1. INTRODUCTION

One of the most important crops in the Philippines is white corn. In the southern regions of Visayas and Mindanao, corn is the staple food of 20% Filipino population (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics). It was reported that corn had much higher content of phenolics, ferulic acid, and flavonoid, which have a significant antioxidant (Adom and Liu, 2002; Plate and Gallaher, 2005). Corn is also rich in dietary fiber, and diets rich in fiber could reduce the risk from coronary heart disease, cancer, obesity and diabetes (Bultriss, 2008).

Recently, there had been a wide interest in the production of starch noodles due to an increase consumption of noodles that led to concerted efforts to the feasibility of using other starchy materials as its source. Starch is an important ingredient for the food industries, whereas starches with specific properties are necessary to impart functionality desirable attributes to foods. Noodles are widely consumed throughout the world and it is a fast growing sector of the noodle industry. This is because noodles are convenient, easy to cook, low cost and have a relatively long shelf-life. It has been estimated that at least 12% of global wheat production is used for processing Asian noodle products (Hou, 2001).

Since corn is gluten-free, its use has been primarily centered on corn batter. However, interest in developing alternative uses for this nutrient-rich commodity is underway, one of which is its utilization as starch into noodles.

Processing of raw meat into products does not only add value and extend the shelf life of meat pieces, but also serves as a source of employment to the processors (FAO, 1991). Meat products such as burgers require the use of mostly boneless meat; a practice which results in an increased production cost due to the expensive nature of boneless meat. The products consequently become very expensive (Wiriyacharee, 1992), restricting their patronage to only the wealthy or higher income earners in the society (Adjekum, 1997). One way of minimizing formulation cost in meat processing is by using meat extenders.

Extenders or fillers are usually protein additives used to increase water binding capacity and yield of meat products. Most extenders enhance protein content, improve processing yields and reduce formulation costs (FAO, 1991). Some important meat extenders include soy proteins, milk proteins, starch and flours.

The objectives of this study are to investigate the effects of different modification methods on the quality properties of white corn starch and its utilization into corn noodles and as an extender/binder for pork barbecue. Specifically, it aims to:

1. Identify the chemical composition (i.e. starch content, moisture, ash, lipids, crude fiber, crude protein), bulk density and pH of the modified corn starch/flour;

2. Assess the water and oil binding capacity, swelling power and solubility, syneresis and rheological property of the modified corn starch/flour;

3. Utilize the modified corn starch/flour with the best physico-chemical properties in the production of corn noodles and restructured pork barbecue;

4. Evaluate the cooking qualities (cooking yield and loss) and sensory properties (liking and just-about-right) of the restructured pork barbecue using modified corn starch as binder and corn noodles; and

5. Assess the economic aspect of utilizing white corn in the production of flour and starch. 29

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Corn

The annual global production of corn was approximately about 780 Million metric tons, making the United States and China as the main producer of corn having 40% and 20%, respectively. In 2005, the total corn production in the Philippines was approximately 5.3 million metric ton, which was 2.9% lesser as compared to the previous years record of 5.4 million metric ton. The production was increased by little, using good quality seeds. The total area for harvested corn was approximately 85 thousand hectare. However, flooding, excessive rains before yearend and extended dry season during first semester of the year had caused wide lost in corn production. (BAS 2006)

Corn (Zea mays L.) is the one of the most important cereal crop in the Philippines, next to the rice. It is considered as staple food of many Filipino from the south. The corn ranked third for Gross Value Added (GVA) in agriculture, next to rice and coconut. In united States , corn is processed into various food products such as cornmeal grits, starch, flour, snacks, tortillas, breakfast cereal and generally used for animal feed production (Luo and Wang ,January 2015) It is used for human and animal food, processing raw material for production of corn syrup and cornstarch, production of industrial products such as ethanol and polylactic acid. It is far more productive than most cereal crops and helps to sustain a higher population than relatives such as wheat, rye or rice (PCARRD, 2005).

Flour industry in the Philippines utilizes a major part of total corn produce in starch preparations. During processing, some corn by-products are produced such as corn bran, corn gluten feed, corn oil meal or corn oil cake. Almost all parts of the corn plant have industrial use and product such as corn stalk for the production of fuel gas and fertilizer, once decayed; corn ear for making oil and cornstarch; corn germ for the production of mayonnaise; and corn cobs for glucose production.

Corn has three general type, which are maize group, hybrid corn and synthetic variety of corn. Six groups are classified in maize type. These are dent corn, flint corn, flour corn or soft corn, sweet corn, waxy corn or glutinous corn, and popcorn. There are factors to be considered in selection of variety such as the adaptability to soil and climate, market demand, and maturity and yield. In adaptability to soil and climate, it is important that corn variety suits the condition of the locality; in market demand, better quality means the higher the price; for maturity and yields, the maturity of crops dictates the farm operations, having dis-advantage and advantage (University of the Phillipines College of Agriculture [UPCA], 2015).

Utilization of corn flours and starches in native form is limited due to its physical properties. These are retrogradation properties, syneresis, and low stability at high temperature and at low pH (Aini and Hariyadi, 2010). Moreover, modifications of flour properties were needed to improve its pasting properties.

2.1.2 Products of Corn

Corn is one of the main cereals produced in Brazil. In the 2008/2009 crop, 51.9 million tons were produced. The state of Paran was the main producer, accounting for 24% of Brazilian production (CONAB, 2009). This cereal has a high nutritional value and a significant role in human nutrition, being the main raw material of many Brazilian dishes such as dent corn, couscous, polenta and Brazilian tamales.

2.2. White Corn

The total corn production was approximately Php 70 billion in 2010, whereas 63% of total supply were used for feed production, 21% were consumed as food, 13% for processing into other food product. 1.5 million Metric tonne of white corn consumption were recorded in 2011while the surplus white corn of about 0.65 million metric tonne were assumed that it was mixed with yellow corn for feed and processing (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics [BAS], 2010). White corn, as one of the most important crop in the Philippines was considered by the 20 % of Filipino population as their staple food, primarily in the Southern Regions of the Visayas and Mindanao (Logronio, lopez & Alejandro, 1996). It has higher selling price in the market than yellow corn (Ocampo & Cotter, 2013). Also, it is economically important because of its different uses such as an ingredient in poultry and livestock feeds, raw material in many industrial products such as starch oil, artificial sweetener and organic liquid (Siopongco, Altoveros, Cruz & Villavicencio, 1999). In addition, during flour production, corn has more flour with less bran than wheat (FNRI-DOST, 2015)

Food Staple Sufficiency Program (FSSP) was launched by the Department of Agriculture to reduce the importation and maintain per capita consumption of rice and increase consumption of other food staple. White corn is one of the staple food considered by 20% of Filipino populations. White Corn Program was implemented to sustain the requirement of corn-eating populace and address hunger problems and encourage rice-consumers to incorporate white corn to their usual eating habit. White corn was promoted by the DA as a healthier staple food because of its low glycemic index and aids in gradual release of glucose in bloodstream, which lessen the risk of diabetes. White corn has 49 glycemic index (GI) (Australian study cited by

DA, 2011) while the white rice and brown rice has 50-75 and 51-55 (GI) (FNRI), respectively. The low glycemic index lessens the risk of diabetes and aids in building-up stamina. (DA, 2011)

Several government program were also established such as the adaptation and dissemination of newly developed improved white corn varieties as alternative source as staple food. The program aims to support the promotion of wide production of white corn at national level and the establishment of a more stable supply of white corn and producing varieties for the preferences of different regions. (BAR, 2013)

Nutritive value of White corn

White corn contains more protein, lysine, tryptophan, dietary fiber, minerals and antioxidant compared to rice. These nutrient components have many benefits to human body. Lysine aids in building muscle tissue recovering from injury or surgery and absorbing calcium effectively and helps the body produces antibodies, enzymes and hormone. Tryptophan is needed for normal growth in infants (DA, 2011).

Moreover, according to FNRI-DOST (2015) white corn is rich in starch, which has 1.25 calorie per gram, proteins, vitamin B, vitamin C and carbohydrates. Also it has high percentage of dietary fiber, potassium and anti-oxidant.

Table 1. Nutritional Values in White Corn

NutrientsCorn, white on the cob, boiled.

1pc,12 x 4 cm,boiled=120 grams

Energy (kcal)53.3

Protein(g)2.1

Calcium(mg)5.46

Iron(mg)0.33

Niacin (mg)0.58

Ascorbic Acid (mg)2.52

Thiamin(mg)0.06

Riboflavin (mg)0.03

*The Philippine Food Composition, 1997

2.3. Glutinous corn

Glutinous corn or waxy corn maize is also called specialty sticky maize. It is because of the dull wax like appearance of its endosperm. Flint and dent types is made up of approximately 70% amylopectin and 30% amylose while waxy corn essentially consists of amylopectin alone and is often studied as a model of amylopectin (Kurakake et al. 2009). According to Zarate et al (2004), waxy maize differs from other subspecies by its unique structure of its starch due to a reduce percentage of amylose fraction and an increase percentage of amylopectin. In nutritional terms, waxy maize grains are similar to other subspecies of Z. maize which is associated with low amount of protein.

Waxy starches, which are nearly 100% amylopectin, gelatinized easily and yield nearly transparent viscous pastes that retrograde slowly to weak gels. The gelatinization temperature of waxy corn starch ranges from 75C. Also, waxy maize yields pastes that almost clear when cool, no congealing, and when dried in thin films, yields a translucent, water-soluble coating (Corn Refiners Association, 2006).

2.4. Starch

Starch is a naturally occurring, biodegradable, inexpensive and abundantly available polysaccharide molecule. It is widely distributed in the form of tiny granules and contain two principal types of polysaccharides, namely amylose and amylopectin. Amylopectin is the major component of most starches that consist of a large number of shorter chains that are bound together at their reducing end side with (1-6) linkage while amylose consists only of either a single or a few long chains with (1-4) glycosidic bond, and thus making the molecule linear or slightly branched (Takeda et al., 1992).

2.5. Modified cornstarch

Starches are naturally unsuitable for most applications. It must be modified chemically or physically to enhance their positive attributes and to minimize their defects. Derivatives are used in food products as thickeners, gelling agents and encapsulating agents, in papermaking as wet-end additives for dry strength, surface sizes and coating binders. In selection of particular native starch for chemical and physical modification, availability and demand in the market is considered. Some of the most available and accessible starches are normal maize, waxy maize and high-amylose maize.(BeMiller JN,1997; Gerritsen WJ,1995; Friedman RB, Hauber RJ, and Katz PR,1993; Bruinenberg PM Jacobson E, Visser RGF,1995).

Physical modification is made using heat and moisture(pre-gelatinization); while chemical treatment involve the functional groups into the starch molecule using reactions of derivatization(etherification, esterification and cross-linking) or decomposition (acid or enzymatic hydrolysis and oxidation) (Singh et al.,2007). Background information about physical and chemical modification effects on starch granules structure is necessary to understand their functional properties and allow developing starches with desired properties enhancing their uses especially in food industry. Critical factors that govern the pasting behavior of starch pastes are modification treatment, reaction conditions and starch source (Reddy and Seib,1999;Gonzalez and Perez, 2002; Singh et al., 2004).

2.5.1. Modified Corn Starch by pre gelatinization

To yield a broad variety of pregelatinized starches, suspensions of most starches and starch derivatives can be gelatinized and dried. This is normally done on a single drum dryer with applicator rolls. The starch slurry is heated to gelatinize it, instantaneously dried and ground to desired granulation requirement. These products can be dispersed in cold water with agitation to yield pastes comparable to those obtained by cooking the raw starch. The pre-gelatinized starches make possible the production of many unique food and industrial products that do not require heat for preparation. "Instant" adhesives and "Instant" starch-based puddings are examples of these types of products. New types of cold-water soluble (CWS) starches are made using aqueous/alcohol reaction, which cause the granule to swell and retain its structure without being ruptured. Such starches yield easier to use, smoother bodied products. Newer mechanical processes being used are spray drying and extrusion. Often these procedures involve the application of several treatments (CRA, 2006). Pre-gelatinized starch (PGS) is a common type of physically modified starch with wide applications, especially in food industry. PGS, also referred to as "pre-gel" or "instant starch", is generally produced by drum drier, spray drier, and, less commonly, by extruder (Anastasiades et al., 2002; Kalogianni et al., 2002; Mounsey and ORiordan, 2008). Depending on the method, condition and source of starch, the produced PGS has different properties (Mercier 1987; Kalogianni et al., 2002). Amongst the different methods available for production of pre-gel starch, drum drying is the most economical and the easiest method available compared to the other methods (Thomas and Atwell, 1999). Pre gelatinized starches or flours are paste-forming products in the presence of cold water or (partially or totally) soluble products in cold water (Colonna et al., 1984) and present the following characteristics: they disperse more easily and absorb more water than their untreated matches, they form gel at room temperature and are less prone to deposit (Powell, 1965).

2.6 Noodles

Noodles are widely consumed throughout the world and it is a fast growing sector of the noodle industry. The world instant noodle market is projected to reach 158.7 billion packs by the year 2010 (Anonymous, 2008). This is because noodles are convenient, easy to cook, low cost and have a relatively long shelf-life. It has been estimated that at least 12% of global wheat production is used for processing Asian noodle products (FAO, 2005 and Hou, 2001). Market research has typically indicated that consumption of noodles continues to expand rapidly in various countries in Europe, South America, and the Middle East as well as, Asia. According to Rho et al. (1986) of the many types of noodles, instant noodle is the fastest growing sector of these products. The unique processing, involving steaming and deep frying, gives instant noodles a distinctive flavor and texture). The texture of noodles is expressed as rubbery, firm, or smooth (Kubomura, 1998).Instant noodles should have a porous spongy structure as well as pre-gelatinized starch through the steaming process (Wu et al., 1998). During the frying process, many tiny holes are created as water is quickly dehydrated and replaced by oil on the surface of the noodles, serving as channel for water during cooking (Hou, 2001). Frying and steaming processes can enable quick serving compared with other types of noodles, and the processes are important in governing the quality of instant noodles (Kim, 1996).

Starch noodles, produced from purified starch from various plant sources, are a major category of Asian noodles. They are produced by the following steps: (1) mixing dry and gelatinized starch to form a slurry or dough, (2) extruding it directly into boiling water to cook,

(3) cooling the formed noodles in cold tap water, (4) holding at refrigerated or freezing temperature, (5) warming in cold tap water, and then drying (Galvez, Resurrection, & Ware, 1994). Starch noodles are obviously different from other types of noodles, such as pasta and wheat flour, since it is made from gluten-free starch. Thus, starch itself plays an essential role in both the production of starch noodle and the final quality of starch noodle. Excellent starch noodles would have clear or transparent and fine threads, high tensile strength, and low cooking loss even with prolonged cooking (Collado, Mabesa, Oates, &Corke, 2001; Purwani, Widaningrum, Thahir, & Muslich, 2006). According to Nagao et al (1976), noodle texture is the most important characteristic of noodles followed by color, taste, surface appearance and weight and volume upon cooking. Dick and Matsuo (1998) said that there are regional preferences for color, size, shape, texture and flavor of noodles, which depends not only on flour characteristics, but also on the specific manufacturing processes as well as the inclusion of other raw materials or chemical additives. According to Nagao et al. (1997), Oda et al. (1980), Toyokawa et al. (1989) and Crosbie (1991), both starch and protein mainly govern the textural properties of noodles. Starch characteristics, including amylose-amylopectin ratio, starch pasting properties and sweeling powers are highly related to rating quality of noodles.

2.7 Saba Banana

2.7.1 Musa sapientum

Musa sapientum which is commonly called banana is a herbaceous plant of the family

Musaceae. It is known to have originated from the tropical region of Southern Asia. The Musa sapientum grows up to a height of about 2-8m with leaves of about 3.5m in length. The stem which is also called pseudo stem produces a single bunch of banana before dying and replaced by new pseudo stem. The fruit grows in hanging cluster, with twenty fruits to a tier and 3 20 tiers to a bunch. The fruit is protected by its peels which is discarded as waste after the inner fleshy portion is eaten (Akinyosoy, 1991)

2.7.2. Saba Peels

The peel wastes from Saba may contain the same valuable components generally found in banana flesh. These valuable substances may be used to formulate preparations with pharmacologic/ medicinal, nutritive, and energy values. Banana flesh contain carbohydrates, vitamins A, B,C, potassium, soda, chloride of potassium, alkaline phosphates with little sulfate, lime and silica among others (Quisumbing, 1978).

2.7.3 Banana Flour

Banana flour has a very pleasant flavor and has the characteristic odor of fresh banana. Banana flour is low in protein content and not as nutritious as wheat flour. It has a high potential as a commodity starch because of its specific properties. It contains up to 70% to 80% starch on a dry basis, and many developing functional products from banana have become a focus (Yongliang et al., 2013).

2.8 Extender

Meat and meat products are preferred by consumers in terms of nutritional and sensory properties. An important factor for product quality, technological properties and health is the amount of fat in formulations of meat products. According to Giese (1992), the desirable sensory characteristics of juiciness and mouth feel of meat patties are associated with fat level. Reduction in fat adversely affects the textural and sensorial characteristics of meat products. Proteins, modified starches, gums, and cereal and flours are used to reduce the adverse effects of fat reduction (Egbert, Huffman, Chen, and Dylewski, 1991). They can increase moisture and fat retention capability of meat products, thus increasing the juiciness and improving brittleness meat products.

Talukder, and Sharma (2010) noted that the type and the amount of non-meat ingredients in formulations of meat products are the most important factors for product quality, technological properties and health. Formulations of meat patties may include one or more cereal and legume products. Cereal flours are used widely in ground meat products as a binder or extender. Some of them, such as oat flour, increase moisture and fat retention in beef patties (Serdaroglu, 2006). Oat products such as oat bran and oat fiber in meat patties increased moisture retention and bran improved mouth feel (Giese, 1992). However, recent studies of ground meat products have focused on legume flours (Serdarolu, Yldz-Turp, and Abrodmov (2005). Some of the legumes, such as lentils and chickpeas, are rich in protein and starch content. Lentil and chickpea flours can be used in meat products as coating materials or extenders (Wang et al, 2006). However, soy products have been widely used in meat products for many years because of their higher protein content and the functional properties of their proteins. Cereal and legume flours can cause differences in the physical, chemical, and sensorial characteristics of beef patties. Therefore, in this study, the effects of using nine different cereal and legume flours instead of beef fat on some quality parameters of beef patties were investigated.

2.9 Pork Barbecue

Thai BBQ Pork is grilled pork on skewers known as "Moo Ping It is tender and slightly sweet. Quick, easy to make and so delicious. Serve as an appetizer or serve them together with sticky rice. The BBQ pork skewers are traditionally cooked over a charcoal grill. It can also be cooked over hot plate or gas barbecue.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Raw Materials

The corn will be provided by the Research Extension Training. The IES Glutinous White Corn will be supplied by the Department of agriculture-Cagayan Valley Integrated Agricultural Research Center (DA_CVIARC) in Ilagan, Isabela

Corn starch was isolated according to the method of Takeda et al. (1988) as follows: corn kernels were steeped in 0.5%Na2SO4 solution, pH 45 at 5052C for 2 days. The softened kernels were homogenized with cold water (10C) for 10 min and then, the homogenate was squeezed through a 100 mesh sieves. The starch was washed three times with cold water followed by centrifugation at 1000g for 15 min and then dried in an air dried oven at 40C for 12 h.

3.2 Experimental Design

Table 1 Treatment Design for the Modification of Corn Starch

TreatmentDesignation

1Control

Pre-gelatinized Modified Corn Starch2(PG-MCS)

Table 2 Treatment Design for Corn Noodle Production

TreatmentDesignation

1100% Modified Corn Starch (MCS)

250% MCR: 50% Ripe Banana Flour (RBF)

375% MCS: 25% RBF

425% MCS: 75% RBF

Treatment design for reconstituted BBQ

TreatmentConcentration of FlourPercentage of Ground Meat

130 % Modified Corn Starch70% Ground Meat

(MCS)

230% Banana Flour (BF)70% Ground Meat

315% MCS + 15% BF70% Ground Meat

410 % MCS + 20% BF70% Ground Meat

520% MCS + 10% BF70% Ground Meat

3.3 Preparation of Modified Corn Starch3.3.1 Modified starch by pre-gelatinizationStarch solution 1:1 (750g starch + 750 mL deionized water) will be incubated at 63C or 5 minutes. Gelatinized starch will be produced by drying the solution at room temperature (202C) for 24 hours (Knight, 1969).

3.4. Chemical Composition of the Modified Cornstarch.

3.4.1. Moisture content

The moisture content of flour will be determined in an oven through drying method (at 105C) according to the procedure described in AACC (2000) Method No. 44-15A. The moisture content of flour will be determined by weighing 2 g of sample into a pre weighed china dish and drying it in an air forced draft oven at a temperature of 1055C till the constant weight of dry matter will be obtained. The moisture content in the sample will be determined as given below.

Wt. of original flour sample Wt. of dried flour sample

Moisture (%) = --------------------------------------------------x 100

Wt. of original flour sample

3.4.2. Crude protein

The flour will be tested for crude protein content according to the Kjeldahls method as described in ACC (2000) Method No. 46-30. Two gram of flour sample will be taken into the digestion tube. Twenty milliliters of 98% concentrated sulphuric acid and 2 tablets of digest ion mixture (as catalyst) will be added into the digestion tube. The digestion will be carried out through digestion unit till transparent residue contents were obtained and then after cooling 50ml distilled water will be added. The mixture will be neutralized with 70 ml of 40% NaOH solutionin order to release gaseous ammonia. The neutralized solution will be then distilled through

Kjeldahls distillation apparatus. The ammonia liberated will trapped in 4% boric acid solution containing indicators (methyl red and ethylene blue). The amount of ammonia collected will be then titrated against 0.1N sulphuric acid to a purple end point. A blank determination will be carried out following similar procedure, without the test sample. The percentage protein was calculated according to formula given below.

Crude protein (%) = Nitrogen (%) x 6.25

3.4.3. Crude fat

The crude fat in each such sample will be determined by running sample through Soxhlet apparatus according to the procedure given in AACC (2000) Method No. 30-25. A sample (3 g) will be weighed into an extraction thimble and extraction carried out in Soxhlet apparatus with petroleum ether for 2 hours, the previously heated, dried, cooled and weighed receive flask containing oil will dried in a hot air oven, cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The fat content will be the difference in weight between the empty receive flask and the residual oil expressed as a percentage of the sample weight.

3.4.4. Crude fiber

The crude fiber content in each sample will be estimated by digesting the fat free samples of flour in 1.25% H2SO4 followed by 1.25% NaOH solution as described in AACC (2000) method No. 32-10. After digestion the sample residue will be ignited by placing in a muffle furnace maintained for 3-5 hours at temperature of 550-650 C till grey or white ash will be obtained. The percentage of crude fiber will be calculated after according to the expression given below.

Weight loss on ignition

Crude fiber (%) = ---------------------------------- x 100

Weight of flour sample

3.4.5. Ash content

Ash is an inorganic residue remaining after the material has been completely burnt at a temperature of 550C in a muffle furnace. It is the aggregate of all non-volatile inorganic elements present in a material as its oxides. The ash content of the flour will be determined according to AACC (2000), Method No. 08-01. The flour Sample (5 g) will be weighed into a previously heated, dried, cooled and weighed crucible. The sample will be charred over a Bunsen flame until no more smoke will be given off and then transfer red into a muffle furnace and heated at a temperature of 550C until it turned to a completely grey material. The ash content will be then cooled in a dessicator and weighed. The difference in weight between the empty crucible and crucible with ash residue expressed as a percentage of the original sample weight and recorded as ash content.

3.4.6. Nitrogen free extract (NFE)

The NFE was calculated according to the following expression:

NFE = 100 (% moisture + % crude protein + % crude fat + %crude fiber + % ash)

3.4.8 Amylose content (%)

Amylose content of the isolated starch will be determined by using the method of Williams, Kuzina, and Hlynka (1970).A starch sample (20 mg) will be taken and 10 ml of 0.5 N KOH will be added to it. The suspension will be thoroughly mixed. The dispersed sample will be transferred to a 100 ml volumetric flask and diluted to the mark with distilled water. An aliquot of test starch solution (10 ml) will be pipetted into a 50 ml volumetric flask and 5 ml of 0.1 N HCL will be added followed by 0.5 ml of iodine reagent. The volume will be diluted to 50 ml and the absorbance will be measured at 625 nm. The measurement of the amylase will be determined from a standard curve developed usingamylose and amylopectin blends.

3.4.9. Bulk density

Bulk density of native and modified corn starches will be determined according to the method of Adeleke and Odedeji (2010) as follows: starch sample (50 g) will be put into a 100 mlmeasuring cylinder. The cylinder will be tapped several times ona laboratory bench to a constant volume. Bulk density (g/cm3) will be calculated by dividing the weight of sample on its volumeafter tapping.

3.4.10. pH determination

The pH of the starch samples will be measured according to the method of Adeleke and

Odedeji (2010) using a pH meter already standardized with buffer solutions of pH 4.0 and 7.0. Each sample (10 g) will be homogenized in 50 ml of distilled water and the resulting suspensions will be decanted and their pH values will be determined.

3.4.11. Water and oil binding capacity

Distilled water (15 ml) will be added to 1 g of the corn starch sample in a weighed 25 ml centrifuge tube. The tube will be agitated on a vortex mixer for 2 min, and then will be centrifuged at1250g for 20 min. The clear supernatant will be decanted and will be discarded. The adhering drops of water will be removed and will be reweighed. Water binding capacity (WBC) is expressed as the weight in gram of water bound by 1 g dried sample. For oil binding capacity (OBC) determination, 10 ml of refined corn oil will be added to 1 g of the corn starch sample in a weighed25 ml centrifuge tube. The tube will be agitated on a vortex mixer for 2 min and will be centrifuged at 1250g for 20 min. The volume of free oil will be recorded and decanted. Oil binding capacity is expressed as gram of oil (d =0.9198) bound by 1 g dried sample (Adeleke and Odedeji, 2010).

3.4.12. Syneresis

The syneresis of the starches will be determined according to the method described by Singh et al. (2004). Starch suspension (2%, w/v) will be heated at 85 C for 30 min in a water bath, follow by rapid cooling in an ice-water bath to room temperature. The starch samples are stored for 24, 48 and 120 h at 4 C. Syneresis will be measured as the percentage of water released after centrifugation at 3000g for 15 min.

3.4.13. Visco-amylograph test

Rheological properties of modified corn starch will be measured by using Brabenderamylograph according to Merco and Juliano (1981) as follows: a slurry of 50 g of starch (10%) will be mixed with 450 ml of distilled water in the bowel of the amylograph. The mixture will be shake and temperature of the sample will be increased from 25 to 95 C at a rate of 1.5 C per min. The sample will be left at 95 C for 15 min, while stirring and recording the viscosity continuously. The starch paste will be cooled at 50 C at a rate of 1.5 C per min and held for 15 min, at this temperature, while stirring and recording viscosity continuously, the viscosity in Brabender Units (B.U.) will be calculated from the obtained amyl grams.

3.4.14. Swelling Power and Solubility Pattern

Swelling power and solubility determination will be carried out at 50, 70 and 90C using the method of Leach et al. (1959).A 1% aqueous suspension of starch (100 ml) will be heated in a water bath at 90 C for 1 h with constant stirring. The suspension was cooled for half an hour at 30C. Samples will be poured into pre-weighed centrifuge tubes, will be centrifuged at 3000g for 10 min and weight of sediments will be determined. For the measurement of solubility, the supernatants will be poured into aluminum dishes and evaporated at 110 C for 12 h and weight of dry solids was determined.

3.5. Properties of Corn Flour

3.5.1. Determination of Pasting Properties

The Pasting Profile of corn flour will be characterized by Rapid-Visco-Analyser. Five grams of accurately weighed starch will be added into water to obtain a ratio 1:2 (w/w). The treated flour will be heated from 28 to 150C at 4C/min and all experiments should be carried out triplicate. The RVA 3d will be operated with 250g of 9.9%treated starch in water suspension. The temperature profile included a 2 min isothermal step at 50C, linear temperature will be increased to 95C in 7 min, a holding step (8mins. at 95C) a cooling step (7 min) with a linear temperature decreases to 50C and a final isothermal step at 50C. Duplicate measurements always agreed within 5 rapid visco units (RVU) over the whole profile.

3.6. Preparation of Noodles

3.6.1. Noodle Making

Flour, eggs and vegetable oil will be mixed in a clean stainless basin. Dough will be kneaded in a dusted wooden board until the dough becomes elastic and soft to touch. Dough will be put in a plastic bag and let it rest in refrigerator for 30 minutes. Dough will be cut in smaller portion and will be flatten using a noodle machine. Thickness setting of machine will be slowly adjusted and dough will be flatten until the desired thickness is achieved. Dough will be dusted with flour before putting into the dough cutter and will be cut about the size of Chinese egg noodles.

3.7.3. Cooking quality of noodles

Noodles cooking quality will be determined according to the approved method in AACC (2000). Optimum cooking time will be the time required for the opaque central core of the noodle to disappear when squeezed gently between two glass plates after cooking. Twenty five grams of noodles will be cooked for optimum time in 300 ml tap water in a beaker rinsed in coldwater and drained for 15 min before weighed. Percentage of increased weight will be calculated as a cooking yield. Solid contents in the cooking water will be determined by drying at 105C overnight. The cooking loss will be expressed as a percentageof the difference between the solid weight and initial drymatter. Volume increase will be calculated by dividing the uncooked noodles.

3.8. Preparation of Pork Barbecue and Extender

INGREDIENTS

1 lb Pork fillet stripes

2 Tbsp garlic, finely-chopped

2 Tbsp oyster sauce

1/4 cup Coconut milk

2 Tbsp. Fish sauce or soy sauce

2 Tbsp. Black soy sauce

2 Tbsp. Palm sugar or brown sugar

2 Tbsp. finely-chopped cilantro roots (or stems)

1 Tbsp. ground black pepper

Bamboo skewers, soaked for 2-3 hours

In a mixing bowl,Pork fillet stripes will be mixed with chopped garlic, cilantro roots or stems .Then seasoning with fish sauce, oyster sauce, black soy sauce, palm sugar, black pepper and coconut milk will be followed. All ingredients will be mixed thoroughly, refrigerated, and allowed to marinate for 3-4 hours but it would be great if overnight. After marinated time, pork will be thread onto a bamboo skewer or start to grill the pork until the both side will be done. Pork can be serve alone. (From: http://cafechilithai.com/moo%20ping.html)

3.9. Production of Banana Flour

Banana flour will be produced according to the procedure of Perez-sira (1997) with little modification for the prevention of enzymatic browning. The fresh mature bananas will be peeled under water treated with 0.05% sodium metabisulphite and will be sliced at average thickness of 1 cm using sharp knife. The slices will be dried at 50 for 48 h in air oven. The driedchips will be milled in a hammer mill to obtain flour from mature banana fruits. The flour will be sieved and packaged for subsequent use.

3.10. Sensory Evaluation of Cooked Noodle.

3.10.1 Sensory Evaluation for Reconstituted Pork Barbeque Using Glutinous White Corn

Flour.

Sensory evaluation was conducted to measure the degree of likeness of consumer to Reconstituted Pork Barbeque using Glutinous white corn flour as ingredient.

Grilled samples have 15 grams per sample and placed in paper plates. Fifty respondents were selected food technology students in Central Luzon State University. Prior to testing, respondents were given purified water to clean their palate and neutralize their taste buds. After tasting the product, respondents were asked a series of questions to evaluate their likeability andperception of the product. Data collection was done using structured questionnaire containing both open-and-close ended questions. The sensory characteristics of reconstituted pork barbeque were as follows:

a. Overall acceptability/liking

The overall acceptability for patty using reconstituted pork barbeque were measured using 9-point hedonic scale.

b. Product rating

The product rating on specific attributes like color, aroma, tenderness, juiciness, greasiness, sweetness, saltiness, meaty flavor and after taste as well as the purchase intent of the consumers were determined using 9-point hedonic scale and JAR scales.

3.10.2 Sensory Evaluation of Noodle Using Glutinous White Corn Flour and Banana Flour.

Sensory evaluation was conducted to measure the degree of likeness of consumer to noodles using Glutinous white corn flour as ingredient.

Noodle sample will be boiled in its optimum temperature. Fifty respondents were selected food technology students in Central Luzon State University. Prior to testing, respondents were given purified water to clean their palate and neutralize their taste buds. After tasting the product, respondents were asked a series of questions to evaluate their likeability and perception of the product. Data collection was done using structured questionnaire containing both open-and-close ended questions. The sensory characteristics of noodle were as follows:

c. Overall acceptability/liking

The overall acceptability for noodle using glutinous white corn flour and banana flour were measured using 9-point hedonic scale.

d. Product rating

The product rating on specific attributes like color, aroma, tenderness, flavor and after taste as well as the purchase intent of the consumers were determined using 9-point hedonic scale and JAR scales.

3.12. Statistical Analysis

After the physicochemical analysis (pH, TSS, TTA, color, water activity, protein, ash, moisture, starch, and bulk density), the data will be recorded. The data gathered will be tabulated and analyzed using One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in Completely Randomized Design. Acceptability test for each products developed will be done using a 9 Hedonic Scale to measure the degree of liking and disliking. Also, for product rating of specific attributes like color, aroma, meatiness etc, will also be using 9 Hedonic scale and JAR Scale. 50 Panels will do the acceptability test to judge appearance, flavor, texture and general acceptability.

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