redefining legitimacy and reconfiguring professional fields, which disrupts professions’

jurisdictions (Malsch & Gendron 2013; Kipping & Kirkpatrick 2013). These imply that Professions

and their respective professional bodies would have to struggle with other professions to retain their

jurisdiction or encroach on other professions’ jurisdictions due to the dictates of organizations thereby

mediating the institutionalization of professions (Abbott, 1988; Muzio, Brock, & Suddaby, 2013).

In contrast, Wallace (1995) challenged the proletarianization thesis that she views as the epitome of

deprofessionalization (p. 237) and argued that there are also instances where professional autonomy

prevails within organizations. With her adaptive thesis, she maintains that the technical expertise and

skills of professionals gives them legitimate discretion and autonomy over the structure and

performance of their work within organizations (see also autonomous organizations, Scot, 1965).

DiMaggio (1991) observed that professionals use these to reconfigure organizations bureaucracies to

their own favour, thereby redefining the institutional logics of such organizations (Thornton, Ocasio,

& Lounsbury, 2012) to their prefered way of working.

The institutionalization approach to professions appears to be most applicable for this study as it

offers a more realistic outlook of professions within organizations, especially as the study is situated

within organizational contexts. The contradicting positions provide an overview of how organizations

could deal with PR professionals as well as organizational influence on the PR profession with

regards to practitioner role, function and powers permitted in the workplace. More so, especially as

Pieczka and L’Etang (2001) noted that the social reality and relations between PR professionals and

people with power within organizations such as c-suite members have received little attention. This

study would benefit immensely from exploring the reality of PR professionals’ proximity to their

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expertise power, jurisdiction and conflicts encountered in the organization setting and adjacent

institutions respectively.

3.3 Neo-Institutionalization Neo-Institutionalization theory provides a way to understand how institutions interact and how that

affects other institutions within their environment. The theory pin points and explains why and how

institutions emerge in particular manner overtime within a certain context. Institutionalization theory

in this study offers a way to understand how and why organizations PR practices has evolved the way

it has and how that influences or shape the actions of organizations as well as that of other actors

and/or institutions within the Nigerian PR environment.

In their work on the external control of Organizations, Pfeffer and Salancik (1978) maintain that

organizations are often compelled by external sources within their environment to passively adopt

particular practices. These practices are not always compatible with organizations as they do not

necessarily guarantee efficiencies. However, they have become institutionalized practices because

they make up the predominant practices that have been applied by successful organizations and

thereby become sources of legitimacy and rationality in particular organization fields and contexts.

However, Oliver, (1991) a more recent neo-institutionalist, argued that organizations cannot afford to

ignore active agency and strategic adoption (see also institutional entrepreneurship in DiMaggio,

1988) of what she called institutional pressures. She instead proposed a typology of 5 strategic

responses comprising both active and passive responses that would contribute to organizations’ social

validity; efficiency and survival. The responses include; conform, compromise/bargain, avoid,

dismiss/challenge or even manipulate institutionalized values and social approval (see full description

in Oliver 1991: 151-159).

Neo-institutionalization theory of organizations has its roots in Selznick’s (old) institutionalism

analysis of organizations (Scott, 2008: 21–23) that focused on the micro processes within

organizations. It’s been viewed as a process that happens to an organization over time. As Selznick

(1957: 16–17) noted, to institutionalize is to ‘infuse with value beyond the technical requirements of

the task at hand’. However, notable works by Meyer and Rowan (1977), Zucker (1977), DiMaggio

and Powell (1983), and Scott and Meyer (1983) kick started neo institutionalism within organizations.

These theorists were more interested in i) organization fields, ii) relationship between organizations

in their macro environments, iii) environments’ influence on organizations’ structures and practices

(see Meyer and Rowan 1977; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Zucker, 1977; Singh, Tucker, & House,

1986), and the need for legitimacy (Deephouse & Suchman, 2008).

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Meyer & Rowan (1977) rejected arguments in favour of organizations rational-choice decision but

stressed the importance of rationalized beliefs as well as cognitive and cultural processes for

understanding organizations’ actions and the adoption of myths, albeit in ceremonial or decoupled

forms. With their institutional isomorphism, they were more interested in the structural dynamics of

organization fields where increases in structuration (Giddens, 1979) leads to isomorphism and

homogeneity in organizations forms and practices (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).

Furthermore, DiMaggio and Powell (1983) argue that structuration results from the activities of

external constituents that includes the state (coercive or regulative requirements), professions and

external publics (assumptions supported by public opinion and professional bodies), and the market

through mimetic processes (other organizations imitating the actions of early adopters and successful

organizations). They contend that despite considerable diversity in approach and form in the early

stage of organizations’ lifecycle, vast imitation of dominant or successful practices takes place once

organizational fields are well established, which drives organizations within those fields toward

homogeneity. This is essentially the case as an innovation or dominant practice spreads and become

normatively sanctioned; adoption provides legitimacy and the high likelihood for mimicry, but not

always improved performance or efficiency (Meyer and Rowan, 1977).

Scott (2008: 48) defined institutions as “comprising regulative, normative and cultural cognitive

elements that together with associated activities and resources provide stability and meaning to social

life”. The regulative pillar includes the coercive legal demands that must be adhered to by

organizations, while the normative pillar focuses on public opinion, demands by external publics such

as professional bodies and other stakeholders that guide organizations’ behaviour. Lastly, the cultural-

cognitive pillar deals with the taken-for-granted shared conceptions that constitute social reality about

how things ought to be done, which is then imitated, especially when confronted by uncertainties.

Adoption of these pillars is argued to lead to isomorphism that functions as a basis for legitimacy

(Deephouse & Suchman, 2008). In addition, Lounsbury (2003, p. 211) described institutions as

“relatively durable structures that shape the practices and behaviors of actors in a given social

system”. Jepperson, (1991, p. 145) sees institutions as “a social order or pattern that has attained a

certain state or property” and institutionalization as “denoting the process of such attainment”.

3.3.1 Institutionalization Process

By approaching institutionalization as a process this study takes into account the series of events,

actions and changes that have taken place overtime within Nigeria’s PR environment that have

influenced PR goals, scope, functions and approaches respectively. Focus would be on the relevant

historical issues that have necessitated particular PR approach(es), the perceptions influencing the

choice of PR as a viable solution, and how effective it was in achieving its set goals that made it

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become the norm which others imitate and overtime becomes taken for granted and institutionalized.

This unpacks the components of the process thereby providing an understanding of the rationale as

well as respective actors behind the institutionalized PR practices in Nigeria.

As a process, institutionalization involves the internalization of taken-for-granted practices and

routines (Hasselbladh & Kallinikos, 2000) while remaining an outcome as long as it is unquestioned.

Tolbert and Zukker (1999) identified habitualization, objectification and sedimentation as the

institutionalization processes and stages respectively. However, Greenwood, Suddaby and Hinnings

(2002) have gone into more details to expand the model into a six stage model using an institutional

change perspective. The process is necessitated by “jolts” or disruptive events (stage I) that lead to

deinstitutionalization (stage II) whereby existing practices are abandoned while new ideas are

introduced. This is followed by Pre-institutionalization (stage III) where organizations independently

develop viable solutions to their own perceived problems. Solutions are then scrutinized in

theorization (stage IV) to access the justification and moral legitimacy for accepting the new solution.

The compelling presentation of the pragmatic components of the solution ensures its Diffusion (stage

V) within the field (similar to semi-institutionalization Tolbert & Zucker 1999). Reinstitutionalization

(Stage VI) takes place once the solution becomes taken-for-granted and sustained as long as it

continues to deliver desired outcomes.

However, the processes view institutionalization to be initially fluid and later becomes stable, and

then meaningful, such that it has the capacity to guide organizations decisions and behaviour

respectively. Emphasis appears to be placed on passive adoption, conformity, stability and perceived

legitimacy but not efficiency which appears to be the weakness of the process. This is the earlier

mentioned area of contention for Oliver (1991) as the early neo-institutionalists offers an unrealistic

outlook of organizations reality because the nature of organizations challenges are argued to be

heterogenetic. In this sense, similar solutions may not be applicable to all organizations within their

fields. For Oliver, organizational efficiency that is achievable through her range of strategic responses

to institutional demands is more realistic and important for organizational survival.

In the same vein, more recent neo-institutionalists working within the Scandinavian tradition have

extended the understanding of the agentic aspects of institutions and organizations. With a social

constructivist approach, Boxenbaum and Strandgaard-Pedersen (2009) went beyond processes within

organizational fields to focus more on the complexities of what happens inside organizations before

and after the adoption of ‘organizational recipes’ (Røvik, 2007 as cited in Frandsen & Johansen,

2013b). They focus instead on organizations’ heterogeneous responses to institutional pressures based

on Weick’s (2001) sense making process of interpretation and reformulation of norms during the

adoption process. For Weick, Sense making is a source of strategizing through which actors gain

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awareness of several possible interpretations and use them strategically to further their own specific

interests.

Furthermore, Schneiberg and Clemens (2006: 212), contend that ‘acknowledging heterogeneity

challenges conventional images of causality and pushes institutional analysis away from strong forms

of structural determinism to a much greater emphasis on agency, conflict, contingency and process’.

Concepts such as institutional work (Lawrence & Suddaby, 2006), institutional logics (Thornton,

Ocasio & Lounsbury, 2012; Thornton & Ocasio 1999; Thornton & Ocasio, 2008) equally confirm the

active nature and strategic decision making of organizations’ as well as their contributions to

institutionalization processes. These in turn help organizations to make decisions that suit their local

context (Boxembaum & Strandgaard Pedersen, 2009).

Arguments of the early and more recent neo-institutionalist provides a general overview of the

organizations adoption approaches to dominant practices from passive (decoupling, ceremonious

adoption) to active (active agency/strategic response). They have also highlighted the social realities

and the complexities that confront organizations in their drive for legitimacy and/or survival within

their environment. These adoption approaches are not mutually exclusive but instead represents the

range of choices available to organizations that can complement one another towards enhancing

organizational effectiveness, depending on set goals and/ or concerns.

Frandsen & Johansen (2013b) noted how neo-institutionalism offers a theoretical framework for

studying how PR has been institutionalized in organizations and their respective fields. Hence,

institutional theory helps my research to understand the current state of PR in Nigeria with emphasis

on the developments, trends and dominant practices and adoption processes that make up the

institutionalized norms especially within organization fields. Also, neo-institutionalization would

facilitate the formulation of relevant questions towards unearthing how PR is organized in the

corporate organizations and the functions for which it is deployed. With these findings in place, my

research would be well equipped to explore the “value” that has been infused into PR across

organizations’ fields as well as their influence on PR practices and contributions to organizational

efficiency and legitimacy in Nigeria. Furthermore, the neo-institutionalization perspective clarifies the

rationale behind organizations PR approaches and how adopted norms enhances and/or constrains PR

practice and professionals work respectively.

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(Neo) Institutionalization theory Corporate Communications

Proletarianization thesis

Organization Fields

PR Education PR Curricula

Figure 2 Theoretical Map

Figure 2 depicts the map of theories and approaches that are specifically relevant for understanding Nigeria’s PR environment as well as the underlying assumptions, actions and the potential outcome for the actors. The neo-institutionalization and proletarianization and adaptation theses discuss the rationale behind organizations’ practices as well as their interactions and powers given to professionals within organizational settings. The sociology of professions focus on the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches adopted by professions towards attaining professional status and maintaining jurisdictions that are influenced by the activities of educators, professional bodies, other professions and organizations .In discussing the role of educators, perspectives influencing various PR theories are being looked into for understanding their underpinning assumptions. Equally relevant is PR education that is looked into here in a simplified manner by simply exploring how PR educators’ perspectives influence the components of the PR curricula in Nigeria.

4. Methodology The methodology section presents a plan of action for answering the research questions of this study

with emphasis on the chosen philosophy of science and the research design. Choices in this regard

have been motivated by 1) the need for coherence between the purpose of the study, research

paradigm, research design and theoretical contributions; 2) selecting methods that permits the study

of tensions within Nigeria’s PR environment that not much is known about and must be studied

within its context using existing theories and practices respectively; and 3) selected data collection

instrument(s) must permit access to the perceptions of informants that influence their practices and

associated complexities. With these in mind, the section starts out with the description of the

assumptions and relevance of the social constructionism paradigm to this study. The second section

(Neo) Institutionalization theory Proletarianization thesis

Organization Fields NIPR Study Field

Tensions

(Neo) Institutionalization theory Proletarianization thesis

Adaptation thesis

PR Educators

Sociology of professions Institutionalization approach

Power approach Traits approach

Traits approach

PR Research PR perspectives

PR theories PR assumptions

Corporate communications

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focuses on Yin’s (2014) case study approach that comprises the research design which includes data

collection instruments, and analysis strategy.

4.1 Philosophy of Science Interpretivism

The epistemological orientation guiding this study is within interpretivism and social constructionism

that seeks to understand a phenomenon based on meanings that people involved assign to it (Myers,

1997). According to Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991), the interpretive perspective is designed to

capture the complex and dynamic nature of a phenomena within its context in order to understand

how members of that social world (such as organization fields, groups, institutions etc.) through their

interactions enact their particular realities, ascribe meaning to them and show how these meanings

influence their actions.

Interpretivism is characterized by an understanding that the knowledge of reality is not objectively

determined but socially constructed through individuals’ subjective meanings that are shaped by their

perceptions (Husserl, 1965). Interpretivists attempts to understand the intersubjective meanings

embedded in interactions and taken for granted norms towards interpreting and explaining why people

or groups act in particular ways (Gibbons 1987 as cited in Orlikowski and Baroudi 1991).

Understanding social reality thereby requires listening to peoples’ description of their shared

meanings and practices based on the descriptions of components that constitute their practices.

Researchers simply gathers such descriptions through qualitative methods as they attempt to describe,

interpret, analyze, and understand the social world based on the peoples’ perspectives (Kaplan &

Maxwell, 2005).

Social constructionism

Berger and Luckman’s (1966) social constructionism emphasize the dual character of society that

transitions from subjective meanings developed from everyday interactions to taken for granted

objective facticities in the process of socially constructing meaning that has significance for practices

within a society. Interactions in this sense involve the expressions, exchange and internalization of

subjective meanings that influence actions and mediate objective reality for that society (Berger &

Luckmann, 1991). Their works have been largely influenced by Alfred Schutz, and also represents

one of the most important positions within social constructionism that corresponds to

institutionalization.

Actions within societies eventually becomes routinized and habitualized as they are frequently

repeated without much effort. Typificatory schemes or categories of knowledge are developed from

these routinized actions while the reciprocal typification of the habitualized actions eventually

becomes taken-for-granted knowledge that make up the social stock of knowledge that is manifested

in activities of people within that society (Berger & Luckmann, 1991). Such knowledge is however

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Figure 3 Social Constructionism as Institutionalization process

Figure 3 is based on Berger and Luckman’s (1966) social construction of reality that is used here to depict the phases involved in

the social construction of meanings within societies. Social construction as a process of institutionalization depicts the process

through which a few interactions characterized by an exchange of subjective meanings between individuals within a society

overtime become habititualized behaviour from which typifications in the form of categories of meanings develop which later

becomes taken-for-granted objective facts within that society, and then become institutionalized.

transmittable to other generations as objective facts or facticities that becomes institutionalized for

that “society. Institutionalization places some kind of social control on human conduct based on some

historical reference and typifications that defines acceptable or rational conduct for a particular

people, even if it emanated from just two individuals. Through institutionalization, the socially

constructed meanings and reality becomes embedded in institutional fabric of that society.

Understanding and interpreting the processes of socially constructing shared meanings and

institutionalized practices of organizations, NIPR (professional body) and PR educators respectively,

as well as the implications for one another is the focus of this study. These actors are viewed as

belonging to different societies with differing realities and consequent practices. More so, emphasis

here is on perceptions that inform their respective realities and guide practices within their societies,

which represents prerequisites for understanding existing contradictions and/or tensions between

them. Furthermore, by adopting Weick’s (1979) "strong" constructionist view, this study goes beyond

merely re-describing the actors’ experiences. Rather it applies relevant theory dependent interpretive

schemes and constructs within PR, the sociology of professions and neo-institutionalization for

exploring the social reality of the actors. As Astley (1985, p. 498) noted, the facts constituting our

knowledge are theory-dependent as our perceptions and access to reality is mediated by theoretical

preconceptions that we use to understand the world.

Despite being designed to explore the complex reality within a phenomena, Fay (1987, p. 96)

criticizes the interpretivist philosophy for assuming continuity of shared meanings without

considerations for issues regarding conflicts or contradictions within a society that could necessitate

change. This is a valid point as conflicts remain an inevitable occurrence between a people within a

society due to disagreements or diverse interests. Nevertheless, the study is not concerned about

conflicts within the individual societies but rather between them. Also, the goal at this stage of the

study is to first understand the perceptions, shared meanings and practices of the actors that would be

further analyzed with Engestrom’s activity theory.

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4.2 Research Design In order for this study to understand the perspectives and tensions between the actors influencing PR

practices in Nigeria, this section focuses on the chosen research design which follows Yin’s (2014)

case study method. The chosen research design includes a logical sequence of activities for the

research to be able to gather relevant data that can effectively attend to the research questions. It

enumerates which data is relevant, how it would be collected as well as an effective analysis strategy

for interpreting collected data.

4.2.1 Case Study

According to Yin (2014), a case study is appropriate when there is the need to gain a holistic

understanding of a complex contemporary phenomenon that must be investigated within its real-life

context, especially when the phenomenon cannot be separated from its context. This involves a

comprehensive method for collecting, presenting and analyzing data respectively. More so, case

studies are appropriate for attending to “how” and “why” questions especially when the researcher has

little to no control over events or phenomenon under investigation, thereby requiring direct

observation and or interviews with individuals involved or concerned about the phenomenon. Also,

researcher is able to employ existing theoretical propositions as a guide for collecting relevant data.

Hence, the approach is chosen for this study as not much is known about the tensions within Nigeria’s

PR environment which necessitated understanding the situation from the accounts of relevant actors

within Nigeria’s PR environment.

Cases studies could be designed as either single- or multiple-case studies for which data can be

collected and triangulated from qualitative and/or quantitative methods thereby offering a variety of

evidence for acquiring rich insights about the phenomenon being studied. Also, based on the nature of

what is being studied and the number of units of analysis, case studies could either be holistic or

embedded with the former having single and the latter having multiple unit(s) of analysis respectively.

In this regard, this study employs the single case study design that concentrates on Nigeria as the

single case/context of interest and an embedded design with organizations, professional body (NIPR)

and PR education as multiple units of analysis that contributes to the line of inquiry for the study. In

addition, a critical case design is selected in order to look into contradictory contextual issues

affecting the actors that could contribute to existing contextual PR scholarship or identify their

inadequacies thereof.

A case study is preferred for this study because it unpacks and simplifies the complex components or

aspects of Nigeria’s PR environment. The study would utilize rich data from multiple sources that

includes interviews and document and archive studies that enriches researchers’ knowledge and

thereby enhance in-depth understanding of Nigeria’s PR environment.

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Case studies have been criticized for over relying on informants perceptions that may differ from what

informants actually do that has the tendency to lead researchers to inaccurate conclusions. Case

studies are also criticized for merely confirming researchers preconceived notions or bias. In contrast,

Flyvbjerg (2006) maintain that case study allows researchers to closely investigate real life situations

and gather rich data about the practical reality of the phenomena from those involved or affected.

More so, Yin (2014) equally maintains that researcher bias can be mitigated through construct validity

in which multiple sources of evidence that demonstrates a convergent line of inquiry as well as

establishing a chain of evidence during data collection. More so, the credibility of the findings is

enhanced with member checks for informants to verify that their responses have been interpreted as

intended limits researcher bias.

There are also arguments that findings from single cases cannot be generalized. Again Flyvbjerg

(2006), context-dependent knowledge provided by a case study provides valuable knowledge about

real life situations as universal theories for studying human affairs are lacking. Yin (2014) equally

noted that by clearly defining the domains where study findings can be generalized attends to this

issue. This concerns analytic generalization, whereby case study findings are viewed as contribution

to the theoretical concepts of interest for the study that could corroborate, modify, reject or advance

theoretical concepts of interest to the case or new concepts arising from the case. As this study

focuses on the inherent tensions within Nigeria’s PR context, findings are argued to contribute to

contextual PR scholarship.

Issues of reliability in the procedure employed when carrying out the research is also another critique

of case study. However, proper documentation of the research procedure in the form of a case study

protocol that includes a step by step process of how the research has been conducted, such that

another person could repeat the procedure and arrive at the same result. Lastly, case studies’ findings

have been criticized for being difficult to summarize. Flybjerg (2006) maintain this has little to do

with the research method but results instead from the properties and complexities of the reality or

phenomena under study.

4.2.2 Research Method

Myers (1997) maintain that research method influences the way in which the researcher collects data

while specific methods imply particular assumptions and research practices. Cases studies can employ

both quantitative and qualitative methods; however, this study solely employs qualitative methods that

seek to understand the perspectives and practices of the actors within their natural setting.

Consequently, qualitative data in the form of words would be collected using semi-structured

interviews and document/archival studies that would be analyzed with the thematic analysis and

activity theory. Qualitative inquiry is carried out with keen interest in understanding the phenomena

from the actors own perspectives through their description of the reality of their world. Areas of

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focus includes meaning ascribed to particular things, sensitive issues, experiences, actions,

contradictions etc. such that the interviewer is able to interpret the interviewees’ world and be able to

understand their reality.

Data Collection

Semi-structured interviews would be conducted with individuals/informants from selected

organization fields, NIPR and PR educators. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009,p.3) defined Semi-

structured interviews as “interviews with the purpose of obtaining descriptions of the life world of the

interviewee in order to interpret the meaning of the described phenomena”. The interviews are

designed with well-crafted questions for the specific purpose of inquiring about the informants’

perspectives, factual knowledge, experiences and actions within Nigeria’s PR environment. The semi-

structured nature of the interviews ensures that researcher can critically follow up on the informants’

answers to seek elaborations that in turn produce rich data for the study.

As interviews cannot attend to inconsistences between what people say and what they do, Atkinson

and Silverman (1997) warns against the uncritical use of interviews that are perceived to offer

undiluted insights about informants’ perceptions, which could lead to inaccurate and unreliable

conclusions. This study follows their recommendation by validating supplied data with the accounts

of others in similar situations as well as comparing such accounts with documentary or archival data

that could enhance the authenticity of collected data. Hence, Secondary data are collected from

documents and archival records respectively from reports and articles in the media, commentaries

from PR experts, company websites and relevant studies. The data are useful but sometimes bias as

they are written for specific purposes that differ from that of the study; nevertheless, they often

provide specific details that can be used to corroborate evidence from other sources. More so,

contradictions discovered opens up the study for other lines of inquiry that may have not been

considered but enriches the research.

Sampling

A heterogeneous or maximum variation sample (Kuzel, 1992; Patton, 1990) of informants is selected

for this study as they permit the collection of data about the various experiences of the different actors

about the same phenomenon. In addition, snowball sampling is employed in which a chain of referrals

from informants would be used to acquire a satisfactory number of informants (Biernacki & Waldorf,

1981). The study also adopts the “two-tail” design in selecting organization fields that are from two

extremes from specialized (oil & gas, banking & finance), and non-specialized (FCMG,

Telecommunications) fields in order to understand if variations exists in the PR approaches and

practices across organization fields.

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The sample groups of informants include: i) C-suite members or management representatives of

organizations from a minimum of two different organization fields/sectors that can provide data about

their PR understanding and functions as well as their perspectives and practices; ii) NIPR leadership

and committee members responsible for membership, professional practices and training and

development respectively, that can share their perspectives about PR professionalism, certification

and the ideal PR practitioner role and functions in the workplace; iii) PR educators that can provide

the perspectives about the essential PR knowledge as well as PR as a field of study or function under

mass communication or corporate communication with respective curriculum scope.

These informants differ from each other on major aspects and represent the three actors that are

affecting and are affected by PR practices in Nigeria. They are considered to be well informed and

can thereby provide rich insights about the areas of inquiry of this study. Consequently, a comparison

and discussion of their perspectives and practices would be carried out in the analysis section.

4.2.3 Analysis strategy

The analysis strategy for this study is carried out in two phases. The first involves using Attride-

Stirling’s (2001) thematic analysis for systematically deriving themes and enumerating the thematic

networks within the collected data. Engestrom’s (2001) Activity theory framework is then employed

in the second phase to further analyze and operationalize the themes and components associated with

respective actors and placing them into individual activity systems within the overall Activity system.

This would facilitate the explorations of the perspectives and consequent practices of the respective

actors’, while identified contradictions resulting from conflicting perspectives would be used to

elaborate more on discovered tensions, and discuss their implications for the actor and Nigeria’s PR

environment.

4.2.3.1 Thematic Analysis

This study employs Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic analysis tool that provides a practical and

effective procedure for organizing, conducting and presenting findings from qualitative analysis, that

at the same time ensure the full disclosure of the steps included in this phase of the analysis. Her step-

by-step guide would be used to identify relevant themes emerging from the collected perspectives of

the various informants’. This would be presented as thematic networks that are web-like illustrations

depicting the interconnections between three levels of the themes which reveal their overt structures

and underlying patterns over six steps. Thematic networks systematizes the extraction of themes

present within the text starting from the basic themes that summarizes abstract principles in the form

of Organizing Themes from which the principal metaphors are derived, that is Global Themes.

The six analytic steps for thematic analysis includes the following; Step 1) coding of collected data

with the computer-assisted data analysis software for qualitative data “Nvivio”. Leech and

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Figure 4 Thematic Analysis: 6 Steps (Adapted from Attride-Stirling, 2001)

Step 1 •Coding collected data with Nvivio

Step 2

•Extracting themes from the coded text segments and refining them to access ideas within informants’ responses

Step 3

•Arrange texts into similar coherent groupings that would form the thematic networks for which basic themes would be selected and rearranged into organizing themes before the global themes are derived

Step 4

•Thematic networks are described and explored for bringing the various perspectives and the interpretations together for a deeper level of analysis

Step 5

•The principal themes emerging from the descriptions are summarized along with patterns characterizing them

Step 6

•Patterns are interpreted based on summaries of all networks, themes, structures and patterns identified in the data against the research questions and theoretical focus of the study.

Onwuegbuzie (2007, 2011) noted that Nvivo increases the rigor of qualitative studies as it assists with

multiple types of analyses that enhance a deeper understanding of the actors’ perspectives. In Step 2,

themes are extracted from the coded text segments and are refined to access the set of ideas within

informants’ responses. In Step 3) texts are arrange into similar coherent groupings that becomes the

thematic networks from which basic themes would be selected and rearranged into organizing themes

before the global themes are derived. Step 4 describes and explores thematic networks which bring

together the various perspectives and the interpretations for a deeper level of analysis. In Step 5 the

principal themes emerging from the descriptions are summarized along with patterns characterizing

them. In Step 6, the patterns would be interpreted based on summaries of all networks, themes,

structures and patterns identified in the data against the research questions and theoretical focus of the

study.

The second phase of the analysis involves employing Activity theory to further analyse the collected

data, the derived themes and their interpretations for identifying, exploring and understanding the core

components that make up the perspectives and practices of the respective actors. These highlights the

contradictions and tension points between the actors which helps in understanding the source(s) and

contributor(s) to the existing tensions for which implications would be discussed for respective actors.

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4.2.3.2 Activity theory (AT)

Activity theory offers a lens that would be used for analyzing and understanding the practices of the

actors that are viewed as individual but yet interconnected activity systems, whereby the actions of

one has implications for others. Such understanding would be based on the analysis of the seven

components that make up the respective activity systems of each actor, which include: individual(s)

or subgroup(s) whose point of view is chosen as the perspective of analysis (Subject); problem the

activity is directed towards (Object) that is then turned into (outcomes) using existing tools

(instruments). Also included are individuals and subgroups that share the same general object

(Community), those responsible for doing the job (Division of labor) as well as (Rules) constraining

actions within the system (Engestrom, 2000, 2006).

Tensions between these activity systems provides opportunities for transformations through the

expansive learning cycle that questions existing practices, analyzes contradictions and then models

and implements solutions for attending to tensions (Engestrom, 2000; Engestrom & Sannino, 2010).

These takes place in continuous cyclical manner through Knotworking activities (Engestrom, 2000,

2006). The theory may have been largely ignored within PR research; however its components

remains appropriates for analyzing and understanding ongoing tensions between the activity systems

of the actors that lays ground work for developing mutually beneficial capacities and outcomes for

actors concerned (Engestrom, 2000).

4.2.4 Inductive-explorative research

With a focus on contextual contradictions and tensions, this study is inductive and explorative as it

aims to explore organizations, NIPR and PR educators’ diverse perspectives and understanding of PR

approaches, certification processes and curricula respectively within Nigeria’s PR environment. This

implies varying perceptions that influence the distinct meanings, realities and practices of the three

actors and a notion that each of them belongs to different societies with their own realities. Hence, this

study concentrates on the collection and exploration subjective accounts of the contextual realities

confronting these actors. Analysing collected qualitative data thereby become means towards

developing an understanding of the existing contradictions and tensions in Nigeria towards extending

contextual PR theory and scholarship at large.

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Figure 5 Methodology

Figure 5 depicts the methodology components starting with the epistemological stance, case study

design, units of analysis and the research methods which includes data collecting and analysis

strategy

4.3 Delimitation This focuses solely on practices of organizations’, in-house PR professionals and not on the activities

of PR agencies and consultants respectively. Activity theory extends to knotworking, expansive

learning for resolving contradictions/tensions, however, there are no plans to cover these aspects in

this study. I am aware of studies on the didactic and pedagogy of PR, however these are not the focus

areas for PR education in this study as it is more concerned about the perceptions/perspectives of PR

educators and how and why that influences the scope and curricula contents of PR in Nigeria.

5. The pilot study A pilot study was carried out earlier this year for understanding the challenges confronting PR in

Nigeria from the academics’ and practitioners’ perspective, which played a major role in developing

the research problem for this study.

A total of 7 semi-structured interviews were conducted, 6 over telephone/skype and one with written

responses. Respondents included 4 academics, one of whom is also a well expereienced consultant,

and 3 other consultants. Despite the low number of practitioners, their reponses provided rich insights

because they are consultants that have worked with several clients/organizations and appear to have

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vast understanding of organizations’ PR practices and expectations based on their encounters and

experiences with c-suite members.

Two question guides were developed for the PR academics (A) and PR practitioners (P), albeit with

certain overlaps. Areas of inquiry included: 1) practitioners’ academic backgrounds (A,P); 2) PR

curricula (A), 3) cultural implications on Nigeria’s PR education and practice (A,P), 4) role and

influence of professional body- NIPR (A,P), 5) Nigeria’s economy and impact on PR practices (P)

and PR education (A) , 6) public perception of PR (P) and PR education (A), 7) activism and their

impacts on organization’s PR appraches (P), 8) impacts of Nigeria’s political condition on PR in

general (A,P).

5.1 Prelimenary findings The prelimenary findings of the study includes:

1 - PR perceptions and practitioner role/voice

One of the findings of the pilot study was the perceived limited knowledge and understanding of PR

by organizations, which influences their PR orientation, approaches, functions and practitioner roles

that are argued to contradict practitioner expectations and perceived effective practice. Related to this

is the restricted or lack of PR practitioner voice and strategic contribution to organizations’ PR

strategies. This practice has been largely argued to persist due to historical PR practices in Nigeria

whereby people with journalistic background or access to the media are preferred PR persons while

PR was approached with journalistic releases, public information or awareness drives. Hence, PR

practitioners are simply viewed as communication technicians without capabilities to be part of

dominant coalition but simply carry out communication tasks. However, this is against the ideal PR

that NIPR promotes, as practitioners are expected to be able to contribute to management at a strategic

level.

2 - PR jurisdiction and competence

PR faces competition from almost any other professions as entry barriers into the profession are

nonexistent until recently when NIPR membership and certification have become the license to

practice. Nevertheless, many argue that enforcement of the new requirements remains a challenge. PR

continues to find it hard to maintain a hold or jurisdiction over its functions as marketing, corporate

communications, journalism, law professionals respectively compete for PR functions and jobs. There

is also the issue of perceived PR practitioner incompetence within specialized industries such as

banking and finance, and oil and gas which implies that the practitioners’ education maybe

insufficient within specialized fields. Competences are affected by the knowledge acquired by the

practitioner. PR education exists as a stand alone study programme, a subject or major under mass

communication or corproate communication across higher institutions in Nigeira. These implies

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inconsistences in PR educational scope and curricula and disagreement amongst PR educators that

cannot agree if PR is a distinct study programme or just a module or major under other study

programmes. NIPR equally offers Professional Diploma that is equivalent to a BA degree as well as a

range of training programmes for its members.

3 - PR image and active publics

The current image of PR in Nigeria implies a misconception of PR as solely propaganda, publicity,

creating awareness, briberry etc. while practitioners are viewed as erand boys, bribe givers, spurious

individuals that would say anything to make organizations or their bosses look good. Lastly, there is

the rise of active participation of publics and activism in general mostly online on social media.

Perceived or confirmed unethical and corrupt politicians are mostly targeted but the trend is gradually

extending to unethical organizations mostly by younger Nigerians.

6. Concluding Remarks

This Thesis Proposal presents an overview of my research work and the overall plan for completing

my PhD project. The study is carried out in cooperation with the Lagos Business School (LBS) where

I will also be spending my “stay abroad” and be collecting part of my primary data from c-suite

members attending executive studies at the school. I will also be reaching out to NIPR’s leadership

and its membership, Professional practices and Training and Development committes respectively. I

look forward to discussing my project with you at the TP presentation and I am very keen to hear your

thoughts, opinions and suggestions about my project.

Contribution and Relevance

The study contributes an alternative bottom up approach to contextual PR scholarship for exploring

contextual issues, concerns and tensions that could form the basis for much more informed and

effective PR practices within contexts, which extends contextual PR understanding. Also, discussions

from this study benefits organizations as it enhances their PR understanding, practitioner role and

functions in the work place respectively. The findings would also alert current and future practitioners

and NIPR to the contemporary organizational demands and the need to demonstrate PR’s value to

organizations in the Nigerian context. Furthermore, by applying insights from Nigerian organizations’

practices, this study offers a starting point towards reorienting PR educators and NIPR about contents

and competences that should be focused upon and adapted to their context when educating and

certifying future PR professionals.

Questions for the committee

1.Do you understand my use of Activity theory as a way to explicate the tensions within Nigeria’s PR

environment?

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2.Would I be correct in saying that I am doing a comparative study as I would be comparing or

looking at contradictions between the three actors’ perspectives?

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8. Appendices

Appendix 1: Piloto Study components

Appendix 1.1: Interviewee Profiles

Interviewee Profile

Amujo, O. C. BA - Public/Applied History, MA, Mass Comm/Media Studies, Corporate

Branding, Corporate Identity, Corporate Reputation,

Researcher:

NIPR

Dr Otubanjo, T. Senior Lecturer at Lagos Business School (Nigeria)

Corporate communication consultant

Expert within: Corporate branding, corporate identity, corporate

reputation, corporate image, corporate communications, and corporate

public relations

Oyetayo Adeshina PR consultant and publisher

Principal Consultant/ Editor in chief - XS-Proficient Media Services limited

Journalist

BA –Mass communication and Philosophy

Professor Akinwande MSc. PhD, Professor of Development Communication

Myles Igwe Freelance Publicist and Creative Director

Junior Editor and Consultant - Guardian Newspaper Nigeria

Head of Public Relations - Visionary PR

Idagu David Account Executive (Lagos): C. Moore Media International Public Relations NIPR professional exam tutor/instructor TEDxIkeja conferences

Dr Ajilore

Senior Lecturer in Mass communication

Head of Department, Mass Communication Department Babcock

University (Nigeria)

MSc, M.I.L.D, PhD

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Appendix 1.2 Pilot Study findings within Activity systems

Based on the findings from the pilot study, activity systems have been developed for each actor to

highlight the components of their activity systems that show issues of contradictions that leads to

tensions.

Object Media relations Public information Publicity Crises management Organization image

Tools/Instruments Four models of PR CSR Bribery Crisis communication Do nothing

Outcome Public awareness Favourable image Communication technician

Subject NIPR

PR educators PR professionals

Publics/ customers

Division of labour C-suite members PR professional/communication technician

Community In-house PR department PR manager

Rules Organization policy, culture/values and code of conduct Organizational strategy

Organization PR practice

Tools/Instruments Accreditation Certification NIPR Training programmes Course outline NIPR membership

Object NIPR image NIPR credibility PR professionalism Ethical PR practice

Outcome Competent PR professionals Professional recognition PR image Relationship management Holistic PR approach Ethical practice

Subject NIPR

PR educators PR professionals

Publics/ customers

Division of labour NIPR professional practices committee NIPR Training and development committte

Community NIPR governing council

Rules NIPR Code of conduct and Professional conduct

Professional body: NIPR

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Tools/Instruments PR Curricula PR examination Teaching

Object PR education Solid PR curricula Affiliation with NIPR PR knowledge dissemination

Outcome Competent PR professionals Holistic PR knowledge Recognized education Ethical practice

Subject Future PR practitioners

NIPR Organizations

Division of labour PR lecturers Head of PR department Head of academic planning

Community PR department, Mass comm. department, PR researchers, NIPR

Rules Admission requirements PR examination, rules and guidelines

PR educators/ Educational institutions

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Appendix 2: PhD Plan: Activities overview and next steps Oludotun Kayode Fashakin PhD Activity Plan @ BCOM 2014-2017

Timeline Activities

1st Half year

From

September

2014

Research

Article One

- Introduction and Literature Review draft to be delivered in January 2015 (Completed)

- Introduction and Literature Review Revision (not completed)

- Discarded Article based dissertation and research focus at semester end

PhD courses

- Publish or Perish: Preparing, Writing and Reviewing Journal Articles in Marketing and

Management (5 ECTS) (not completed)

- Introduction to quantitative research methodology (5 ECTS) (Completed)

Teaching

- New Media and Business Re-exam (winter 2014): 10 hours

2nd

Semester

from

February

2015

Research

- Decided to change my dissertation from article-based to a Monograph

- Monograph

New topic: Institutionalization and professionalization Perspectives and tensions emerging from workplace, professional bodies, and educational

curriculum affecting PR as a corporate communication function in Nigeria

- Pilot study: interviews with PR academics and practitioners (Completed)

- New Project Description (Completed)

- Preparing Thesis Proposal - TP (Completed)

Teaching

- Stakeholders Relations for MACC (82,5hours) (Completed)

- Communication in a global perspective (140 hours) (Completed)

- Total teaching hours completed so far: 229 hours (371 hours Remaining)

3rd

Semester

from

September

2015

Research

- Hand-in TP (Completed)

- Read literature on PR approaches, PR professionalism, institutionalization theory and

Activity theory.

- Carry out TP

- Commencing work on the Literature review chapter: PR approaches, sociology of

professions, Neo-institutionalization theory

- Methodology chapter: social constructionism, case study, Qualitative methods, Thematic

analysis and Activity theory

PhD Courses

- Advanced Qualitative Research Methodologies: Ethnography, Case Studies, Grounded

Theory and Action Research (Nov-Dec 2015 - 5ECTS) (in progress)

- Research Paradigms in Strategic Communication. From Organizational Communication

and Public Relations to Business Communication and Corporate Communication

(January 2016 - 5 ECTS)

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- Total ECTs: Semester 1 + Semester 2 + Semester 3 = 15 ECTs

Other Courses

- CUL course clashing with a PhD course (January13 & 27 2016)

4th Half year

From

February

2016

Research

- Continue writing the Literature review chapter: PR approaches, sociology of professions,

Neo-institutionalization theory

- Methodology section: Developing and interview guide

Data collection Document and Archival studies

PhD Course

- Philosophy of Science (5 ECTS - June 2016)

Conference:

- PR meeting #6 – Barcelona (28th – 29

th June. 2016)

Teaching

- Stakeholders Relations for MACC

- Communication in a global perspective

- Bachelor Thesis supervision

- Total Teaching hours

5th Half from

September

2016

Research

- Data collection: semi structured interviews, document and archival studies

- Thematic Analysis: Coding collected data with Nvivo, Initial analysis and conclusions

- Start writing the PhD Dissertation

Stay abroad

Lagos Business School (Duration 3 months)

PhD Courses

- Institutional Organizational Analysis – Change and Transformations (5 ECTS - October

2016 )

- Research Design (5 ECTS)

- Total ECTs: Semester 1+2+3+4+5 = 30 ECTS

6th Half year

From

February

2017

Research

- Analysis/Discussion

- Implications and Conclusion

- Writing and concluding the final version of the Dissertation