Thesis on optimum tilt angle of solar cell

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Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................. 9

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Renewable Energy Scenario in Bangladesh: ........................................................................ 9

1.2 Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL) ................................................... 10

1.2.1 IDCOL Solar Irrigation Program ................................................................................. 111

1.2.2 IDCOL Solar Mini-Grid Projects ................................................................................. 122

1.3 200 MW Solar Power Project By SunEdison .................................................................... 133

1.4 2 GW of Solar Energy Projects by SkyPower ................................................................... 144

1.5 Manufacturers of Solar Panel In Bangladesh: ................................................................... 15

1.5.1 Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd. (RREL).............................................................. 16

1.5.3 Parasol Energy .......................................................................................................... 178

1.5.4 Radiant Alliance Ltd. ................................................................................................ 189

1.6 Cost Estimate:...................................................................................................................... 20

1.7 Bright Sunshine Hours of Dhaka ...................................................................................... 201

CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................................. 22

INNOVATIVE USES OF SOLAR PANEL ............................................................................................ 22

WORLDWIDE ................................................................................................................................. 22

2.1 Solar road: ......................................................................................................................... 22

2.1.1 In Netherland: ............................................................................................................. 22

2.1.2 In America: .................................................................................................................. 23

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2.1.3 In France: .................................................................................................................... 24

2.2 Floating Solar Plants: ........................................................................................................... 25

2.3 Solar-powered drone or unmanned aerial vehicles: ......................................................... 27

2.3.1 Airbus .......................................................................................................................... 28

2.3.2 Boeing Phantom...........................................................................................................28

2.3.3 Google (Titan Aerospace) .......................................................................................... 29

2.3.4 Facebook (Ascenta) ..................................................................................................... 30

2.3.5 AeroVironment / NASA ............................................................................................... 30

2.3.6 Lockheed Martin (Hale-D) ............................................................................................ 31

2.3.7 Bye Engineering ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.3.8 Atlantik Solar ............................................................................................................... 33

2.4 Solar Powered Bus: ............................................................................................................. 33

2.4.1 In Australia: ................................................................................................................. 33

2.4.2 In China: ...................................................................................................................... 34

2.4.3 In Austria: .................................................................................................................... 34

2.4.4 In Uganda: ................................................................................................................... 35

2.5 Some Negative Impact of Solar Plant On Environment: ................................................... 35

2.5.1 Chemical Pollution: ..................................................................................................... 36

2.5.2 Thin-film Cells: ............................................................................................................ 37

2.5.3 Land Use: .................................................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 39

CALCULATING OPTIMUM ANGLE OF DHAKA ................................................................................ 39

3.1 Calculating optimum angle using geographical location .................................................. 39

3.2 Results: .............................................................................................................................. 41

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CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................... 467

ADVANTAGES OF OPTIMUM ORIENTED SOLAR PANEL ON OTHERS .......................................... 467

4.1 Maximum Power with Different Panel Orientation: ......................................................... 467

4.1.1 Horizontally Fixed Solar Panel (1 KW): ....................................................................... 467

4.1.2 Optimum Tilt angled Solar Panel (1 KW): ..................................................................... 59

4.1.3 1-Axis Tracking Solar Panel (1 KW): ............................................................................ 490

4.2 Monthly Output Power Comparison: ................................................................................ 512

4.2.1 The Output Power: ..................................................................................................... 512

4.2.2 The Area Requirement: .............................................................................................. 534

4.2.3 Method for more Effective Fixed Solar Panel: ........................................................... 545

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................. 577

Monthly Analysis of the Output of an Optimum Oriented Solar Panel for Different Areas in

Bangladesh .................................................................................................................................. 577

5.1 Monthly Analysis of Data: ................................................................................................. 577

5.2 Hourly Data Analysis of AC and DC Output: ...................................................................... 611

CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................ 644

ENVIRONMETAL IMPACT, OPTICAL LOSSES OF SOLAR PANEL AND REVIEW OF SOME MODERN

TECHNOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 644

6.1 Impact of Environmental Dust on PV Performance: ....................................................... 645

6.2 Dust Removal Methods ................................................................................................... 655

6.2.1 Natural dust removal ................................................................................................ 655

6.2.2 Electrostatic dust removal ........................................................................................ 666

6.2.3 Mechanical dust removal ......................................................................................... 666

6.3 Self Cleaning Solar Panels ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.6

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6.3.1 Dust Removal System in Rover Mission to MARS: ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.7

6.5 Impact of Temperature on PV Performance: .................................................................... 68

6.6 Optical losses ..................................................................................................................... 68

CHAPTER SEVEN ............................................................................................................................ 70

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR SOLAR POWER ESTIMATION .................................................... 70

7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 70

7.2 Latitude Input ...................................................................................................................... 70

7.3 Longitude Input ................................................................................................................... 72

7.4 Locate Automatically Button ............................................................................................... 72

7.5 Power Input ......................................................................................................................... 73

7.6 Estimate Button ................................................................................................................... 73

7.7 Optimum Angle Output ....................................................................................................... 74

7.8 Area Output ......................................................................................................................... 75

7.9 Cost Output ......................................................................................................................... 75

APPENDIX A ................................................................................................................................... 76

APPENDIX B ................................................................................................................................... 79

APPENDIX C ................................................................................................................................... 90

Appendix D .................................................................................................................................. 101

REFEREENCE ................................................................................................................................ 103

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List of Tables

Table 1.6.1 Cost Sheet of a new company

named InGen

19

Table 4.2.1 Time for changing the tilt angle 49

Table 4.2.3.1 Angle for Each of Four Seasons

51

Table 5.1.1 Monthly global solar insolation

at different cities of Bangladesh

58

Table 5.1.2 Table 5.1.2 Daily Average

Bright Sunshine hour at Dhaka

city

59

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LIST OF FIGURE

Figure1.4.1 Year-wise installation of SHC

under IDCOL program

15

Figure1.7.1 Bright sunshine hours measured at

Dhaka station in 2014

20

Figure1.7.2 Variation of bright sunshine hour in

Dhaka through 2014

20

Figure1.7.4 Bright sunshine hours measured at

Dhaka station in 2013

21

Figure1.7.5 Variation of bright sunshine hour in

Dhaka through 2013

21

Figure3.2.1 Variation of optimum tilt angle with

days of years

41

Figure3.2.2 Variation of solar radiation with

module tilt

41

Figure3.2.3

Total incident solar radiation and

solar radiation on 100, 200, 230,

25.110 and 300 tilted PV module

44

Fig.4.1.1

Total Output of Horizontally Fixed

Solar Panel (1 KW)

47

Fig. 4.1.2 Total Output of Optimum Tilted

Solar Panel (1 KW)

49

Fig. 4.1.3 Total Output of Optimum Tilted

Solar Panel (1 KW)

50

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Fig.4.1.4 Total Output of 1-Axis Tracking

Solar Panel (1 KW)

50

Figure 4.2.1 AC and DC Output according to

Month

51

Figure 4.2.2 AC and DC Output according to

Month

52

Figure 4.2.3 Land Requirements by Mounting

Structures Type and module

conversion Efficiency

53

Figure4.2.4 Mechanism of changing tilt angle

for seasonal changes

56

Figure 5.1.1 Average Solar Radiation, Cloud

Coverage and Sunlight Hour in six

divisions over three years

60

Figure 5.2.1 DC and AC Hourly Output for the

Month of March

61

Figure 5.2.2

DC and AC Hourly Output for the

Month of May

62

Figure 5.2.3


Month of May

62

Figure 5.2.4


Month of November

63

Figure6.6.1 Optical losses in solar cell 69

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Figure 7.2.1 The layout of the “Solar Power

Estimation” software.

71

Figure 7.4.1 Latitude, Longitude and Locate

Automatically portion of the “Solar

Power Estimation” software.

73

Figure 7.6.1 Power input and “Estimate” button. 74

Figure 7.9.1

“Optimum Angle”, “Area” and

“Cost” Output.

75

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Renewable Energy Scenario in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has enormous potential in developing renewable energy from different

sources, i.e., solar energy, biomass and biogas. Other renewable energy sources

include wind, bio-fuel, geothermal, wave and tidal energy, which are expected to be

explored in future. In line with the international trend, the Government of

Bangladesh has a systematic approach towards renewable energy development. As

part of its initiatives, the Government of Bangladesh has adopted Renewable Energy

Policy (REP) in 2008 and formed focal point called Sustainable and Renewable

Energy Development Authority (SRDEA) for coordinating the activities related to

the development of renewable energy technologies and financing mechanisms. The

policy envisions 5% of total power generation from renewable energy sources by

2015 and 10% by 2020. Bangladesh Bank has created a revolving fund of BDT

2billion for refinancing of renewable energy projects, e.g- solar energy, biogas etc.

through commercial banks and financial institutions at concessionary terms and

conditions. [1]

1.2 Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL)

Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL) is a government owned

non-bank financial institution engaged in bridging the financing gap for developing

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medium and large-scale infrastructure and renewable energy projects in

Bangladesh.

1.2.1 IDCOL Solar Home System (SHS) Program

This program is one of the largest and fastest growing off-grid electrification

programs in the world. According to the annual report (2014-2015) of IDCOL, till

July 2015, about 3.74 million SHSs have been installed under the program in the

off-grid rural areas of Bangladesh. As a result, 17 million beneficiaries are getting

solar electricity which is around 11% of total population in Bangladesh. IDCOL has

a target to finance 6 million SHS by 2018, with an estimated generation capacity of

198 MW of electricity. Every month, more than 50,000 new houses come out of

darkness using solar home systems of the program.

Positive Impact: The program replaces 179,520 tons of kerosene having an

estimated value of USD 153 million per year. The program has contributed annual

CO2 reduction of 424,008 ton. It has relieved the government from opportunity cost

of more than USD 1.3 billion as otherwise would be required to extend grid

connection to the households.

Negative Impacts and Solutions:

•Impacts

-Improper management of expired batteries may lead to environmental pollution and

health safety concern.

-During manufacturing of lead-acid battery, there is a significant risk of

environmental and safety hazards.

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•Mitigation measures taken by IDCOL

-IDCOL has prepared “Policy Guidelines on Disposal of Warranty Expired Battery”.

-They have introduced the tracking mechanism of proper disposal of expired battery.

-IDCOL has deployed 12 solar inspectors spreading over in 12 regional offices with

coverage of the entire country to exclusively monitor the management of expired

battery.

-There is a financial incentive for recycling the expired battery properly.

1.2.2 IDCOL Solar Irrigation Program

Solar based irrigation system is an innovative, economic and environment friendly

solution for the agro-based economy of Bangladesh. The program is intended to

provide irrigation facility to off-grid areas and thereby reduce dependency on fossil

fuel. According to the annual report (2014-2015) of IDCOL, IDCOL has approved

445 solar irrigation pumps of which 168 are already in operation. The remaining

pumps will come into operation shortly. IDCOL has a target to finance 50,000 solar

irrigation pumps by 2025.

Positive Impacts:

This project replaced 513 tons of diesel burn shallow pumps; therefore reduces 1,232

tons of CO2 each year.

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•Impacts

-Adverse impact on ecosystem will not occur in general circumstances. However,

moderate change in land use including tree clearing maybe required depending on

the project site.

-Excessive water use may cause impact on hydrology.


-IDCOL has introduced a special environmental and social screening template,

which covers most of the relevant aspects.

- IDCOL has emphasized the project to prepare a proper way to pump-up water and

use plan reference from experience in the surrounding areas and results from

hydrological surveys.

-IDCOL has conducted survey by an expert about the water availability in various

potential areas.

1.2.3 IDCOL Solar Mini-Grid Projects

Solar PV based mini-grid project is installed in remote areas of the country where

possibility of grid expansion is remote in near future. The project provides grid

quality electricity to households and nearby village markets and thereby encourages

commercial activities in the project areas. So far, IDCOL has approved financing for

16 mini-grid projects of which 4 are already in operation and 3 would be going into

operation shortly. IDCOL has a target to finance 50 solar mini-grid projects by 2017.

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•Impacts

-Mini grid requires a considerable piece of land, there is a scope of disturbances to

site specific ecosystem in the project area.

-Due to operation of diesel fueled back-up generator, there could be temporal noise

and SOx emissions concern.


To address the possible adverse impacts, IDCOL has made mandatory for project

sponsor to prepare a detailed environmental impact assessment (ESIA).

1.2.4 IDCOL Solar Powered Telecom BTSs

IDCOL has financed solar powered solution for 138 telecom BTSs in off-grid areas

of Bangladesh.

1.3 200 MW Solar Power Project by SunEdison

The Cabinet Purchase Committee of Bangladesh approved a proposal for setting up

a 200MW solar park in Teknaf of Cox's Bazar, the largest in the country, on a build-

own-operate (BOO) basis with the private sector.[2]

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SunEdison Energy Holding (Singapore) Private Ltd, a subsidiary of American solar

power giant SunEdison, will carry out the project as an independent power producer

(IPP), as part of the government's mega plan to increase production.

The state-owned Power Development Board (PDB) will buy electricity from the

project at 17 cents or Taka 13.26 per kilowatt hour (each unit) for 20 years. The

government will have to spend about $1.1 billion, or Tk 8,595 crore. The plant would

be set up on about 1,000 acres of non-agricultural land in the tourist district of Cox's

Bazar. PDB will purchase electricity from the project on a “No Electricity, No

Payment” basis. [3]

1.4 2 GW of Solar Energy Projects by SkyPower

During the 70th United Nations General Assembly in New York, SkyPower, the

world’s largest developer and owner of utility-scale solar projects, made a historic

announcement with Prime Minister of Bangladesh, unveiling its plans to build 2 GW

of utility-scale solar energy over the next five years in Bangladesh, representing an

investment of US $4.3 billion.[4] SkyPower also announced it will be gifting 1.5

million SkyPower Home solar kits to people of Bangladesh over the course of the

next five years. The SkyPower Home solar kits consist of a solar panel, battery, LED

lights, radio, and USB port to charge mobile phones designed to allow families to

harness the power of the sun. The high quality home solar kits are durable, portable

and IEC certified.

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Figure1.4.1: Year-wise installation of SHC under IDCOL program

1.5 Manufacturers of Solar Panel in Bangladesh

Four leading manufacturers of solar panel in Bangladesh are:

1) Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd. (RREL)

2) ELECTRO SOLAR POWER LTD

3) Parasol Energy

4) Radiant Alliance Ltd.

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1.5.1 Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd. (RREL)

Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd. (RREL)[5], is one of the foremost and

pioneering solar companies, with more than 25 years of experience of Solarizing

Bangladesh. At RREL, they have established our own fully automated PV module

manufacturing plant with a capacity of 18MW. RREL has so far installed more than

25MWp of solar system in forms of Solar Home System (SHS), solar pumping

solutions, telecom solutions, and on-grid roof-top solutions and decentralized solar

community electrification projects etc.

Products & Services

•Solar Home System (SHS)

•Rooftop Solar Power System

•Solar Telecom Solutions

•Solar Powered Pumps

Major Works

•Installation of more than 0.4million Solar Home Systems in different rural off-grid

areas of Bangladesh under IDCOL managed worldâ€™s largest micro financing

based SHS program.

•Installation of more than 120 solar irrigation pumps, so far the maximum in the

country.

•Installation of the largest on-grid power project of 50.4KWp at Independent

University, Dhaka.

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•Rooftop projects at key government installations like Bangladesh bank, Rural

Electrification Board (REB), WAPDA, BPDB amongst others.

•Working with international agencies like UNDP, UNHCR and others to provide

solar solutions and systems.

•Providing street-light in refugee camps in Africa to ensure movability and security.

1.5.2 ELECTRO SOLAR POWER LTD

Electro Solar Power Ltd.[6] a sister concern of Electro Group comes as the first Solar

PV Module manufacturer in Bangladesh. Electro Solar adds a new era in solar power

sector in Bangladesh. Electro Solar Power Ltd is established in 2009 with 1200

square meters of manufacturing plant area at Ashulia and Savar.

All solar accessories like charge controller, inverters are already developed in their

R&D center. They are fully capable of solar panel deployment for home system of

couple of 10W capacity of large commercial/ industrial system ranging up to couple

of kilowatt capacity.

1.5.3 Parasol Energy

Parasol Energy Limited [7] is a leading manufacturer of quality solar panels in

Bangladesh. It is founded in 2010. It is a Dutch-Bangladesh Joint Venture.

They usually reach module efficiencies up to about 14.3%.

20, 25,30,40,50,60,65,75,85,100,150,250 and 300Wp poly-crystalline modules are

available by them.

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Products & Services:

•manufacturing and supplying solar modules

•installing, testing and commissioning renewable energy projects (Solar mini-grid,

Irrigation and water pump, Solar off-grid, on grid and hybrid system, Rooftop and

Solar home system).

•quality checking and testing of solar module

•assembling and supplying LED light

1.5.4 Radiant Alliance Ltd.

RAL has 5.2KWp solar powered system for its own utility support. RAL

manufactures solar PV module of different capacity (10W-300W) according to the

need of customers. Each panel has an efficiency of around 14%-16%.[8]

Major Works:

•Installation of 36 KWp Solar System at World Trade Center, Chittagong Chamber

of Commerce & Industry.

•Installation of 18KWp solar system at City Scape Tower, Dhaka. It is first “green

building” of Bangladesh.

•1KW project at Mohakhali Clean Fuel and CNG filling station.

•1KW project at Chittagong Oil Complex.

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Other products & services:

•RAL provides solar energy solutions as products along with selling PV modules.

•Different solutions for government and it’s angencies including solar power plants

•In telecom sector, they provide solar powered BTS solutions for off-grid sites.

•Solar home system

•Solar water pump

•Solar mini grid

1.6 Cost Estimate:

System Battery Load

InGen

Sales

Price

Material

Cost

Transport,

Installation

&

Warranty

VAT/TAX Total

Cost Margin

20WP 20AH 3 10000 6300 880 900 8080 19%

20WP 30AH 3 11500 7550 880 1035 9465 18%

30WP 30AH 3 12500 8200 880 1125 10205 18%

40WP 40AH 4 16800 10500 980 1512 12992 23%

50WP 60AH 5 20000 12500 980 1800 15280 24%

65WP 80AH 6 24500 16300 980 2205 19485 20%

85WP 100AH 8 30000 21500 980 2700 25180 16%

100WP 100AH 9 34500 22500 980 3105 26585 23%

100WP 130AH 10 38000 25200 980 3420 29600 22%

130/135WP 130AH 10 41500 30100 980 3735 34815 16%

Table1.6.1: Cost Sheet of a new company named InGen

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1.7 Bright Sunshine Hours of Dhaka:

Figure1.7.1: Bright sunshine hours measured at Dhaka station in 2014

Figure1.7.2: Variation of bright sunshine hour in Dhaka through 2014

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

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Figure1.7.4: Bright sunshine hours measured at Dhaka station in 2013

Figure1.7.5: Variation of bright sunshine hour in Dhaka through 2013

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

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CHAPTER TWO

INNOVATIVE USES OF SOLAR PANEL

WORLDWIDE

2.1 Solar road

2.1.1 In Netherland

A bike path that services 2,000 cyclists per day as they travel between the suburbs

of Krommenie and Wormerveer in Amsterdam is dotted with solar panels. The path,

which the local government plans to extend to 100 meters in 2016, cost €3m

(AUD$4.3m) to build, says Philip Oltermann from The Guardian. Named the

SolaRoad, it was made using rows of crystalline silicon solar cells, which were

embedded into the concrete of the path and covered over by a thick, tempered glass.

The surface of the road has been treated with a special non-adhesive coating, and the

road itself was built to sit at a slight tilt in an effort to keep dust and dirt from

accumulating and obscuring the solar cells. [9]

SolaRoad's 70-meter test track near the town of Krommenie outside Amsterdam has

generated over 3,000 kilowatt-hours over its first six months of operation. It is

enough to provide a single-person household with electricity for a year. That

translates to 70 kWh per square meter of solar road per year, which the designers

predicted as an "upper limit" during the planning process.

The team behind the bike path, Netherlands’ TNO Research Institute, is now looking

into extending the technology to some of the country’s 140,000 km of public road.

Having already performed tests on how much weight - say, a tractor and a semitrailer

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- these embedded solar cells can withstand, engineer Sten de Wit from the institute

told Oltermann that up to 20 percent of the Netherlands’ roads would be suitable for

a solar upgrade.The current version can support vehicles of up to 12 metric tonnes

(the average U.S. car is just under 2 tonnes), but is not yet ready for use with even

heavier vehicles like buses and cargo trucks. [10]

Inhabitant also reported up to 20% of the Netherlands' nearly 87,000 miles of road

could potentially be adapted into SolaRoads, which would amount to an additional

400 to 500 square kilometer (154 to 193 square miles) of energy-generating PV.

The anti-slip coating began to peel away due to long-term sun exposure and

temperature fluctuations, but researchers told that they are already at work

developing an improved version. The roads have the additional advantage of

generating electricity locally, as well as potentially helping to power sensors that

improve traffic management, or even allow automatic vehicle guidance.

2.1.2 In America

While the Netherlands has been the fastest country to embrace the technology of

solar roads, scattered projects around the world are following suit - most notably a

couple of American engineers, Julie and Scott Brusaw, who earlier this year replaced

their parking lot with solar panels. The pair, whose company Solar Roadways has

received millions in funding from the US Federal Highway Administration, are now

working on getting their designs out to the country’s public roads.

If all the roads in the US were converted to solar roadways, the Solar Roadways

website claims, the country would generate three times more energy than it currently

uses and cut greenhouse gases by 75 percent,” says Oltermann at The Guardian.

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2.1.3 In France

France's government has announced plans to pave 1,000 km (621 miles) of road with

durable photovoltaic panels over the next five years, with the goal of supplying

renewable energy to 5 million people - around 8 percent of France's population.

The project is the result of five years of research between French roads Construction

Company, Colas, and the National Institute of Solar Energy. And although a lot of

solar experts have been pretty vocal about the downfalls of 'solar freaking roadways'

(they're expensive, potentially unsafe, and inefficient compared to regular rooftop

panels), it's pretty incredible to see a government get behind new renewable energy

technology in such a big way.

The French definitely aren't the first to embrace solar roads, though. Back in 2014,

a US husband-and-wife team raised more than US$2million with their crowd-

funding campaign to develop road-ready photovoltaic panels. And the Netherlands

installed the first test-path using solar panels, which performed better than expected

with light bike traffic.

Another benefit comes in the construction of the 15-cm photovoltaic panels, which

are made of a thin film of polycrystalline silicon, coated in a resin substrate to make

them stronger. The whole thing is just 7 mm thick. According to Colas, this unique,

layered structure gives the panels a lot more grip than other solar road panels, and

can reduce the risk of accidents for trucks and cars.

The panels are apparently also weather-proof - the silicon cells are safely

encapsulated to keep them dry in the rain, and the material is so thin that it can adapt

to thermal dilation in the pavement.

Based on the assumption that roads are only covered by vehicles roughly 10 percent

of the time - and during the rest of the sunny hours they'll be soaking up rays - the

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company estimates that 20 square metres of Wattway panels will provide enough

electricity to power a single French home, excluding heating.

But there are still a lot of concerns that solar road concepts in general are never going

to be cost effective, efficient, and safe enough to be a real contender in the renewable

energy game - especially when stacked up against regular rooftop panels.

Solar is cost effective when it is well set up (orientation, shading, ventilation, and so

on), not required to be a structural element (hence a standard module is sufficient),

not displacing economic assets, and there is an electricity demand it can directly

supplement. These conditions are often well met by rooftop solar systems and small

scale solar farms, they are not well met by most roadways. [11]

"If we can additionally incorporate solar cells in road pavements, then a large extra

area will become available for decentralized solar energy generation without the

need for extra space and just part of the roads which we build and use anyway," says

Sten de Wit from the SolaRoad consortium in an interview with Fast Co.

The team plans to build on the experience they gained through the pilot program.

The initial prototype was pricey. However, the team is looking for a solar road to

pay for itself within 15 years of use. As technologies improve, cost goes down.

Elon Musk has demonstrated this kind of product planning with his Tesla series. He

has already stated that Tesla will be moving into the third stage of its development

plan, producing a mass-market car. It's expected to be priced at $35,000 and roll out

before 2020.

2.2 Floating Solar Plants

Kyocera TCL Solar and joint-venture partner Century Tokyo Leasing Corp.

(working together with Ciel et Terre) already have three sizable water-based

installations in operation near the city of Kobe, in the island of Honshu’s Hyogo

Prefecture. Now they’ve begun constructing what they claim is the world’s largest

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floating solar plant, in Chiba, near Tokyo. The 13.7-megawatt power station, being

built for Chiba Prefecture’s Public Enterprise Agency, is located on the Yamakura

Dam reservoir, 75 kilometers east of the capital. It will consist of some 51,000

Kyocera solar modules covering an area of 180,000 square meters, and will generate

an estimated 16,170 megawatt-hours annually. [12]

• Kyocera says, “That is enough electricity to power approximately 4,970 typical

households”. That capacity is sufficient to offset 8,170 tons of carbon dioxide

emissions a year, the amount put into the atmosphere by consuming 19,000 barrels

of oil.

•Three substations will collect the generated current, which is to be integrated and

fed into Tokyo Electric Power Company’s (TEPCO) 154-kilovolt grid lines.

•The mounting platform is supplied by Ciel ET Terre. The support modules making

up the platform use no metal; recyclable, high-density polyethylene resistant to

corrosion and the sun’s ultraviolet rays is the material of choice.

•In addition to helping conserve land space and requiring no excavation work, these

floating installations, Ciel et Terre says, reduce water evaporation, slow the growth

of algae, and do not impact water quality.

•To maintain the integrity of the Yamakura Dam’s walls, Kyocera will anchor the

platform to the bottom of the reservoir. The company says the setup will remain

secure even in the face of typhoons, which Japan experiences every year.

Kyocera, a Kyoto-based manufacturer of advanced ceramics, has branched out into

areas like semiconductor packaging and electronic components, as well

manufacturing and operating conventional solar-power generating systems. Now,

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several Kyocera companies are working together to create a niche industry around

floating solar installations. The parent company supplies the 270-watt,

multicystalline 60-cell solar modules (18.4-percent cell efficiency, 16.4-percent

module efficiency); Kyocera Communications Systems undertakes plant

engineering, procurement and construction; Kyocera Solar Corp. operates and

maintains the plants; and, as noted above, the Kyocera TCL Solar joint-venture runs

the overall business. [13]

“Due to the rapid implementation of solar power in Japan, securing tracts of land

suitable for utility-scale solar power plants is becoming difficult,” Toshihide

Koyano, executive officer and general manager of Kyocera’s solar energy group told

IEEE Spectrum. “On the other hand, because there are many reservoirs for

agricultural use and flood-control, we believe there’s great potential for floating

solar-power generation business.”He added that Kyocera is currently working on

developing at least 10 more projects and is also considering installing floating

installations overseas. The cost of the Yamakura Dam solar power station is not

being disclosed.The Yamakura Dam plant is due to begin operation by March 2018.

2.3 Solar-powered drone or unmanned aerial vehicles

Earlier this year one of the SINOVOLTAICS team members was involved in the

development of a remotely controlled solar powered drone. By encapsulating the

solar cells directly on the wings, the weight was reduced to a minimum while

maintaining the right aerodynamics. Their exercise proved that the flight range of

electric planes and UAV's can easily be extended with the use of high efficiency

solar cells on the wings. [14]

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Solar energy is playing an increasingly important role in the development of UAV

technology. Right now there are over a dozen of tech and aviation companies

working intensely on the development of solar powered drones.

2.3.1 Airbus

Airbus, with its subsidiary Astrium, has been working on High Altitude Pseudo

Satellites (HAPS) since 2008. In 2013 Astrium acquired the Zephyr solar powered

UAV assets from British defense technology company QinetiQ. Zephyr is a High

Altitude Pseudo Satellite (HAPS) UAV running exclusively on solar power.

The Zephyr has a track record of breaking 3 world records in 2010, including:

1) Longest endurance flight for UAV (336hrs)

2) Highest altitude reached (18,805m)

3) Longest flight (23hrs, 47min)

Zephyr has evolved through the years with different models. Airbus is currently

working on Zephyr 8.

Some Zephyr 8 specs:

Wingspan: 28 meters

Altitude: approximately 21,000 meters

Cruising speed: 55km/h

PV: amorphous silicon

Batteries: lithium-sulfur (Zephyr 7)

Electric motors: 2x 450 Watt electric motors (Zephyr 7)

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Payload: 5-10kg

Weight:60kg

2.3.2 Boeing Phantom

Boeing SolarEagle (Vulture II) is a solar powered unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).

Unique about this drone is that it’s built to eventually remain airborne for over 5

years, and therefore is considered a High Altitude, Long Endurance (HALE) plane.

SolarEagle specs:

Wingspan: 120 meters

Cruising speed: <80km/h

PV: 5kw

2.3.3 Google (Titan Aerospace)

Google got into the business of solar-powered drones with the acquisition of Titan

Aerospace, a high-altitude, long endurance (HALE) solar-powered UAV

manufacturer in April 2014.

Titan Aerospace developed drones called Solara 50 and Solara 60 capable of flying

at a reported altitude of 20km for impressive periods of over 5 years. That period is

an estimate, however at these altitudes there’s few that can disturb a plane to

continue its steady path in the air.

Solara 50 specs:

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Wingspan: 60 meters

Cruising speed: 105 km/h

PV: 3000 solar cells, producing 7kw

Launch: with a catapult

Project Skybender :The latest solar powered drone project from Google is called

the Skybender.[15] Google’s been secretly trialing a drove of 5G Internet-

compatible drones out in New Mexico that have the potential to transmit gigabits of

data every second - that’s 40 times more data than the world's fastest wireless

services.Codenamed Skybender, the project aims to take advantage of high

frequency millimeter waves - a specific region on the electromagnetic spectrum that

can theoretically transmit data far more efficiently than the frequencies our phones

and wireless Internet have well and truly clogged up.

2.3.4 Facebook (Ascenta)

Facebook got involved with solar powered drone technology with the acquisition of

UK based Ascenta in March 2014.

2.3.5 AeroVironment / NASA

AeroVironment, the Pentagon's top supplier of small drones, has an impressive

portfolio of UAV’s.

Gossamer Penguin: Gossamer Penguin – was a solar powered aircraft designed by

Paul MacCready, who’s the founder of Aerovironment. The Gossamer Penguin was

inspired by another plane, the Gossamer Albatross II. Some specs: weight without

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pilot of 68 lb (31 kg), 71 ft.(21.64 meter) wingspan and 541W of solar panels

powered a Astro-40 electric motor.

Solar Challenger: This solar powered plane is the improved version of the

Gossamer Penguin. Interesting is that this solar powered plane didn’t carry any

batteries and was capable of long distance flight. It flew 262 km (163 miles) from

Paris to UK solely on solar power.

NASA Pathfinder (Plus): NASA Pathfinder and Pathfinder Plus are both UAV’s

fully powered on solar energy. The drones were built by AeroVironment as part of

NASA’s ERAST program. The main objective of building both solar powered

UAV’s was to develop the technologies to allow long term, high altitude aircrafts to

serve as “atmospheric satellites”.

NASA Centurion: The NASA Centurion UAV incorporated several improvements

based on model Pathfinder Plus. The wingspan was extended to 63m (206 feet) and

the solar powered UAV was designed to carry more payloads.

NASA Helios: The fourth and final solar powered unmanned aerial vehicle

developed by AeroVironment for NASA is the Helios. This solar powered drone

evolved from the Pathfinder into the Helios, a long term, high altitude atmospheric

satellite. The Helios was built with two objectives in mind:

1. Sustained flight at altitudes around 30,000m (100,000 feet)

2. Fly for at least 24hours, including 14 hours above 15,000m (50,000 feet).

2.3.6 Lockheed Martin (Hale-D)

The HALE-D is a remotely-controlled solar-powered UAV that is designed by

Lockheed Martin to float above the jet stream at 18,000 meters.

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Hull volume: 500,000 ft3

Length: 240ft

Diameter: 70ft

Propulsion Motors: 2kw electric

Energy storage: 40 kWh Li-ion Battery

Solar array: 15 kW thin-film

Cruise Speed: 20 kts at 60 kft

Station-keeping Altitude: 60,000 ft

Payload Weight: 50 lbs

Payload Power: 500 watts

Recoverable: yes

Silent Falcon UAV: Bye Aerospace assists Silent Falcon UAS Technologies with

the design, research and engineering support of the Silent Falcon UAV. The Silent

Falcon is a small, solar powered UAV with battery storage. The drone is powered

with thin film solar PV panels and carries a 6 blade propulsion system.

Silent Falcon specs:

Wingspan: 4.27 meters

Length:2 meters

Weight:13.5 kg

Endurance: up to 7+ hours in optimum conditions

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PV: Ascent Solar Thin Film Photovoltaic

Battery: Li-Ion Battery

Range: up to 100 km

Launch and recovery: Catapult launch, parachute recovery

2.3.8 Atlantik Solar

Atlantik Solar is headed by ETH Zurich’s Autonomous Systems Lab. The company

has developed an autonomous, solar powered drone (UAV) with a wingspan of 5.6

meters that can fly up to 10 days continuously.

Atlantik Solar UAV specs:

Wingspan: 5.6 meters

Mass: 6.3kg

Structure: lightweight carbon fibre & kevlar structure

Power system: 1.4m2 of solar panels with Li-Ion batteries

Payload: Digital HD-camera, live-image transmission

Launch: hand launch-able

2.4 Solar Powered Bus

2.4.1 In Australia

The world’s first completely electric solar-powered bus was introduced in Adelaide,

Australia in 2007. There are no solar panels on the bus itself. Instead, the bus

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receives electric power from solar panels located on the city’s main bus station. The

Tindo bus is expected to save over 70,000 kg of carbon and 14,000 liters of diesel

fuel in its first year alone. [16] Due to its unique solar photovoltaic charging system

and ability to travel over 200 kilometres between recharges, this vehicle has received

a great deal of attention from the wider green community.

2.4.2 In China

China's first solar hybrid buses were put in operation in July 2012 in the city of

Qiqihar. Its engine is powered by lithium-ion batteries which are fed by solar panels

installed on the bus roof. It is claimed that each bus consumes 0.6 to 0.7 kilowatt-

hours of electricity per kilometer and can transport up to 100 persons. [17] The buses

are powered by solar panels, which are expected to increase the life of the lithium

batteries used in the bus by 35 years. Recently, the government directed the car

manufacturers to increase annual production capacity of clean cars to 2 million by

2020. [18]

2.4.3 In Austria

Austria's first solar-powered bus was put in operation in the village of

Perchtoldsdorf. Its powertrain, operating strategy, and design specification were

specifically optimized in view of its planned regular service routes. It has been in

trial operation since autumn 2011.The tribrid bus is a hybrid electric bus developed

by the University of Glamorgan, Wales, for use as student transport between the

University’s different campuses. It is powered by hydrogen fuel or solar cells,

batteries and ultra-capacitors [16].

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2.4.4 In Uganda:

Kiira Motors' Kayoola prototype electric bus was shown off at a stadium in Uganda's

capital, Kampala. It is Africa’s first solar bus has been driven in public one of its

two batteries can be charged by solar panels on the roof. Its range is 80km (50 mile).

[19]

2.5 Some Negative Impact of Solar Plant on Environment

According to the National Energy Administration website, China added 15.1 GW of

new solar last year, bringing the total to 43.2 GW. China’s solar capacity has surged

almost 13-fold since 2011, according to data from Bloomberg New Energy

Finance.[41] Germany had 39,698 megawatts of power supply from the sun at the

end of 2015, while the U.S. had 27.8 GW, according to BNEF. Japan has produced

23,300 MW and Italy has produced 18,460 MW of power supply from solar.

Growth of solar energy is doing a great job in reducing carbon emission and air

pollution. And we must be more dependent on renewable energy as fossil fuels, gas

and other sources will end one day as their amount is limited. But with all those

benefits of solar energy, there are some negative impacts also.

Probable Environmental impacts of utility-scale solar energy systems [20]

1) Proximate impacts on biodiversity

2) Indirect and regional effects on biodiversity

3) Water use and consumption

4) Land-use and land-cover change

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2.5.1 Chemical Pollution

According to IDCOL, in case of solar home system, there is an environmental issue

of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and other gaseous substances during operation phase.

There is an issue of significant emission of Lead Oxide (PbO2), Hydrogen Sulfide

(H2S) and other gaseous substances during battery manufacturing and recycling

process. Maintenance free battery is used for mini-grid project, there is no air

pollution during operation phase, but during recycling- there is risk of pollution.

Ensuring proper disposal of expired PV panel (which contained aluminum,

hydrochloric acid, silicon and phosphine) is also appearing as a prime requirement

for environmental and health safety. The possibility of Green House emission during

manufacturing, operation and recycling of lead-acid batteries could be a matter of

concern.

2.5.1.1 Pollution at time of solar panel production

The majority of solar cells today start as quartz. Quartz is the most common form of

silica (silicon dioxide), which is refined into elemental silicon. It is extracted from

mines, putting the miners at risk of the lung disease silicosis.[21]

The initial refining turns quartz into metallurgical-grade silicon, a substance used

mostly to harden steel and other metals. This requires lot of energy. But the levels

of the resulting emissions (mostly carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide) can’t do much

harm to the people working at silicon refineries or to the immediate environment.

The next step is turning metallurgical-grade silicon into a purer form called

polysilicon—creates the very toxic compound silicon tetrachloride. The refinement

process involves combining hydrochloric acid with metallurgical-grade silicon to

turn it into what are called trichlorosilanes. The trichlorosilanes then react with

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added hydrogen, producing polysilicon along with liquid silicon tetrachloride. Three

or four tons of silicon tetrachloride is produced for every ton of polysilicon.

Most manufacturers recycle this waste to make more polysilicon. Capturing silicon

from silicon tetrachloride requires less energy than obtaining it from raw silica, so

recycling this waste can save manufacturers money. But the reprocessing equipment

can cost tens of millions of dollars. So some operations have just thrown away the

by-product. If exposed to water, the silicon tetrachloride releases hydrochloric acid,

acidifying the soil and emitting harmful fumes.

According to Greenpeace and the Chinese Renewable Energy Industries

Association, some two-thirds of the country’s solar-manufacturing firms are failing

to meet national standards for environmental protection and energy consumption.

In 2011, fluoride concentrations in the Mujiaqiao River near a solar-panel factory in

Haining City, eastern China, were more than ten times higher than permitted, killing

fish and raising concerns about human health.

Improved waste treatment, environmental monitoring and education are essential to

avoid the undesirable impacts of these otherwise valuable technological advances.

2.5.2 Thin-film Cells

Although more than 90 percent of photovoltaic panels made today start with

polysilicon, there is a newer approach: thin-film solar-cell technology. The thin-film

varieties will likely grow in market share over the next decade, because they can be

just as efficient as silicon-based solar cells and yet cheaper to manufacture, as they

use less energy and material. Makers of thin-film cells deposit layers of

semiconductor material directly on a substrate of glass, metal, or plastic instead of

slicing wafers from a silicon ingot. This produces less waste and completely avoids

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the complicated melting, drawing, and slicing used to make traditional cells.

Moving to thin-film solar cells eliminates many of the environmental and safety

hazards from manufacturing, because there’s no need for certain problematic

chemicals—no hydrofluoric acid, no hydrochloric acid. But that does not mean you

can automatically stamp a thin-film solar cell as green.

Today’s dominant thin-film technologies are cadmium telluride and a more recent

competitor, copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS). In the former, one

semiconductor layer is made of cadmium telluride; the second is cadmium sulfide.

In the latter, the primary semiconductor material is CIGS, but the second layer is

typically cadmium sulfide. So, these technologies uses compounds containing the

heavy metal cadmium, which are both a carcinogen and a genotoxin, meaning that

it can cause inheritable mutations.

2.5.3 Land Use

Researchers from Stanford University and the University of California’s Riverside

and Berkeley campuses identified 161 planned or proposed large-scale utility solar

and applied an algorithm to determine how compatible they are with their location

[22]. The results found that only 15 percent of sites were on compatible land. About

48 percent of the land sited for photovoltaic projects and 43 percent of the land for

concentrating solar power (CSP) projects were on shrub or scrublands. The second

most common area for utility-scale solar was on agricultural land.

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CHAPTER THREE

CALCULATING OPTIMUM ANGLE OF DHAKA

3.1 Calculating optimum angle using geographical location

The estimation of solar radiation in most practical solar energy application can be

conducted on the basis of standard atmosphere. Moreover, the daily total

extraterrestrial radiation intercepted on a south facing surface, tilted by an angle to

the horizon, can be expressed as

Id=(24/)I0[1+0.034cos(2n/365)]×[cos()cos()sin(hss)+hsssin()sin()]

…..(1)

where,

=-23.45cos[(n+10.5)(360/365)]……(2)

hss=cos-1[-tan()tan()]…….(3)

here,

=latitude of location

=tilt angle

=declination angle

hss=sunset angle

Referring to Eq. (1), at a certain location on a particular day n, all the parameters are

considered constant except . For optimum tilt angle at that particular day (opt,d),

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the derivative of Id with respect to b must equal zero, i.e. dId/d= 0, from which we

find:

opt,d=-tan-1[(hss/sinhss)×tan()] ………(4)

where and hss are defined in equation (2) and (3)[23]

It is not practical to design a solar collector for which the tilt angle changes every

day.

We calculated optimum angle for Dhaka using the software MATLAB. At first,

using equation 2,3 and 4, we calculate the value of optimum angle for 365 days.

Then, we consider total yearly radiation for a particular angle (considering that this

angle is kept fixed for 365 days). The angle which gives highest yearly radiation is

optimum tilt angle. From MATLAB simulation we find 25.110 as optimum angle,

when considering only geographical position (latitude).

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3.2 Results:

Figure 3.2.1: Variation of optimum tilt angle with days of years

Figure 3.2.2: Variation of solar radiation with module tilt

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We can calculate the incident solar insolation, the horizontal solar insolation and the

solar insolation on a titled surface from these formulas [24] [25]:

Local Standard Time Meridian ,

LSTM= 150 TGMT ………….(5)

TGMT= difference of Local Time (LT) from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) in hours.

The equation of time (EoT) (in minutes) is an empirical equation that corrects for

the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and the Earth's axial tilt.

EoT=9.87sin (2B) - 7.53cosB-1.5sin (B)………. (6)

The net Time Correction Factor (in minutes) accounts for the variation of the Local

Solar Time (LST) within a given time zone due to the longitude variations within

the time zone and also incorporates the EoT above.

TC=4(longitude-LSTM) + EoT………… (7)

The Local Solar Time (LST) can be found by using the previous two corrections to

adjust the local time (LT).

LST=LT+(TC/60)………(8)

Twelve noon local solar time (LST) is defined as when the sun is highest in the sky.

Local time (LT) usually varies from LST because of the eccentricity of the Earth's

orbit, and because of human adjustments such as time zones and daylight saving.

The Hour Angle converts the local solar time (LST) into the number of degrees

which the sun moves across the sky. By definition, the Hour Angle is 0° at solar

noon. Since the Earth rotates 15° per hour, each hour away from solar noon

corresponds to an angular motion of the sun in the sky of 15°. In the morning the

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hour angle is negative, in the afternoon the hour angle is positive.

HRA=150(LST-12)………(9)

The zenith angle is the angle between the sun and the vertical. The zenith angle is

similar to the elevation angle but it is measured from the vertical rather than from

the horizontal, thus making the zenith angle = 90° - elevation.

if zenith angle is

cos sinsin+coscoscosHRA……… (10)[26]

The Air Mass is the path length which light takes through the atmosphere normalized

to the shortest possible path length (that is, when the sun is directly overhead). The

Air Mass quantifies the reduction in the power of light as it passes through the

atmosphere and is absorbed by air and dust. The Air Mass is defined as [27]:

AM= 1/ cos

The intensity of the direct component of sunlight throughout each day can be

determined as a function of air mass from the experimentally determined equation

Id=1.353(0.7(AM^0.678))………(12)

The elevation angle (used interchangeably with altitude angle) is the angular height

of the sun in the sky measured from the horizontal. The elevation is 0° at sunrise and

90° when the sun is directly overhead. As Dhaka is in northern hemisphere,

elevation angle, =90-+ The equations relating Imodule, Ihorizontal and Id are:

Ihorizontal= Id sin

Imodule= Id sin (

By applying the formulas from equation (5) to (15), we draw curves of incident solar

radiation, solar radiation on horizontal panel, solar radiation on

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100and 300. We observe that area under the curve for is

maximum in this day vs solar radiation (KW/m2) curve. Horizontal panel gives worst

result. But for solar power plants, horizontal panel has some advantage, as it does

not create ‘shadowing effect”. We determined optimum angle for stand-alone PV

panel. We need to consider shadowing effect and space efficiency while calculating

optimum angle for solar plants.

Figure3.2.3: Total incident solar radiation and solar radiation on 100, 200, 230, 25.110

and 300 tilted PV module

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Result:

Optimum Angle For Dhaka is 230

Total incident solar radiation = 1759 KWh/m2

Total solar irradiance on horizontal panel= 1551.7 KWh/m2

Total solar irradiance on 100 tilted panel= 1643 KWh/m2

Total solar irradiance on 200 tilted panel= 1684.3 KWh/m2


Total solar irradiance on 25.110 tilted panel= 1685.7 KWh/m2


To calculate these, we have used average bright sunshine hour of Dhaka at 2014,

which was provided by Bangladesh Meteorological Department.

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CHAPTER FOUR

ADVANTAGES OF OPTIMUM ORIENTED SOLAR

PANEL

4.1 Maximum Power with Different Panel Orientation

To get the most from solar panels, we have to point them in the direction that

captures the most sun. But there are a number of variables in figuring out the best

direction. We assume that the panel is fixed, or has a tilt that can be adjusted

seasonally.

It is simplest to mount your solar panels at a fixed tilt and just leave them there. But

because the sun is higher in the summer and lower in the winter, it is possible to

capture more energy by adjusting the tilt of the panels. Adjusting the tilt four times

a year is often a good compromise between optimizing the energy on solar panels

and optimizing the time and effort spent in adjusting them. From our calculation in

the previous chapter we learn to know that the best orientation would be 23.5o.

Therefore we calculate the power of a full year assuming the panels totally

horizontally fixed, with optimum oriented angel and 1-axis tracking system. The

result are shown below:

4.1.1 Horizontally Fixed Solar Panel (1 KW)

With the solar panels horizontally fixed the maximum energy we can get is estimated

about 1750 KWh in a whole year. Here some loss factors are taken into account such

as soiling, shading, wiring etc. This total loss is estimated somewhat 17% of the total

generated power. The result we get is similar to the figure given below:

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Fig. 4.1.1 Total Output of Horizontally Fixed Solar Panel (1 KW)

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4.1.2 Optimum Tilt angled Solar Panel (1 KW):

With optimum tilt angle maximum power increases as expected but we can further

improve its efficiency by adjusting it twice or thrice a year. Keeping the angle of tilt

set for winter may not be best. For example, we may need more energy in the

summer to pump irrigation water. If we have a photovoltaic system connected to the

grid, we probably want to generate the most power over the whole year. The resultant

power that we get from the 23.5o orientated solar panels is given below:

Fig. 4.1.2 Total Output of Optimum Tilted Solar Panel (1 KW) (Contd.)

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Fig. 4.1.2 Total Output of Optimum Tilted Solar Panel (1 KW)

4.1.3 1-Axis Tracking Solar Panel (1 KW):

For flat-panel photovoltaic systems, trackers are used to minimize the angle of

incidence between the incoming sunlight and a photovoltaic panel. This increases

the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power generating

capacity. This not only increases the output power but also increases the generation

cost per unit.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_systems

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_(optics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_(optics)

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Fig. 4.1.3 Total Output of 1-Axis Tracking Solar Panel (1 KW)

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4.2 Monthly Output Power Comparison:

To get the most from solar panels, we need to point them in the direction that


direction. It is simplest to mount the solar panels at an optimum tilt and just leave

them there. But because the sun is higher in the summer and lower in the winter, we

can capture more energy during the whole year by adjusting the tilt of the panels

according to the season.

4.2.1 The Output Power:

The output power of an axis tracking solar panel is more than the optimum tilted

solar panel. From the experimental data available we have plotted the monthly AC

and DC output Power for 1-axis tracking solar panel in Figure 4.2.1 and optimum

tilted (23o) solar panel in Figure 4.2.2.

Figure 4.2.1 AC and DC Output according to Month

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

KW

h

Month

AC and DC Output vs Month

AC Output DC Output

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Figure 4.2.2 AC and DC Output according to Month

From the figures 4.1.2, 4.1.3, 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 we came to know that the output power

of a 1-Axis tracking solar panel is more than the output power of the optimum angled

or 23o solar panel. But the installation and maintenance cost up to a certain limit is

very high for an axis tracking solar panel and solar trackers are slightly more

expensive than their stationary counterparts, due to the more complex technology

and moving parts necessary for their operation.

The annual output power difference is about (1598-1392) KWh= 206 KWh. Which

cost about less than 1000tk in our country. So for a small scale production such as

for some residential uses or in a small firm optimum tilted solar panel is more

effective than the tracking system.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

KW

h

Month

AC and DC Output vs Month

AC Output DC Output

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4.2.2 The Area Requirement:

The following factors should be considered while estimating the land area required

for solar power plants:

Apart from the panels themselves, area will have to be used up for the control

and service rooms for the inverter and monitoring systems.

Shading of the panels by obstacles in and around can drastically affect the

output from it. Hence, the entire area chosen will not be available for power

generation. The panels have to be placed after a shading analysis of the region

is done in order to minimize the shading effect by any obstacle.

If trackers are to be employed for the power plants, an additional 1 to 2 acres of land

will be required per MW of the plant. Additional land area will be required for the

storage rooms and workers’ rooms, in the case of solar power plants .This however

is usually very insignificant.

1 kW of solar panels require approximately 100 sqft, or 10 sqm., when used on

rooftops and in small ground mounted installations. This becomes approximately

double when we use same capability axis tracking solar panel.

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Figure 4.2.3 Land Requirements by Mounting Structures Type and module

conversion Efficiency

In Bangladesh it will be very difficult to manage that much of land let alone the extra

land for tracking system. As a result for a dense populated country such as

Bangladesh it highly impractical to use tracking system solar panel.

4.2.3 Method for more Effective Fixed Solar Panel:

To get the most from solar panels, we need to point them in the direction that


direction. A compromise between fixed and tracking arrays is the adjustable tilt

array, where the array tilt angle is adjusted periodically (usually seasonally) to

increase its output. This is mostly done manually.

These calculations are based on an idealized situation. They assume that you have

an unobstructed view of the sky, with no trees, hills, clouds, dust, or haze ever

blocking the sun. The calculations also assume that you are near sea level. At very

high altitude, the optimum angle could be a little different.

If we are going to adjust the tilt of the solar panels four times a year to get the most

energy over the whole year, then angle should be adjusted as below:

Table 4.2.1 Time for changing the tilt angle

Season Date

Adjust to summer angle

on

April 18

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Adjust to autumn angle on

August 24

Adjust to winter angle on October 7

Adjust to spring angle on

March 5

Mechanism of changing tilt angle for seasonal changes:

For achieving better output from a solar panel, tilt angle can be changed with the sun

position due to change of season. From the above analysis, we can see that tilt angle

should be changed in the months of March, May, August and November for the

maximum outcome.

The optimum angle of tilt for the spring and autumn is the latitude times 0.98 minus

2.3°. The optimum angle for summer is the latitude times 0.92 minus 24.3°.

We can calculate the tilt angle for the above stated months using this process:

March 21.5°

May 23°

August 22.5°

November 22°

To change the angle, we can use a bar of variable length as the support of the panel.

The length of the bar can be changed by sliding pieces using screw system. A

diagram regarding the process is also provided here.

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Figure 4.2.4 Mechanism of changing tilt angle for seasonal changes

4.3 Result:

From the discussion of this topic we can conclude with the fact that, for a country

with very limited landscape and huge population the axis tracking system is not cost

effective. It will be more cost effective and can be easily implemented installed if

we use optimum fixed angle solar panel which is about 23o.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Monthly Analysis of the Output of an Optimum

Oriented Solar Panel for Different Areas in

Bangladesh

With current trends leaning toward the use of renewable energy, solar power is

growing popularity across developing countries. Like all renewable power

generation sources, it is essential to collect and analyze quality data in regular

intervals to determine feasibility and the future reliability of the project. With solar

energy, the supply of sunlight varies, which can result in the uncertainty of a solar

power site’s performance. And so, the solar energy industry must collect and

efficiently communicate data for success.

5.1 Monthly Analysis of Data:

Monthly global solar insolation at different cities of Bangladesh and daily average

Bright Sunshine hour at Dhaka city are presented in Table 7.1and 7.2 respectively.

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Table 5.1 Monthly global solar insolation at different cities of Bangladesh

Month

Dhaka

23.7000°

N,

90.3667° E

Rajshahi

24.3667°

N,

88.6000° E

Sylhet

24.9000°

N,

91.8667° E

Bogra

24.8500°

N,

89.3667° E

Barisal

22.7000°

N,

90.3667° E

Jessore

23.1700°

N,

89.2000° E

January 4.03 3.96 4.00 4.01 4.17 4.25

February 4.78 4.47 4.63 4.69 4.81 4.85

March 5.33 5.88 5.20 5.68 5.30 4.50

April 5.71 6.24 5.24 5.87 5.94 6.23

May 5.71 6.17 5.37 6.02 5.75 6.09

June 4.80 5.25 4.53 5.26 4.39 5.12

July 4.41 4.79 4.14 4.34 4.20 4.81

August 4.82 5.16 4.56 4.84 4.42 4.93

September 4.41 4.96 4.07 4.67 4.48 4.57

October 4.61 4.88 4.61 4.65 4.71 4.68

November 4.27 4.42 4.32 4.35 4.35 4.24

December 3.92 3.82 3.85 3.87 3.95 3.97

Average 4.73 5.00 4.54 4.85 4.71 4.85

P a g e 59 | 106

Table 5.2 Daily average Bright Sunshine hour at Dhaka city

Month Daily Mean Maximum

(Using 23 degree as

tilt angle)

Minimum

January 8.7 9.9 7.5

February 9.1 10.7 7.7

March 8.8 10.1 7.8

April 8.9 10.2 7.8

May 8.2 9.7 5.7

June 4.9 7.3 3.8

July 5.1 6.7 2.6

August 5.8 7.1 4.1

September 6.0 8.5 4.8

October 7.6 9.2 6.5

November 8.6 9.9 7.0

December 8.9 10.2 7.4

Average 7.55 9.13 6.03

If we analyze the data which includes the years 2012, 2013 and 2014 then we get the

figure 7.1.1. In this figure we showed the solar radiation and the cloud coverage and

P a g e 60 | 106

the sunshine over the six divisions in Bangladesh. With the help of these data we can

estimate the available solar power which we ca convert into electrical energy.

Moreover this helps in the sense that we also have the angle tilted in which time of

the year.

If we compare and plot the Average Solar Radiation, Cloud Coverage and Sunlight

Hour in six divisions over three years we get the Figure 5.1.1.

Figure 5.1.1 Average Solar Radiation, Cloud Coverage and Sunlight Hour in six

divisions over three years

P a g e 61 | 106

5.2 Hourly Data Analysis of AC and DC Output:

In this section we analyze the data collected from the PV Watts Calculator. By

analyzing the data we can compare that how the output from the optimum tilted

solar panel is varied over the hours in each month. This helps us to measure the

angle in each of the four seasons mentioned in the section 6.2.3. We have

calculated the data using the sunrise hour, the midpoint between the sunrise time

and the end of the time step is used for the sun position calculation. Similarly, the

midpoint between the beginning of the time step and sunset time is used for the

sunset hour.

To get the maximum efficiency we have to change the angle four times a year. For

that reason we analyzed the data of seasonal variations for the month of March,

May, August and November.

Figure 5.2.1 DC and AC Hourly Output for the Month of March

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

0 5 10 15 20 25

Ou

tpu

t P

ow

er

Hour

DC and AC Output

DC Output AC Output

P a g e 62 | 106

Figure 5.2.2 DC and AC Hourly Output for the Month of May

Figure 5.2.3 DC and AC Hourly Output for the Month of May

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

0 5 10 15 20 25

Ou

tpu

t P

ow

er

Hour

DC and AC Output

DC Output AC Output

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 5 10 15 20 25

Ou

tpu

t P

ow

er

Hour

DC and AC Output

DC Output AC Output

P a g e 63 | 106

Figure 5.2.4 DC and AC Hourly Output for the Month of November

Resource forecasting is becoming increasingly more important as more solar

power is being used throughout electric grids across the continent. By collecting

data, an accurate forecast can be created and used to increase profits by optimizing

energy dispatch according to time periods of greatest value.

From the figures 5.2.1-5.2.4 we can see the little variation in the output power. To

get the maximum efficiency we have adjusted the angle seasonally. We can adjust

the angle using only simple tools. Because of the adjustment the power increased

in the respective season by almost 4%.

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

0 5 10 15 20 25

Ou

tpu

t P

ow

er

Hour

DC and AC Output

Series1 Series2

P a g e 64 | 106

CHAPTER SIX

ENVIRONMETAL IMPACT ON SOLAR PANEL

The output of PV is rated by manufacturers under Standard Test Conditions

(STC), temperature = 25C; solar irradiance (intensity) = 1000 W/m2, and solar

spectrum as filtered by passing through 1.5 thickness of atmosphere. These

conditions are easily recreated in a factory but the situation is different for outdoor.

With the increasing use of PV systems it is vital to know what effect active

meteorological parameters such as humidity, dust, temperature, wind speed; etc has

on its efficiency.

6.1 Impact of Environmental Dust on PV Performance:

The PV application all over the world is facing many problems. One of the most

important problems is the accumulation of atmospheric dust on the solar panels

surface which causes decreasing its performance sharply. This atmospheric dust

have several effects on the use of photovoltaic power systems, including decreasing

of the amount of sunlight reaching the surface and this leads to the decrease of the

performance efficiency.

The energy from the sun that hits the Earth in a single hour could power the planet

for an entire year, according to the US Department of Energy (DOE). One of the best

places to harness that free, abundant, and environmentally friendly energy is a desert,

but deserts, it turns out, come with a nemesis to solar panels: sand. The particulate

matter that constantly blows across deserts settles on solar panels, decreasing their

efficiency by nearly 100 percent in the middle of a dust storm.

P a g e 65 | 106

Dust storms have cut power production by 40 percent at a large, 10-megawatt solar

power plant in the United Arab Emirates.

Al-Sudany in (2009) studied the effect of natural deposition of dust on solar panels

under Baghdad environment, it was noted that the transmittance during one month,

as an average decreased to, approximately, 50%.

6.2 Dust Removal Methods

Dust is probable to stick on to the array by Van der Waals adhesive forces. These

forces are very strong at the dust particle sizes expected. Cleaning method must be

overcome these forces. There are four ways classified to remove dust the surface of

solar panel [38]-

a) Natural dust removal

b) Electrostatic dust removal

c) Mechanical dust removal

d) electro-dynamic dust removal

6.2.1 Natural dust removal

The simplest removal methods are the natural dust removal. The natural dust

removal methods are rainfall and wind clearing. They can be made possible by

simply choosing an array orientation other than horizontal. In Bangladesh, normally

natural dust removal is maintained as we have adequate rainfall here. Niaz Ahmed

from In-Gen Solar said that they instruct the buyer to wash the panel with distil

water. But as distil water is not available in rural area, so people depend on natural

P a g e 66 | 106

method. Conventional washing with water, for example, works well enough for a

large collection of rooftop solar panel systems operated by Southern California

Edison, the utility says.

6.2.2 Electrostatic dust removal

The electrostatic dust removal is another method of dust removal. When the array

surface is charged, the array will attract particles of opposite charge, and repel

particles of the same charge.

6.2.3 Mechanical dust removal

By vibrating the solar panel, dust can be removed from solar panel.

6.2.4 Electro-dynamic dust removal

A transparent electrodynamics system (EDS), is a self-cleaning technology that can

be embedded in the solar device or silkscreen-printed onto a transparent film adhered

to the solar panel or mirror. The EDS exposes the dust particles to an electrostatic

field, which causes them to levitate, dipping and rising in alternating waves (the way

a beach ball bounces along the upturned hands of fans in a packed stadium) as the

electric charge fluctuates.[39]

6.3 Impact of Humidity on PV Performance:

The effect of humidity on the Solar panels is to create obstacles for drastic variation

in the power generated, indirectly making the device work less efficient than it could

have without it. The cities where in the humidity level is above the average range of

P a g e 67 | 106

30 actually results in the minimal layer of water on the top of the Solar panel which

results in decreasing of the efficiency. As per the facts when the light consisting of

energy/Photon strikes the water layer which in fact is denser, Refraction appears

which results in decreasing of intensity of the light which in fact appears the root

cause of decreasing of efficiency. Additional there appears minimum components of

Reflection which also appears on the site and in that, there appears light striking is

subjected to more losses which after the experiments conducted resulted

approximately in 30% loss of the total energy which is not subjected to utilization

of Energy for the Solar panel. AS far as the efficiency of the Solar cell is concerned,

Efficiency is termed as the amount of the light that can be converted into usable

format of electricity. Because of the efficiency depends upon the value of Maximum

Power Point of the Solar cell , due to the above effect of humidity ,the maximum

power point is deviated and that indirectly results in decreasing of the Solar cell

Efficiency[41]

6.4 Impact of Temperature on PV Performance:

Different solar panels react differently to the operating ambient temperature, but in

all cases the efficiency of a solar panel decreases with increases in temperature. The

impact of temperature on solar panel efficiency is known as the temperature

coefficient.

The output power of a crystalline solar cell decreases only 0.4% when the

temperature increase is equal to 1 K. [42]

Physical aspects of deterioration of the output power and the conversion efficiency

of solar cell and PV module with increasing temperature are:

P a g e 68 | 106

—increase of the thermal lattice vibrations, leading to electron-phonon scattering,

—decrease of charge carrier’s mobility,

—reduction of the p–n junction built-in voltage and junction ability to separate

electrons from holes in the photo generated pairs.

The efficiency of a solar cell is important because it allows the device to be assessed

economically in comparison to other energy conversion devices. The solar cell

efficiency invariably refers to the fraction of incident light energy converted to

electrical energy. For a given solar spectrum, this conversion efficiency depends on

the semiconductor material properties and device structure.

6.5 Optical losses

Optical losses chiefly effect the power from a solar cell by lowering the short-circuit

current. Optical losses consist of light which could have generated an electron-hole

pair, but does not, because the light is reflected from the front surface, or because it

is not absorbed in the solar cell. For the most common semiconductor solar cells, the

entire visible spectrum (350 - 780 nm) has enough energy to create electron-hole

pairs and therefore all visible light would ideally be absorbed. [43]

P a g e 69 | 106

Figure6.6.1: Optical losses in solar cell

Reflection of incident light from the surface of the solar cell is one of the major

optical loss mechanisms seriously affecting the solar cell efficiency. Nearly 90% of

commercial solar cells are made of crystalline Si because silicon based

semiconductor fabrication is now a mature technology that enable cost effective

devices to be manufactured. Typically Si based solar cell efficiency range from

about 18 for polycrystalline to22%-24% in high efficiency single crystal devices that

have special structures to absorb as many of the incident photons as possible. A

polished Si surface reflects as much as 37% light when averaged over all angles of

incidence 0° –90° and range of wavelengths of the solar spectrum that can be

absorbed by Si 400–1100 nm.

P a g e 70 | 106

CHAPTER SEVEN

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FOR SOLAR

POWER ESTIMATION

7.1 Introduction

In Bangladesh most people are not aware of the equipment cost, optimum angle and

area required for the establishment of a solar power system. So, to promote the usage

of solar power in Bangladesh we developed a software which user friendly. By using

this software even an average person can get the necessary information about setting

up a solar power system. In this software one inputs his. By location it means latitude

and longitude. As output we get the optimum angle, area required for setting up the

solar panels and the cost for installing these instrument in Taka. This gives us the

basic information required for installing a solar power system.

7.2 Latitude Input

Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's equator, or of

a celestial object north or south of the celestial equator, usually expressed in degrees

and minutes. It along with longitude is used to determine the location of a thing on

earth. It has also great significance in solar power and installation of solar panel.

Normally the optimum angle of the solar panels is approximately equal to the

latitude of the area where the solar panels are set up.

P a g e 71 | 106

In this software we take latitude as an input. The input can be taken either manually

or automatically. To take manual input one has to just write the latitude of the

location in the text box beside the label named “Latitude”. For automatic input one

has to press the button named “Locate Automatically”. Then the latitude of the place

is automatically shown in the text box beside the “Latitude” label.

Software Layout:

Figure 7.2.1: The layout of the “Solar Power Estimation” software.

P a g e 72 | 106

7.3 Longitude Input

Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the meridian at

Greenwich, England, or west of the standard meridian of a celestial object, usually

expressed in degrees and minutes. It is another parameter along with latitude which

defines the location in the globe. Longitude has a really small effect on the solar

energy system. As it is necessary for defining the location of plant we also

considered it as an input. Normally latitude is sufficient for the calculation of tilt

angle or the optimum angle.

In this software we take longitude as an input. The input can be taken either manually

or automatically. To take manual input one has to just write the longitude of the

location in the text box beside the label named “Longitude”. For automatic input one

has to press the button named “Locate Automatically”. Then the longitude of the

place is automatically shown in the text box beside the “Longitude” label.

7.4 Locate Automatically Button

This is a button the software interface. When a user has little knowledge about

latitude and longitude he cannot input it manually. So, by pressing this button

location of the area is automatically shown in the text box.

When user presses the “Locate Automatically” button the text beside the labels

“Latitude” and “Longitude” changes automatically, which can be used for further

estimation.

P a g e 73 | 106

Figure 7.4.1: Latitude, Longitude and Locate Automatically portion of the “Solar

Power Estimation” software.

7.5 Power Input

The amount of required power plays a significant role in the cost of solar power

installation. Here in “Solar Power Estimation” software we take power as an input.

The text box beside the label “Power” is used for that. User just has to write down

the required power in that text box. Then he has to press the button named

“Estimate”. Then the software will automatically estimate the cost.

7.6 Estimate Button

This is the final button which is used for calculation. When inputs regarding

“Latitude”, “Longitude” and “Power” are in their respective text boxes pressing of

this button will start the calculation. Then the required out puts will be shown in the

text boxes beside the labels named “Optimum Angle”, “Area” and “Cost”.

P a g e 74 | 106

Figure 7.6.1: Power input and “Estimate” button.

7.7 Optimum Angle Output

This shows the optimum angle or tilt angle required for the given set of data. If the

solar panels are installed in this angle we will get the maximum output power. It is

given in degree which is the most popular unit in angle calculation. It is shown in

the text box beside the label named “Optimum Angle”.

P a g e 75 | 106

7.8 Area Output

This gives the area required for the installation of solar panels for the given input

data. The output is shown in a text box beside the label named “Area”. It is given in

square meter which is the international unit of area.

7.9 Cost Output

Cost for setting up the given system is shown here. The currency that is used in this

system is Taka which is the currency of Bangladesh. It is shown in a text box beside

the label named “Cost”.

Figure 7.9.1: “Optimum Angle”, “Area” and “Cost” Output.

P a g e 76 | 106

APPENDIX A

MATLAB code for determining optimum tilt angle of solar panel in

Dhaka:

clc;

close all;

clear all;

I0=1.353;

phi=23.7;

n=1:1:365;

for i=1:length(n)

del(i)=-23.45*cosd((n(i)+10.5)*(360/365));

hss(i)=acosd(-tand(24)*tand(del(i)));

Bopt(i)=24-atand((((hss(i)*pi)/180)*tand(del(i)))/(sind(hss(i))));

end

mat1=[n' Bopt']

figure(2)

plot(n,Bopt)

xlabel('days')

ylabel('Optimum angle')

Title('Variation of optimum angle(Yearly)')

for i=1:length(Bopt)

for j=1:length(n);

Id(j)=(24*I0/pi)*(1+0.034*cosd(2*pi*n(j)/365))*((cosd(phi-

Bopt(i))*cosd(del(j))*sind(hss(j)))+(hss(j)*(pi/180)*sin(phi-

Bopt(i))*sin(del(j))));

end

Itotal(i)=sum(Id);

end

mat=[Bopt' Itotal']

figure(1)

plot(Bopt,Itotal,'b')

xlabel('optimum angle')

ylabel('Solar radiation')

Title('Solar radiation for different optimum angle(yearly)')

Imax=max(Itotal)

P a g e 77 | 106

MATLAB code for comparing incident solar radiation on earth and

solar radiation on horizontal panel, panels tilted at 100, 200, 230,

25.110, 300 angle

clc;

close all;

clear all;

phi=23.7;

n=1:1:365;

LSTM=90;

for i=1:length(n)

del(i)=((n(i)-81)*(360/365));%degree

EOT(i)=9.87*sind(2*del(i))-7.53*cosd(del(i))-1.5*sind(del(i));% unit of EOT

is minute

Tc(i)=4*(90.3667-LSTM)+(EOT(i));

LST(i)=12+(Tc(i)/60);

HRA(i)=15*(LST(i)-12);

delta(i)=-23.45*cosd((n(i)+10.5)*(360/365));

A(i)=sind(phi)*sind(delta(i))+cosd(phi)*cosd(delta(i))*cosd(HRA(i));

AM(i)=1/(A(i));

Id(i)=(1.353*0.7^(AM(i)^0.678))*5.279

alpha(i)=90+delta(i)-phi;

Ihori(i)=Id(i)*sind(alpha(i));

Imodule(i)=Id(i)*sind(alpha(i)+23);

Imodule1(i)=Id(i)*sind(alpha(i)+10);

Imodule2(i)=Id(i)*sind(alpha(i)+25.11);



end

plot(n,Id,'k')

hold on

plot(n,Ihori,'r')

hold on

plot(n,Imodule,'g')

P a g e 78 | 106

hold on

plot(n,Imodule1,'y')

hold on

plot(n,Imodule2,'m')

hold on

plot(n,Imodule3,'c')

hold on

plot(n,Imodule4,'b')

P a g e 79 | 106

APPENDIX B

Days Optimum Angle

1 54.82049

2 54.72947

3 54.63085

4 54.5246

5 54.41073

6 54.28922

7 54.16008

8 54.02328

9 53.87882

10 53.7267

11 53.56689

12 53.39941

13 53.22422

14 53.04134

15 52.85073

16 52.65241

Days Optimum Angle

17 52.44635

18 52.23254

19 52.01099

20 51.78167

21 51.54458

22 51.29971

23 51.04705

24 50.7866

25 50.51834

26 50.24227

27 49.95839

28 49.66669

29 49.36717

30 49.05982

31 48.74464

32 48.42164

P a g e 80 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

33 48.09081

34 47.75215

35 47.40568

36 47.05139

37 46.6893

38 46.31942

39 45.94176

40 45.55634

41 45.16317

42 44.76228

43 44.35369

44 43.93742

45 43.51352

46 43.08202

47 42.64294

48 42.19635

Days Optimum Angle

49 41.74228

50 41.28078

51 40.81192

52 40.33575

53 39.85234

54 39.36176

55 38.86409

56 38.35941

57 37.84781

58 37.32938

59 36.80423

60 36.27246

61 35.73419

62 35.18954

63 34.63863

64 34.0816

P a g e 81 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

65 33.51859

66 32.94976

67 32.37525

68 31.79523

69 31.20987

70 30.61935

71 30.02386

72 29.42359

73 28.81873

74 28.20951

75 27.59612

76 26.9788

77 26.35777

78 25.73327

79 25.10555

80 24.47484

Days Optimum Angle

81 23.8414

82 23.2055

83 22.56739

84 21.92736

85 21.28567

86 20.64261

87 19.99845

88 19.35349

89 18.70802

90 18.06233

91 17.41671

92 16.77147

93 16.1269

94 15.48329

95 14.84096

96 14.2002

P a g e 82 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

97 13.56131

98 12.92458

99 12.29032

100 11.65881

101 11.03036

102 10.40524

103 9.783749

104 9.166162

105 8.552758

106 7.94381

107 7.339586

108 6.74035

109 6.14636

110 5.557865

111 4.975114

112 4.398344

Days Optimum Angle

113 3.827789

114 3.263675

115 2.706221

116 2.155641

117 1.61214

118 1.075916

119 0.547161

120 0.026059

121 -0.48721

122 -0.99248

123 -1.48959

124 -1.97838

125 -2.4587

126 -2.93041

127 -3.39337

128 -3.84746

P a g e 83 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

129 -4.29255

130 -4.72853

131 -5.15529

132 -5.57272

133 -5.98073

134 -6.37922

135 -6.7681

136 -7.1473

137 -7.51674

138 -7.87635

139 -8.22605

140 -8.56579

141 -8.89551

142 -9.21516

143 -9.52467

144 -9.82402

Days Optimum Angle

145 -10.1131

146 -10.392

147 -10.6606

148 -10.9189

149 -11.1667

150 -11.4043

151 -11.6313

152 -11.848

153 -12.0542

154 -12.2499

155 -12.4352

156 -12.6099

157 -12.7741

158 -12.9277

159 -13.0708

160 -13.2033

P a g e 84 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

161 -13.3253

162 -13.4367

163 -13.5375

164 -13.6277

165 -13.7073

166 -13.7762

167 -13.8346

168 -13.8824

169 -13.9196

170 -13.9461

171 -13.962

172 -13.9674

173 -13.962

174 -13.9461

175 -13.9196

176 -13.8824

Days Optimum Angle

177 -13.8346

178 -13.7762

179 -13.7073

180 -13.6277

181 -13.5375

182 -13.4367

183 -13.3253

184 -13.2033

185 -13.0708

186 -12.9277

187 -12.7741

188 -12.6099

189 -12.4352

190 -12.2499

191 -12.0542

192 -11.848

P a g e 85 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

193 -11.6313

194 -11.4043

195 -11.1667

196 -10.9189

197 -10.6606

198 -10.392

199 -10.1131

200 -9.82402

201 -9.52467

202 -9.21516

203 -8.89551

204 -8.56579

205 -8.22605

206 -7.87635

207 -7.51674

208 -7.1473

Days Optimum Angle

209 -6.7681

210 -6.37922

211 -5.98073

212 -5.57272

213 -5.15529

214 -4.72853

215 -4.29255

216 -3.84746

217 -3.39337

218 -2.93041

219 -2.4587

220 -1.97838

221 -1.48959

222 -0.99248

223 -0.48721

224 0.026059

P a g e 86 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

225 0.547161

226 1.075916

227 1.61214

228 2.155641

229 2.706221

230 3.263675

231 3.827789

232 4.398344

233 4.975114

234 5.557865

235 6.14636

236 6.74035

237 7.339586

238 7.94381

239 8.552758

240 9.166162

Days Optimum Angle

241 9.783749

242 10.40524

243 11.03036

244 11.65881

245 12.29032

246 12.92458

247 13.56131

248 14.2002

249 14.84096

250 15.48329

251 16.1269

252 16.77147

253 17.41671

254 18.06233

255 18.70802

256 19.35349

P a g e 87 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

273 30.02386

274 30.61935

275 31.20987

276 31.79523

277 32.37525

278 32.94976

279 33.51859

280 34.0816

281 34.63863

282 35.18954

283 35.73419

284 36.27246

285 36.80423

286 37.32938

287 37.84781

288 38.35941

Days Optimum Angle

289 38.86409

290 39.36176

291 39.85234

292 40.33575

293 40.81192

294 41.28078

295 41.74228

296 42.19635

297 42.64294

298 43.08202

299 43.51352

300 43.93742

301 44.35369

302 44.76228

303 45.16317

304 45.55634

P a g e 88 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

305 45.94176

306 46.31942

307 46.6893

308 47.05139

309 47.40568

310 47.75215

311 48.09081

312 48.42164

313 48.74464

314 49.05982

315 49.36717

316 49.66669

317 49.95839

318 50.24227

319 50.51834

320 50.7866

Days Optimum Angle

321 51.04705

322 51.29971

323 51.54458

324 51.78167

325 52.01099

326 52.23254

327 52.44635

328 52.65241

329 52.85073

330 53.04134

331 53.22422

332 53.39941

333 53.56689

334 53.7267

335 53.87882

336 54.02328

P a g e 89 | 106

Days Optimum Angle

337 54.16008

338 54.28922

339 54.41073

340 54.5246

341 54.63085

342 54.72947

343 54.82049

344 54.90389

345 54.9797

346 55.0479

347 55.10852

348 55.16155

349 55.207

350 55.24487

351 55.27516

352 55.29788

Days Optimum Angle

353 55.31302

354 55.32059

355 55.32059

356 55.31302

357 55.29788

358 55.27516

359 55.24487

360 55.207

361 55.16155

362 55.10852

363 55.0479

364 54.9797

365 54.90389

P a g e 90 | 106

APPENDIX C

Optimum Angle Total Solar

Irradiance (KW/m2)

54.82049 3141.136

54.72947 3137.934

54.63085 3134.869

54.5246 3132.108

54.41073 3129.848

54.28922 3128.321

54.16008 3127.788

54.02328 3128.533

53.87882 3130.857

53.7267 3135.064

53.56689 3141.442

53.39941 3150.247

53.22422 3161.673

53.04134 3175.825

52.85073 3192.694

52.65241 3212.122


Irradiance

(KW/m2)

52.44635 3233.783

52.23254 3257.164

52.01099 3281.557

51.78167 3306.075

51.54458 3329.678

51.29971 3351.227

51.04705 3369.562

50.7866 3383.6

50.51834 3392.454

50.24227 3395.554

49.95839 3392.775

49.66669 3384.529

49.36717 3371.832

49.05982 3356.303

48.74464 3340.088

48.42164 3325.702

P a g e 91 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

48.09081 3315.782

47.75215 3312.771

47.40568 3318.561

47.05139 3334.139

46.6893 3359.302

46.31942 3392.495

45.94176 3430.836

45.55634 3470.367

45.16317 3506.541

44.76228 3534.894

44.35369 3551.838

43.93742 3555.42

43.51352 3545.906

43.08202 3526.018

42.64294 3500.716

42.19635 3476.458


Irradiance (KW/m2)

41.74228 3460.038

41.28078 3457.147

40.81192 3470.981

40.33575 3501.22

39.85234 3543.711

39.36176 3591.052

38.86409 3634.08

38.35941 3664.023

37.84781 3674.823

37.32938 3665.019

36.80423 3638.58

36.27246 3604.283

35.73419 3573.619

35.18954 3557.652

34.63863 3563.656

34.0816 3592.581

P a g e 92 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

33.51859 3638.258

32.94976 3688.819

32.37525 3730.133

31.79523 3750.315

31.20987 3743.869

30.61935 3713.975

30.02386 3671.916

29.42359 3633.57

28.81873 3613.979

28.20951 3621.844

27.59612 3656.001

26.9788 3705.379

26.35777 3752.719

25.73327 3780.88

25.10555 3779.426

24.47484 3748.915


Irradiance(KW/m2)

23.8414 3701.046

23.2055 3654.384

22.56739 3627.184

21.92736 3630.093

21.28567 3661.717

20.64261 3708.953

19.99845 3752.098

19.35349 3772.753

18.70802 3761.304

18.06233 3720.886

17.41671 3666.163

16.77147 3617.379

16.1269 3592.144

15.48329 3598.324

14.84096 3630.963

14.2002 3674.412

P a g e 93 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

13.56131 3708.74

12.92458 3717.712

12.29032 3695.117

11.65881 3646.958

11.03036 3588.803

10.40524 3539.528

9.783749 3514.048

9.166162 3517.867

8.552758 3545.412

7.94381 3582.551

7.339586 3612.079

6.74035 3619.989

6.14636 3600.201

5.557865 3556.221

4.975114 3499.402

4.398344 3444.711


Irradiance(KW/m2)

3.827789 3405.637

3.263675 3390.014

2.706221 3397.988

2.155641 3422.553

1.61214 3452.195

1.075916 3474.6

0.547161 3480.203

0.026059 3464.589

-0.48721 3429.207

-0.99248 3380.443

-1.48959 3327.529

-1.97838 3279.99

-2.4587 3245.354

-2.93041 3227.64

-3.39337 3226.858

-3.84746 3239.474

P a g e 94 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

-4.29255 3259.575

-4.72853 3280.35

-5.15529 3295.529

-5.57272 3300.483

-5.98073 3292.837

-6.37922 3272.569

-6.7681 3241.685

-7.1473 3203.596

-7.51674 3162.392

-7.87635 3122.133

-8.22605 3086.286

-8.56579 3057.357

-8.89551 3036.729

-9.21516 3024.686

-9.52467 3020.577

-9.82402 3023.062


Irradiance(KW/m2)

-10.1131 3030.386

-10.392 3040.645

-10.6606 3052.006

-10.9189 3062.869

-11.1667 3071.968

-11.4043 3078.415

-11.6313 3081.696

-11.848 3081.63

-12.0542 3078.313

-12.2499 3072.051

-12.4352 3063.287

-12.6099 3052.54

-12.7741 3040.358

-12.9277 3027.271

-13.0708 3013.766

-13.2033 3000.268

P a g e 95 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

-13.3253 2987.136

-13.4367 2974.656

-13.5375 2963.047

-13.6277 2952.471

-13.7073 2943.037

-13.7762 2934.817

-13.8346 2927.85

-13.8824 2922.153

-13.9196 2917.73

-13.9461 2914.578

-13.962 2912.691

-13.9674 2912.062

-13.962 2912.691

-13.9461 2914.578

-13.9196 2917.73

-13.8824 2922.153


Irradiance(KW/m2)

-13.8346 2927.85

-13.7762 2934.817

-13.7073 2943.037

-13.6277 2952.471

-13.5375 2963.047

-13.4367 2974.656

-13.3253 2987.136

-13.2033 3000.268

-13.0708 3013.766

-12.9277 3027.271

-12.7741 3040.358

-12.6099 3052.54

-12.4352 3063.287

-12.2499 3072.051

-12.0542 3078.313

-11.848 3081.63

P a g e 96 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

-11.6313 3081.696

-11.4043 3078.415

-11.1667 3071.968

-10.9189 3062.869

-10.6606 3052.006

-10.392 3040.645

-10.1131 3030.386

-9.82402 3023.062

-9.52467 3020.577

-9.21516 3024.686

-8.89551 3036.729

-8.56579 3057.357

-8.22605 3086.286

-7.87635 3122.133

-7.51674 3162.392

-7.1473 3203.596


Irradiance(KW/m2)

-6.7681 3241.685

-6.37922 3272.569

-5.98073 3292.837

-5.57272 3300.483

-5.15529 3295.529

-4.72853 3280.35

-4.29255 3259.575

-3.84746 3239.474

-3.39337 3226.858

-2.93041 3227.64

-2.4587 3245.354

-1.97838 3279.99

-1.48959 3327.529

-0.99248 3380.443

-0.48721 3429.207

0.026059 3464.589

P a g e 97 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

0.547161 3480.203

1.075916 3474.6

1.61214 3452.195

2.155641 3422.553

2.706221 3397.988

3.263675 3390.014

3.827789 3405.637

4.398344 3444.711

4.975114 3499.402

5.557865 3556.221

6.14636 3600.201

6.74035 3619.989

7.339586 3612.079

7.94381 3582.551

8.552758 3545.412

9.166162 3517.867


Irradiance(KW/m2)

9.783749 3514.048

10.40524 3539.528

11.03036 3588.803

11.65881 3646.958

12.29032 3695.117

12.92458 3717.712

13.56131 3708.74

14.2002 3674.412

14.84096 3630.963

15.48329 3598.324

16.1269 3592.144

16.77147 3617.379

17.41671 3666.163

18.06233 3720.886

18.70802 3761.304

19.35349 3772.753

P a g e 98 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

19.99845 3752.098

20.64261 3708.953

21.28567 3661.717

21.92736 3630.093

22.56739 3627.184

23.2055 3654.384

23.8414 3701.046

24.47484 3748.915

25.10555 3779.426

25.73327 3780.88

26.35777 3752.719

26.9788 3705.379

27.59612 3656.001

28.20951 3621.844

28.81873 3613.979

29.42359 3633.57


Irradiance(KW/m2)

30.02386 3671.916

30.61935 3713.975

31.20987 3743.869

31.79523 3750.315

32.37525 3730.133

32.94976 3688.819

33.51859 3638.258

34.0816 3592.581

34.63863 3563.656

35.18954 3557.652

35.73419 3573.619

36.27246 3604.283

36.80423 3638.58

37.32938 3665.019

37.84781 3674.823

38.35941 3664.023

P a g e 99 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

38.86409 3634.08

39.36176 3591.052

39.85234 3543.711

40.33575 3501.22

40.81192 3470.981

41.28078 3457.147

41.74228 3460.038

42.19635 3476.458

42.64294 3500.716

43.08202 3526.018

43.51352 3545.906

43.93742 3555.42

44.35369 3551.838

44.76228 3534.894

45.16317 3506.541

45.55634 3470.367


Irradiance(KW/m2)

45.94176 3430.836

46.31942 3392.495

46.6893 3359.302

47.05139 3334.139

47.40568 3318.561

47.75215 3312.771

48.09081 3315.782

48.42164 3325.702

48.74464 3340.088

49.05982 3356.303

49.36717 3371.832

49.66669 3384.529

49.95839 3392.775

50.24227 3395.554

50.51834 3392.454

50.7866 3383.6

P a g e 100 | 106


Irradiance(KW/m2)

51.04705 3369.562

51.29971 3351.227

51.54458 3329.678

51.78167 3306.075

52.01099 3281.557

52.23254 3257.164

52.44635 3233.783

52.65241 3212.122

52.85073 3192.694

53.04134 3175.825

53.22422 3161.673

53.39941 3150.247

53.56689 3141.442

53.7267 3135.064

53.87882 3130.857

54.02328 3128.533


Irradiance(KW/m2)

54.16008 3127.788

54.28922 3128.321

54.41073 3129.848

54.5246 3132.108

54.63085 3134.869

54.72947 3137.934

54.82049 3141.136

54.90389 3144.34

54.9797 3147.441

55.0479 3150.356

55.10852 3153.026

55.16155 3155.409

55.207 3157.477

55.24487 3159.213

55.27516 3160.606

55.29788 3161.653

P a g e 101 | 106

Appendix D

Code of frmMain.cs Form

using System;

using System.Collections.Generic;

using System.ComponentModel;

using System.Data;

using System.Drawing;

using System.Linq;

using System.Text;

using System.Windows.Forms;

namespace Solar_Power_Estimation

{

public partial class frmMain : Form

{

public frmMain()

{

InitializeComponent();

}

private void autInp_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)

{

txtLat.Text = "23.70";

txtLon.Text = "90.3667";

}

private void button1_Click(object sender, EventArgs e)

{

txtTilt.Text = Convert.ToString(1.01 *

Convert.ToDouble(txtLat.Text));

P a g e 102 | 106

txtAre.Text = Convert.ToString(0.092903 *

Convert.ToDouble(txtPow.Text) / 20);

txtCos.Text = Convert.ToString(43.13 *

Convert.ToDouble(txtPow.Text));

}

}

}

Code of Program.Designer.cs Form

using System;

using System.Collections.Generic;

using System.Linq;

using System.Windows.Forms;

namespace Solar_Power_Estimation

{

static class Program

{

static void Main()

{

Application.EnableVisualStyles();

Application.SetCompatibleTextRenderingDefault(false);

Application.Run(new frmMain());

}

}

}

P a g e 103 | 106

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P a g e 104 | 106

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P a g e 106 | 106

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http://spectrum.ieee.org/nanoclast/green-tech/solar/carbon-nanotubes-make-a-comeback-in-photovoltaics

http://www.livescience.com/52324-kirigami-inspired-solar-cell.html

http://www.sciencealert.com/this-new-green-antenna-could-double-solar-panel-efficiency

http://www.sciencealert.com/this-new-green-antenna-could-double-solar-panel-efficiency

Thesis on optimum tilt angle of solar cell

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