Chapter 1

Introduction

It is well known that legumes play important role in humannutrition.But, among the numerous legume species that exist in naturefew are extensively used as food sources while many more remain to beexploited. Parkia timoriana, a tree bean called “yongchak” by the localcommunities of Manipur is one such legume consumed as popular foodlocally though it is uncommon to major part of the country. Thisuncommon legume is also consumed by other mongoloid people of northeast India.

Some common beans of India are black gram (Phaseolus mungo),Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), green gram (Phaseolus aureus), horsegram (Dolichos biflorus), lentil (Lens esculenta), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)and pea (Pisum sativum). However, there are many uncommon legumesconsumed by different communities in India according to regional availability.

1. Taxonomy and Nomenclature

This tree bean which is native to tropical areas of Asia includingthe Indian subcontinent, China, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesiaand Philippines belongs to the genus Parkia. Taxonomically it belongs to:

Kingdom : PlantaeDivision : TracheophytaPhylum : MagnoliophytaClass : MagnoliopsidaOrder : FabalesFamily : Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae)Subfamily : MimosoideaeGenus : ParkiaSpecies : timoriana (DC.) Merr

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2. Synonyms of Parkia timoriana (DC.) MerrInga timoriana DC. (basionym)Parkia javanica auct.Parkia roxburghii G. DonParkia javanica (Lam.) MerrSource : http://www.ars-grin-gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?311936 last accessed on 19/07/2012and http://www.itis.gov/servlet/Single Rpt? Search-topic=TSN&searh-value=8202% &print-versio.last accessed on 19/07/2012

3. Local and/or Common names

Different common names of Parkia timoriana as it is known locallyin different places of the world are given as under (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1 Local/common names of Parkia timoriana of different states andcountries.

Name of the place/country Local name

Assam (India) Yongtak

Manipur (India) Yongchak

Indonesia Atai (Sumatra)

Kedawung (Javanese)

Peundeuy (Sudanese)

Malaysia Kedaung (Sarawak)

Kupang (Sabah)

Petai Kerayong (Peninsular)

Myanmar (Burma) Mai-Karian (Shan)

Amarang (Palawan)

Philippines Kupang (Pilipino)

Amarang (Palawan)

Thailand Kariang Riang (Peninsular)Source: http://www.ars.grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxonpl? 311936 last accessed on 22/3/2008

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4. History

In 1826, Robert Brown named this plant genus as Parkia in honourof Mungo Park (1771-1806), a Scottish explorer and physician, whomade two remarkable explorative journeys into the interiors of West Africain 1795-1797 and 1805 following the footsteps of Major Daniel Houghton(1740-1791), who travelled West Africa in search of the course of theNiger river as described in his book “Travels in the Interior of Africa”published in 1799.

Source : http://books.nap.edu/open book.php.record.id : 11763 and 7 page 221 (last accessed on10.04.2008).

5. Description of the Plant

Parkia timoriana is a non deciduous tree and is without leaf for abrief period before flowering. It is a much branched leguminous tree ofmedium height of about 10 – 12 m or more, 50 – 100 cm in diameter withbipinnate leaves. Crown is large, spread wide with branches low downon a stout bole; amber gum exudes from wounds, bark is dark greybrown, thick and fissured. The dark green leaves are arranged alternately.Primary rachis is a stalk of 8 – 42cm length and the pinnate leaves comeout with 14 – 31 pairs of leaflets. The secondary rachis is 8.7 – 11.5 cmlong with 52 – 72 pairs of leaflet of the pinnate leaf. The leaf form issomewhat sigmoid, 6 – 10.5 mm x 1 – 2 mm in size. The leaflet base iseared on proximal side while the apex is acute. It has yellowish bisexualdrumhead like flowers and seen during the months of September toOctober and starts fruiting from November to December onwards. Theyellowish drumhead like flowers are a combination of a lot of miniatureflowers and are found hanging in clusters. The fruit, like a sword fructifiesin bunches originating from a pedunculated head hanging in branches. Asingle plant may bear many bunches of fruits. The pod is up to 50 cm

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long and 4.5 – 5 cm broad. 12 – 19 seeds may be present in a single podlying horizontally across the width of the pod. The soft, tender and younggreen pods turn dark brown as it matures and the seeds have a hard testa(mean weight 0.26g /seed) with large cotyledons forming about 70% oftheir weight (Jugindra, 1996).

6. Ecology and Distribution

The crop grows well in a wide range of soil and climatic conditionsbut it requires a well drained soil for its healthy growth and economicproduction. The tree bean is a native of south-east Asia and is widelygrown in hills and valleys of Manipur. It grows well in different ranges ofaltitudes up to about 1200 m above the mean sea level. So far, no systematiccultivation practices have been taken up in respect of this tree bean eventhough it becomes an important cash crop in the state. Normally thisleguminous plant is grown as a shade tree in tea estates and coffee gardens.But in Manipur the tree bean is mainly grown for its fruits which are usedlargely for the special delicacy as a vegetable. The plant is usuallypropagated by seed or cutting branches of stem. Some researchers feelthat propagation by cutting maintain genetic identity of the plant and fruitingtakes place earlier which normally takes 5 – 6 years with better fruit bearingas compared to propagation by seed (Jugindra,1996). This tree bean isgrown mainly in the south-east Asian countries including India, China,Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Korea, Vietnam etc. Treesgrowing in Manipur always give straight entire pods unlike those ofneighbouring states which are twisted. People consider that fruits availablein Manipur give better relish/taste than the fruits grown outside Manipur.

7. As a Food Source

Although less familiar in the larger part of the country Parkiatimoriana is a very popular giant legume in north-east India, particularlyManipur. The entire pods are consumable irrespective of the stages of

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maturation but they have been substantially consumed as vegetable whenat young to premature stages. The green entire pods after scrapping off

the outer skin are cut into pieces for fresh and cooked vegetable

preparations. The favourite consumption of green entire pods of allfructifying stages is relished by the people of Manipur in different recipes

and preparations namely (1) freshly prepared salad like dish locally called

‘Yongchak singju’ (small cut pieces of ‘yongchak’ mixed with heat treatedfermented fish, chilly, salt etc.), (2) cooking with cabbage, fish, potato,

green pea, fermented soybean etc. in different combinations and (3) a

special chutney like preparation of boiled entire pod with boiled potato,faba bean entire pods, fermented fish and chilly locally called ‘Iromba’

are very popular. The dry seeds collected from mature pods (during

April or after) have been preserved substantially for use as food duringoff seasons. The mature kernels are also stored for planting purposes.

Mature seeds are soaked overnight in water, manually decoated and are

consumed in different ways viz. (I) preparing into salad like dish (smallcut pieces mixed with heat treated fermented fish, chilly, salt etc.), (II)

frying decoated seeds with prawns etc., (III) preparation of cooked curry

items of different recipes. The powdery pulp of mature entire pod isused to thicken the curry. Every kitchen in Manipur is well versed of its

cookery which shows its popularity among the local people (Giri, 2000).

It is therefore not an exaggeration to say that Parkia timoriana forms animportant vegetable item of Manipur.

Tables 1.2 – 1.4 summarise colour change of pod and seed of

P. timoriana during staging, all the year round consumption of its foodproducts and uses of its plant parts as observed in Manipur

(Hemachandra, 2008).

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Table 1.2 Colour change of the pod and seed of P. timoriana during staging

segatS ruoloC

sdoP sdeeS

redneT neerG neergelaP

gnuoY neerG neergelaP

erutamerP neerG hsitihW

erutaM kcalB kcalB

Table 1.3 All the year round consumption of food products of P. timoriana.

Seasons/ months Stages of the vegetable

September- October November-December January-February March-April April-May May-October

Flower Tender entire pods Young entire pods Premature entire pods Mature entire pods Dry seeds

Table 1.4 Uses of different plant parts of P. timoriana

Parts of the tree Uses Green fruit(entire pods) Dry seeds Flowers Bark and skin of fruits Leaves without petioles Tree

As legume vegetable As ingredient in several dishes As food by preparing salad like dish In dysentery and production of dyes Dysentery As shady plant in tea and coffee estates, as timber, paper industry etc

Source for Tables 1.2 – 1.4 : Hemachandra, 2008

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8. As a Cash Crop

A yearly survey in different markets of Imphal for the period from2008 to 2013 was conducted by the researcher and it was noted that theprice of Parkia timoriana entire pods, both premature and mature areincreasing in the local markets. Owing to the great demand and probablyshortage in supply, the suppliers do good business (Tables 1.5 & 1.6).

Table 1.5 Yearly prices of P. timoriana green entire pods in KhwairambandBazar (a main market place in Imphal city).

Year Average price in ̀ /entire pod containing12- 19 seeds

2008 6.00

2009 8.00

2010 10.00

2011 10.00 – 15.00

2012 15.00 – 20.00

2013 20.00 – 25.00

Table 1.6 Yearly prices of dry seeds of P.timoriana in the Khwairamband bazar

Year Average price in ̀ /kg

2008 150.00

2009 200.00

2010 275 – 300

2011 350 – 400

2012 475 – 500

2013 500 – 550

Thus, it is evident by tables 1.5 & 1.6 that it is the most costlylegume of this region.

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9. General Feature, Common Legumes, World Production andChemical Characters of legumes

9.1 General Feature

Legumes are flowering plants having pods which contain beans orseeds. Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of pod bearing plants belongingto the family of the leguminous plants. Legumes are grown and consumedall over the world and occupies an important place in human nutrition.There is increasing interest concerning cultivation of pulses, the expansionof growing area and production of seeds. Asia is the largest producerof the pulses growing different species of legumes viz. common bean(Phaseolus vulgaris), broad bean (Vicia faba), pea (Pisum sativum),chickpea (Cicer arietinum), lentil (Lens culinaris) and cowpea (Vignaunguiculata) etc. The production and preference of legume vary indifferent countries (Ofuya and Akhidue, 2005). Consumption of legumeis higher in those parts of the world, where animal proteins are scarce andexpensive viz. South East Asia and Africa (COPR,1981). A largeproportion of the protein required for adults and children is provided bylegumes in these countries and it is associated with increase of socio-economic status. About 20% of the human protein requirement is suppliedby pulses in developing countries (Reddy et al., 1986). Legumes arerich sources of nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates, minerals andvitamins and also have important health protective compounds likephenolics, inositol phosphates and oligosaccharides. Due to theadvantageous composition of legume seeds, they can be used not onlyas meat replacers but also as components of rational nourishment andfood for vegetarians. The isolated proteins, carbohydrates and fibresfrom legume seeds have good physico-chemical and health protectingproperties and are promising basic materials for food industrial use(Schuster-Gajzago, 2009).

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9.2 Common Legumes

Legumes belong to the family Fabaceae which was earlier knownas Leguminosae (Southgate, 2003). There are more than 60 domesticatedgrain legume species. The main cultivated legumes, their common namesas well as scientific names, distribution and their use are listed in table 1.7.

Table 1.7 The main grain legumes with information on distribution andconsumption

Data source: http:www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleALLChapter.aspx

Common name Scientific name Distribution Consumption

Chick pea Cicer arietinum L. Mediterranean countries, South Asia, Eastern and Southern Africa

Raw, roasted and boiled form. The dry seeds are cooked or canned. Dry leaves serve as animal feed.

Cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba

India Young beans are used as vegetable, the dry beans are used for producing guar gum used in paper, textile industries, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.

Common bean (French/garden/haricot/ kidney/pinto/navy/black/ pink/black eye/great northern or dry bean)

Phaseolus vulgaris L. India, Brazil, France, Russia, German, UK, Ukraine

Human consumption-green or dry seeds

Cow pea Vigna unguiculata L. Mediterranean area, Africa, Asia

Human consumption as dhal made from soaked, dehulled seeds

Faba bean(Field bean) Vicia faba L. Central Asia, Mediterranean countries, South America,Europe

Human consumption and dry harvested seeds are used as animal feeds.

Jack bean Canavalia ensiformis L. India, Far East, North and East Africa

Human consumption as vegetable and its dry bean also.

Lentil Lens culinaris medicus Turkey, Europe (France, Spain),Asia, Canada,USA

Human consumption

Mung bean Vigna radiata L. South Asia,China,India Used as green vegetable or sprouting shoots

Pea Pisum sativum L. Europe, North America, India

Human consumption, combining crop for animal feed.

Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan L. India Human consumption and animal feed

Soybean Glycine max L. USA, Brazil,China, Japan Human consumption (soy meal, concentrate, soy milk, fermented products), animal feed.

Sweet lupin Lupinus angustifolius L. Europe, America Animal feed for poultry, pigs and fish

White lupin Lupinus albus L. Europe, America Animal feed for poultry, pigs and fish

Yellow lupin Lupinus luteus L. Europe, America Animal feed for poultry, pigs and fish

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9.3 World Figures of Legume Production

Though legumes are grown all over the world, great differencesare seen across the world in the production of the cultivated legumes.Production as per continent is shown in table 1.8.

Table 1.8 Production of pulses by continents ( in 103Mt*)

1Haricot bean (also common bean) *Mt- Metric Tonnes, Data obtained from FAO Year Book (1986)

In the USA, legume mainly soybean is cultivated in 16% of thearable land. In Europe and erstwhile USSR mainly pea is cultivatedwhereas Asia produces most species of legumes.

9.4 Energy Content and Chemical Composition

Legumes are regarded as valuable source of energy. The energycontent of most pulses have been found between 300 and 570 Kcal/100g(Table 1.9).

Table 1.9 The energy content of some pulses commonly consumed by manPulses Scientific name Energy(Kcal/100g)

Broad bean Vicia faba 320Chick peas Cicer arietinum 347Cluster bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 307Cow peas Vigna unguiculata 340Lentil Lens culinaris 302Mung bean Vigna radiata 310Peanut Arachis hypogea 570Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan 301Soybean Glycine max 403Source: Wu Leung et al. (1972); Gopalan et al.(1980)

sesluP emancifitneicS aciremA.N S&CaciremA acirfA eporuE aisA RSSU

snaebyrD 1 siragluvsuloesahP 7262 9382 1191 038 6636 071

snaebdaorB abafaiciV 88 901 4211 155 8042 -

)yrd(saeP muvitasmusiP 534 89 433 7272 7732 0087

saepkcihC muniteirareciC 081 62 092 09 7527 -

slitneL siranilucsneL 882 - 631 47 4171 -

aepwoC ataluciugnuangiV 75 - 3001 6 72 -

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The energy required by humans for different metabolic processesand physical activities is met with protein, fat and carbohydrate catabolism(Ofuya and Akhidue, 2005).

9.4.1 As a Source of Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre

High carbohydrate content contributes to a great deal in the supplyof energy. A large percentage of carbohydrates of legumes occur asstarch, about 1.8 – 18% occur as oligosaccharides (Table 1.10) while 4.3– 25% occur as dietary fibre (Table 1.11). Though raffinose, stachyoseand verbascose which mainly contribute the oligosaccharides cause gasproduction in man, they are believed to have some beneficial effects.They can shorten transit time and promote the growth of bifido bacteriain man. Researches in Japan have suggested that oligosaccharides fromsoybean could be used as substitute for common table sugar. They arealso hypothesized to improve longevity and reduce colon cancer (Hayakawa et al., 1990; Koo and Rao, 1991).

The high dietary fibre contents of legumes are postulated to havesome important physiological effects, such as reducing the transit time inmammalian gut (Sathe et al., 1984). This would relieve constipation anddiverticular disease. Blood cholesterol level may be lowered as it bindsto cholesterol in the human gut (Burkitt and Trowell, 1985). Legumesalso have low glycaemic indices ( Bjorek et al., 2000), which makes themvaluable foods for diabetics. The cotyledon of legumes like locust bean andguar (guar gum) reduces postprandial glucose and insulin concentrationsin man (Gatenby, 1991; Feldman et al., 1995; Fairchild et al., 1996).

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Common name Scientific name Total carbohydrate% starch % Amylose contentof starch%

African yam bean Strepnostylis stenocarpa 40.8 — —

Bengal gram Cicer arietinum 60.1 – 61.2 37.0 – 50 31.8 – 45.8

Black gram Vigna mungo 56.5 – 63.7 32.2 – 47.9 43.9

Broad beans Vicia faba 57.3 41.2 – 52.7 20.7 – 45.5

Cowpea Vigna unguiculata 56.0 – 68.0 31.5 – 48.0 —

Lentil Lens culinaris 59.7 34.7 – 52.8 20.7 – 45.5

Mung gram Vigna radiata 53.3 – 61.2 37.0 – 53.6 13.8 – 35.0

Navy bean Phaseolus vulgaris 58.4 27.0 – 52.7 22.1 – 36.0

Red gram Cajanus cajan 57.3 – 58.7 40.4 – 48.2 39.6

Red Kidney bean Phaseolus vulgaris 56.3 – 60.5 31.9 – 47.0 17.5 – 37.2

Smooth peas Pisum sativum 56.6 36.9 – 48.6 23.5 – 33.1

Wrinkled pea Pisum sativum — 24.0 – 36.6 62 .8 – 65.8

Table 1.11 Dietary fibre content of pulses (mg/100g of wholemature seeds)

Legume Dietary fibre ReferencesChickpea 25.6 1Cluster bean 4.3 2Groundnut 6.1 2Kidney bean 25.4 2Lentils 11.7 2Mung bean 15.2 1Pea 16.7 1Pigeon pea 15.0 2Soyabean 11.9 2

1Kamath and Belavady (1980); 2Paul and Southgate (1978)

Source: Reddy et al., (1985); Frank – Peterside, Dosumu and Njoku (2002); Ofuya (2002); Oke, Tewe,and Fetuga (1995).

Data source: http:www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleALLChapter.aspx

Table 1.10 Starch and total carbohydrate contents of legumes

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9.4.2 As a Source of Protein

Legumes are invariably rich sources of protein, the value beingabout twice of cereal grain and several times that of root tuber (FAO,1968), so they can help to improve the dietary protein intake of meals bycomplementing cereals and root tubers (Khushwah et al., 2002).

Legumes when eaten with cereals can also help to increase theprotein quality of the meal and thus overcome the shortcomings of lowlysine in cereals and other amino acids (sometimes tryptophan orthreonine).

Legume seeds are rich in lysine and poorer in sulphur containingamino acids (methionine and cystine) compared to cereals. So, cerealhas to be complemented by legume for lysine balance which is known asprotein complementation . An example of this is shown in Fig. 1 (Normanand Joseph, 2007).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                      100/0  80/20       60/40  40/60     20/80     0/100  

Corn/soybean protein ratio 

Protein efficiency ratio

 

1.5 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

1.9 

2.0 

2.1 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

2.5 

2.6 

2.7 

2.8 

2.9 

Fig 1. Protein efficiency ratio of corn and soybean proteins. Source: Bressani et al., J. Food Sci. 39, 577-580(1974).

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Fig 1 shows graphical relationship of the results of experiment whereindifferent mixtures of corn flour and soybean flour proteins were fed torats and impact of this feeding on their weight gain per gram of proteinconsumed (protein efficiently ratio) was measured. Optimum results wereobtained with 40% corn/60% soybean protein ratio. With less soybean,lysine became limiting while with more soybean ,methionine was limiting(Bressani et al., 1974).

The main protein fractions of legume seeds are albumin and globulin,which can be separated into two major fractions namely vicilin andlegumin. Relative proportion of legumin to vicilin varies with genotype ,but vicilin is the major protein fraction of all legumes except Vicia faba.Vicilin contains low sulphur containing amino acids and this is the maincause of their relatively poor composition of pea (Casey, 1998). Themain globulin fractions differ in their amino acid composition, molecularweight of protein subunits and physicochemical properties(Shuster-Gajzago, 2009).

9.4.3 As a Source of Fat

The fat content varies in different species. Most species containabout 1% fat while groundnut and soybean have very high fat content ofabout 49% for former and 30% for latter (FAO, 1968). Besides providingenergy, fat also provides essential fatty acids to man. Soybean oil containslinolenic acid, an omega – 3 fatty acid which is currently being studiedfor its ability to reduce the risk of heart disease and cancer (Ofuya andAkhidue, 2005).

9.4.4 As a Source of Micronutrients

Thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, folic acid, vitamins E and K arepresent in appreciable quantities in legumes (Ofuya and Akhidue, 2005).The B vitamins act as co-enzymes in biological processes. Vitamin E is

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known to play an important role as an antioxidant inhibiting the oxidationof vitamin A in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and of polyunsaturatedcompounds in the tissues. It is also believed to maintain the stability ofcell membrane (Davies and Stewart, 1987). Vitamin K functions primarilyin the liver where it is necessary for the formation of blood clotting factors.

9.5 Summary

The consumption of legume should be encouraged in both adultsand children. Because of their high dietary fibre content, legumes wouldbe useful even among the affluent who can afford lots of animal protein.Malnourished children who cannot afford animal protein and vegetariansshould be encouraged to consume legumes because of their high proteincontent. As the oil of legumes contains high proportion of polyunsaturatedfatty acids it reduces the risk of heart diseases, so its consumption shouldbe encouraged to improve human nutrition.

10. Antinutritional Characters of Legumes - its Role in HumanNutrition

10.1 Substance Nature

In food and nutrition literature, the term antinutrients or naturaltoxicants has been widely employed. They are a range of secondarydefence metabolites synthesized by plants as a part of their protectionagainst attack by herbivores, insects and pathogens or as a means tosurvive in adverse growing conditions. When humans consume theseplants, the compounds may exert adverse physiological effects. Thebiological effects vary greatly depending on the structures of the individualcompounds which can range from high molecular weight proteins tosimple amino acids and oligosaccharides (Khokar and Apenten, 2009).

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10.2 Major Antinutrients in LegumeLegumes contain many antinutrients so far known to occur in foods (table1.12).

Table 1.12 Some natural antinutritional factors present in food

Phytic acid LectinsTannins Trypsin inhibitorsCyanogenic glycosides OxalatesSaponin PolyphenolsLathyrogens α-galactosidesProtease inhibitors GoitrogensHaemagglutinins α- amylase inhibitorsL-DOPA

Source : Akande et al., 2010

10.3 Properties and General Characteristics

10.3.1 Phytic Acid

Phytic acid (PA) is found closely associated with proteins and isoften isolated or concentrated with protein fraction of the dicotyledonousseeds such as legumes, nuts and oilseeds. PA is the primary phosphatereserve in most seeds accounting for 60% to 90% of total phosphorus.

Fig. 2. Structure of Phytic acid(1r,2R,3S,4s,5R,6S)-cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexayl hexakis[dihydrogen (phosphate)]Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytic acid accessed on 07/11/12

OPHOO

OHOOH

OHOP O

OO

OH

OHO O

OOHO

HOHO

OHHOO

OP P

P

P

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Structurally, PA is 1,2, 3,4,5,6-hexakis dihydrogen phosphatemyoinositol and is found in cereals and legumes at levels ranging from0.4% to 6.4% by weight. The antinutritional effects of phytate lie in itsability to chelate several mineral elements such as iron, calcium,magnesium, zinc and copper and forms indigestible complexes withprotein. The ability of phytic acid to complex with proteins and particularlywith minerals has been a subject of investigation for several reasonspredominantly from chemical and nutritional point of view. The interactionbetween phytate and proteins leads to decreased solubility of protein. Ithas also been shown that calcium ions interact with protein and phytateto further decrease the solubility of proteins (Urbano et al., 2000). Thereis evidence that phytate-protein complexes are less subjected to proteolyticdigestion than that of the same protein alone depending on pH. Phytatehas an inhibitory effect on the peptic digestion of albumin and elastin.This effect is believed to be related to its ability to form insolublecombinations with proteins in an acid medium and in a range of pHwhich corresponds precisely to the optimum for the action of pepsin.The nutritionally important minerals such as calcium, magnesium, copper,iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+) and others form complexes with phytic acid resultingin reduced solubility of the metals and biologically unavailable forabsorption(Urbano et al., 2000). Most researchers suggest that formationof insoluble phytate- metal complexes in the intestinal tract prevents metalabsorption and availability.

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HOO

OHO

OH

OH

OH

HOO

OOO

OHOHHO

HHH

H

HH

H

Fig. 3. Structure of saponins

Source : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/saponin (last accessed on 7/11/2012)

Saponins are diverse chemical compounds forming a class ofglycosides mainly found in plants. Structurally it is steroidal or triterpeneaglycone linked to one, two or three saccharide chains of varying sizeand complexity via ester and or ether linkages. Saponins as a family(except liquorice, which is sweet) is characterized by bitter taste andability to haemolyse red blood cells. The most common sugar linked toan aglycone (or sapogenin) are galactose, arabinose, xylose and glucose.The structure affects its chemical behaviour and leads to the expressionof many of its biological properties like the amphiphilic behaviour of asaponin as the result of the opposing lyophilic and lyophobiccharacterization of the carbohydrate and aglycone moieties. Table 1.13shows the broad range of saponins occurring in the human diet. Withingrain legumes, the saponin content varies over a wide range.

10.3.2 Saponins

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Table 1.13 Saponin levels in some legume seeds and ginseng

Source Saponin (% dry weight)Soybean (Glycine max) 5.6Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) 3.6Lucerne (Medicago sativa) 2.5Lupine (Lupinus angustifolius) 1.5Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa wild) 0.02 – 0.04 (sweet)

0.47 – 1.13 (bitter)Ginseng 0.5 – 3.0Vicine and covicine are glycosides present in faba beans.

Source : Khokar and Apenten, 2009

10.3.3 Polyphenols

Polyphenols are the biggest group of phytochemicals and many ofthem have been found in plant-based foods. Chemically, polyphenols area group of natural compounds with phenolic structural features. It is acollective term of several sub-groups of phenolic compounds . However,use of the term ‘polyphenols’ has been somewhat confusing and itsimplied chemical structures are often vague even to researchers. Studieshave shown that different polyphenols subgroups may differ significantlyin stability, bioavailability and physiological function related to humanhealth. Polyphenols have been classified by their source of origin,

Fig. 4. Typical compounds related to flavonoidsSource : Rong, 2010

Protocatechuic acid, R = HVanillic acid, R = OCH3

p-coumaric acid Caffeic acid R = H;Chlorogenic acid, R = 5-quinoyl;Criptochlorogenic acid, R = 4-quinoyl;Neochlorogenic acid, R = 3-quinoyl;

Ferulic acidGallic acid, R = H;Syringic acid, R = OCH3

Benzoic acids Cinnamic acids

Sinapic acids

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biological function and chemical structure. Polyphenols consist of twogroups such as flavonoids and cinnamic acid derivatives. The majorflavonoids of plants are anthocyanins, leucoanthocyanins, flavones,flavonals. Compounds related to flavonoids are benzoic acid derivatives(protocatechuic acid, vanillic acid, gallic acid and syringic acid) andcinnamic acid derivatives (p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid,caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, critochlorogenic acid and neochlorogenicacid). Majority of polyphenols in plants exist as glycosides with differentsugar units and acylated sugars at different positions of the polyphenolskeleton (Rong, 2010).

These plant metabolites are distributed ubiquitously within plantfoods (vegetables, cereals, legumes, fruits, nuts etc.) and beverages (tea,wine, cocoa etc.). Levels of polyphenols vary greatly and is influencedby environmental factors such as light, germination, degree of ripeness,variety, processing, storage and genetic factors (Table 1.14).

Table 1.14 Polyphenolic contents of different plant foods and beverages.

Type of food & beverages LevelCereals 22 – 102.60mg/100g dry matterLegumes 34 – 1710 mg/100g dry matterNuts 0.04 – 38 mg/100g dry matterVegetables 6 – 2025(mg/100g fresh matter)Fruits 2 – 1200(mg/fresh matter)Tea 150 – 210(mg/200ml)Red wine 1000 – 4000(mg/L)White wine 200 – 300(mg/L)Data source: Bravo, 1998.

10.3.4 Lathyrogens

The outbreak of neurolathyrism following consumption of Lathyrussativus is due to the potent neurotoxic activity of a naturally occurringamino acid β-N-oxalyl-L-α, β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP or

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HOOH

OH

HOOH

OH

CH2CH OH3 CH2

OO O

OO

OH

OOH OH

CH OH2

CH OH2

HOO

HO

2VERBASCOSE

HOOH

OH

HOOH

OH

CH2CH OH3 CH2

OO O

OO

OH

OOH OH

CH OH2

CH OH2

HOO

HO

RAFFINOSE FAMILY SUGARS

STACHYOSE

O H

OH

OHHO

HOCH2

CH2

O

HO

OH

OH

H

OH

H

OH

CH2

H2C

O

O

HOOHO

O

O

RAFFINOSE

Fig. 5. Structure of raffinose family sugars. The three sugars differ in thenumber of galactose units attached to a molecule of sucrose.

Source : http://www.hsu.edu/uploaded files/faculty/Academic Forum/1998-9/1998-9AFFlatulence%20and%20Chemistrypdf accessed on 24/09/2013

BOAA). β-ODAP occurs naturally in two isomeric forms with theα -form being approximately 5% of the total. α-isomer is less toxic thanβ-isomer. The levels of β-ODAP in dry seed varies considerably accordingto genetic factors and environmental conditions (Khokar and Apenten,2009).

10.3.5 ααααα-Galactosides

Certain foods such as peas and beans contain appreciable levelsof complex sugars (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) known asoligosaccharides.α-galactosidase and sucrase are the two enzymes

22

required to completely hydrolyse the oligosaccharides intomonosaccharides which can be readily absorbed into the bloodstream.However, the human gastrointestinal tract does not possessα-galactosidase, thus the hydrolysis of ingested oligosaccharides isincomplete. The unhydrolysed oligosaccharides are eventually fermentedby anaerobic microorganisms in the colon to produce flatulent gasessuch as carbon dioxide, hydrogen and methane (Reddy and Salunkhe,1980).

α-Galactosides are present in significant amounts in mature legumeseeds. They are oligosaccharides chemically described as α-galactosidesand cause flatulence. To detect them a wide range of chromatrographicmethods has been employed but HPLC is the method of choice. A silica-amino column is most commonly employed with acetonitrile-water mixtureas mobile phase; variations described in the literature generally involvedifferences in extraction and clean up procedures. Determination of thefree sugar digestibility index, defined as the ratio of digestible sugars tonon-digestible sugars can assist breeders’ selection of plant materials toensure flatulence producing high α-galactoside lines which are identifiedand eliminated (Khokar and Apenten, 2009).

10.3.6 Protease Inhibitors

Protease inhibitors are widely distributed in the seeds of mostcultivated legumes. Protease inhibitors have the ability to inhibit the activityof proteolytic enzymes within the gastrointestinal tract of animals (Lienerand Kakade, 1980). Trypsin inhibitor and chymotrypsin inhibitor areprotease inhibitors occurring in raw legume seeds. Trypsin inhibitors havebeen implicated in reducing protein digestibility and in pancreatichypertrophy (Liener,1976). Trypsin inhibitors are polypeptides that formwell characterized stable complexes with trypsin on a one to one molar

23

ratio, obstructing the enzymatic action (Cartini and Udedible, 1997).Protease inhibitors are inactivated by heat especially moist heat becauseof even distribution of heat (Bressani and Sopa,1990; Liener,1995).

Trypsin inhibitors are proteins that inhibit the activity of trypsin inthe gut and interfere with digestibility of dietary protein and reduce theirutilisation. They are present in red gram, Bengal gram, cow pea, doublebeans, soybean, Khesari dal and peas. The release of essential aminoacids, particularly methionine is hampered by the presence of trypsininhibitors. They are generally heat labile and moist heat treatment like

pressure cooking destroys them. Autoclaving at 120ºC for 15 – 20 minutes

inactivates almost all trypsin inhibitors. Trypsin inhibitors are easily

inactivated from dhals but more drastic heat treatment is necessary to

inactivate trypsin inhibitors of soy bean and kidney bean (Srilakshmi, 2010).

10.3.7 Goitrogens

Goitrogenic substances which cause enlargement of the thyroid

gland have been found in legumes such as soybeans and groundnut.

These substances interfere with iodine uptake by thyroid gland. They

have been reported to inhibit the synthesis and secretion of thyroid

hormones. Goitrogenic effect has been effectively counteracted by iodine

supplementation rather than heat treatment (Liener, 1975).

10.3.8 Amylase Inhibitors

Amylase inhibitors also known as starch blockers are substancesthat prevent dietary starches from being absorbed by the body. Starchesare complex carbohydrates that cannot be absorbed unless they are firstbroken down by the digestive enzyme amylase and other secondary

24

enzymes (Marshall and Lauda, 1975; Choudhury et al., 1996). Pigeonpea has been reported to contain amylase inhibitors. These inhibitorshave been found to be active over a pH range of 4.5 – 9.5 and are heatlabile. Amylase inhibitors inhibit bovine pancreatic amylase but fail toinhibit bacterial, fungal and endogenous amylase. Pigeon pea amylaseinhibitors are synthesized during late seed development and are degradedduring late germination (Giri and Kachola, 1998).

10.3.9 Lectins

Sometimes referred to as phytohaemagglutinins or haemagglutinins(HA) are glycoproteins widely distributed in leguminous seeds. It possesesan affinity for specific sugar molecules and are characterized by theirability to combine with carbohydrate membrane receptors (Pusztai, 1989).HAs are isolated from soybean, faba bean, white bean, double bean andhorse gram. HAs are heat labile and combine with the cell lining of theintestinal wall, in almost the same way as it combines with red blood cellsthus causing an impairment for the absorption of amino acids. The mostactive substances in agglutination of blood cells are the most toxic onesand are found in Phaseolus vulgaris (phasin) and Glycine max (Jaffe andHannig, 1965; Tom and Turner, 1965 and Muclenaere, 1985).

10.3.10 Tannins

Gallic acid Flavone Phloroglucinol

Fig. 6. Base unit or monomer of tanninsSource : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tannin (Last accessed on 07/11/2012)

25

A tannin (also known as vegetable tannin, natural organic tanninsor sometimes tannoid i.e. a type of biomolecule, as opposed to modern

synthetic tannin) is an astringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound

that binds to and precipitates proteins and various other organiccompounds including amino acids and alkaloids (Source: http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tannin accessed on 24/9/13).

There are three major classes of tannins. The base units are shownin fig. 6. Particularly in the flavone derived tannins, the base shown must

be heavily hydroxylated and polymerised in order to give the high

molecular weight polyphenol motif that characterizes tannins. Typicallytannin molecules require at least 12 hydroxyl groups and at least 5 phenyl

groups to function as protein binders (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/

wiki/tannin accessed on 24/9/13).

Tannins are naturally occurring water soluble compounds of higher

molecular weights containing a large number of phenolic hydroxyl or

other suitable groups which enable them to form effective cross linkswith protein, which results in the inhibition of certain enzymes (Hill-

Cottingam, 1983). There are two different groups of tannins-hydrolysable

tannins and condensed tannins. Most legumes contain tannins. Redcoloured beans contain the most tannins and white coloured beans the

least. Condensed tannins are widely distributed in leguminous seeds

(Kumar and Horigma, 1986; Kumar and Vaithiyanathan, 1990; D’mello,2000). Tannins may form a less digestive complex with dietary proteins

and may bind and inhibit the endogenous protein such as digestive enzyme

(Kumar and Singh, 1984). Tannin - protein complexes involve bothhydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. The precipitation of

protein-tannin complex depends upon pH, ionic strength and molecular

26

size of tannins. Both the protein precipitation and incorporation of tanninphenolics into the precipitate increases with increase in molecular size of

tannins (Kumar and Horigma, 1986).

10.3.11 Cyanogenic Glycosides

Some legumes like linseed, lime bean, kidney bean and the red

gram contain cyanogenic glycosides from which hydrogen cyanide (HCN)

may be released by hydrolysis. Some cultivars of Phaseolus lunatus(lima bean) contain a cyanogenic glycoside called phaseolutanin from

which HCN is liberated due to enzyme action, especially when tissues

are broken down by grinding or chewing or under damp conditions(Purseglove, 1968). Cyanide content in the range of 10 – 20mg/100g of

pulse is considered safe. Many legumes except lima bean contain cyanide

within this limit (Srilakshmi, 2010).

10.3.12 Oxalates

Oxalates affect calcium and magnesium metabolism and react with

protein to form complexes which have an inhibitory effect in pepticdigestion. Ruminants however unlike monogastric animals can ingest

considerable amounts of high oxalate plants without adverse effects due

to microbial decomposition in the rumen (Oke, 1969). Chemical analysiscarried out by Alebi et al. (2005) on locust bean seeds revealed that the

testa of locus bean seeds had the highest concentration of oxalates

(4.96mg/100g) followed by the pulp (3.40mg/100g) and the cotyledon(1.15mg/100g). Olomu (1995) reported that pigeon pea which contains

about 0.38% oxalic acid binds calcium and forms calcium oxalate which

is insoluble. Calcium oxalate adversely affects the absorption and

utilisation of calcium in the animal body.

27

10.4 Antinutritional Factors-the Harmful Effects

10.4.1 Phytic acid

Phytic acid inhibits the action of gastrointestinal tyrosinase, pepsin,

lipase and amylase (Liener, 1980). Erdman(1979), Hendricks and Bailey(1989)and Khare (2000) stated that the greatest effect of phytic acid onhuman nutrition is its reduction of zinc availability.

10.4.2 Saponins

Saponins from some plants produce adverse effects on the growthof animals. Saponin containing foods when taken in large quantity causeabdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea (Khokhar and Apenten, 2009).

10.4.3 Polyphenols

Phenolic compounds were noted to exert inhibitory effects onhydrolase enzymes,chymotrypsin and trypsin (Bjero et al., 1988). In thecontributions of Rajaram and Janardhanan (1992), Janardhanan (1993),Mohan and Janardhanan (1993) and Siddhuraju et al. (1995), phenoliccompounds have been rather termed as antinutritional factors. However,Lachman et al., (2000) asserted that polypnehols are plant antioxidantswith many healthy effects such as scavenging of free radicals, inhibitionof oxidation of low density lipoprotiens, lowering of cholesterol level,decreasing fragility of blood vessels and decreasing of heart coronaryrisk. Joshi (2010) included polyphenols among the members ofphytochemicals which are non nutritive plant chemicals that had protectiveor disease preventive properties.

10.4.4 Lathyrogens

Lathyrogens causes neurolathyrism crippling human beings as itaffects the nervous system characterised by gradually developing spastic

28

paralysis of lower limbs occuring mostly after consuming the pulse,Lathyrus sativus (commonly known as Khesari dhal) in large quantities.Studies have shown that diets containing over 30% of this dhal if takenfor a period of 2 – 6 months will result in neurolathyrism. The toxinpresent in lathyrus seeds has been identified as β-N-oxaly-L-α, β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP or BOAA). Besides BOAA several other toxinshave also been reported (Park, 1994).

10.4.5 ααααα -Galactosides

They cause flatulence. The presence of flatulence causing raffinosefamily oligosaccharide, the so called α-galactosides (raffinose, stachyoseand verbascose) in significiant amounts in mature legume seeds has beenasscertained (Reddy and Salunkhe, 1980; Bernabe et al., 1993; Frias etal., 1996a). The enzyme galactosidase which cleaves the galactose linkageof α-galactosides is not present in the human intestinal mucosa and theunhydrolysed sugar; therefore, are not absorbed by the intestinal wall.The unhydrolysed oligosaccharides pass into the large intestine wherethey are fermented anaerobically, resulting in the preparation of hydrogen,carbon dioxide and trace of methane gas. The gases so produced areresponsible for the characteristic features of flatulence causing nausea,cramps, diarrhoea, abdominal rumblings and the social discomfortassociated with the ejection of rectal gas (Inaomacha, 2007).

10.4.6 Protease Inhibitors

Protease inhibitors have been reported to be partly responsible forthe growth retarding property of raw legumes. The retardation has beenattributed to inhibition of protein digestion but there is evidence thatpancreatic hyperactivity results in increased production of trypsin andchymotrypsin with consequent loss of cystine and methionine. (Mc Donaldet al., 1995).

29

10.4.7 Goitrogens

Goitrogens may lead to precipitation of goitre. These substancesinterfere with iodine uptake by thyroid gland. Thiocyanate, isothiocyanatesand their derivatives are present in soybean, groundnuts and lentils.Excessive intake of these foods in the face of marginal intake of iodinefrom foods and water may lead to precipitation of goitre (Srilakshmi, 2010).

10.4.8 ααααα-Amylase Inhibitors

Amylase inhibitors contain substances that prevent dietary starchesfrom being absorbed by the body. Hence, they are also known as starchblockers. Starches being complex carbohydrates cannot be absorbedunless they are first broken down by digestive enzyme amylase and othersecondary enzymes (Marshal and Lauda, 1975; Choudhury et al., 1996).It also inhibits bovine pancreatic amylase but fail to inhibit bacterial, fungaland endogenous amylase. These inhibitors have been found to be activeover a pH range of 4.5 – 9.5 and are heat labile. Pigeon pea amylaseinhibitors are synthesised during late seed development and are degradedduring late germination (Giri and Kachola, 1998).

10.4.9 Lectins

It may cause reduced food intake resulting in poor growth alongwith an impairment of amino acid absorption. It is a glycoprotein widelydistributed in legumes and some oil seeds and possess an affinity forspecific sugar molecules and are characterised by their ability to combinewith carbohydrate membrane receptors (Pusztai, 1989). Lectins arecapable to bind to the intestinal mucosa (Almeida et al., 1991; Santiagoet al., 1993) interact with the erythrocytes and interfere intestinal absorptionof nurtients during digestion (Santiago et al., 1993) and cause epitheliallesions within the intestine (Oliveira et al., 1989)

30

10.4.10 Tannins

Tannins form complex with protein and thus reduce proteindigestibility. Intestinal damage, interference with iron absorption and theexertion of carcinogenic effect are also their antinutrition properties(Butler, 1989). Tannins are water soluble phenolic compounds withmolecular weight greater than 500 daltons. They can precipitate proteinsfrom aqueous solutions. There are two different types of tannins –hydrolyzable tannins and condensed tannins. Condensed tannins arewidely distributed in leguminous forages and seeds. Tannins may form aless digestive complex with dietary protiens and may bind and inhibit theendogenous proteins, such as digestive enzymes (Kumar and Singh, 1984).Tannin-protein complexes involve both hydrogen bonding andhydrophobic interaction. Tannins have been found to interefere withdigestion by displaying anti-trypsin and anti-amylase activity. Tannins alsohave the ability to complex with vitamin B12 (Liener, 1980).

10.4.11 Trypsin Inhibitors

It inhibits the activity of trypsin in the gut and interferes withdigestibility of dietary proteins and reduces their utilization. It inhibits theactivity of trypsin in the gut and interferes with digestibility of dietaryproteins and reduces their utilization. The release of essential amino acids,particularly methionine is hampered by the presence of trypsin inhibitors.Pancreas enlargement and growth retardation occur in animals thatconsume diet containing trypsin inhibitors (Srilakshmi, 2010).

10.4.12 Cyanogenic Glycosides

It may cause cyanide poisoning. Cyanogenic glycosides afterhydrolysis release HCN. HCN can cause dysfunction of the centralnervous system, respiratory failure and cardiac arrest (D’Mello, 2000).

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10.4.13 Oxalates

Oxalates affect calcium and magnesium metabolism and reacts

with protein to form complexes which have an inhibitory effect in peptic

digestion (Oke, 1969).

10.4.14 L-DOPA

L-DOPA causes nausea, vomiting, anorexia, paranoid delusions,

hallucinations, severe depressions and unmasking dementia (Josephine

and Janardhanan, 1992; Reynolds, 1989).

10.5 Antinutritional Factors-the Beneficial Effects?

Though antinutrtional, some of these factors may exhibit some

beneficial effects useful to human lives.

10.5.1 Phytic Acid

Phytates stimulate the immune system to protect the human body

against cancers and to reduce cholesterol level. Phytates decrease blood

lipids, lower cancer risk and lower blood glucose response. A high phytate

diet is used in the inhibition of dental caries and platelet aggregation, in

the treatment of hypercalciuria in humans and as an antidote against acute

lead poisoning (John et al., 2004).

10.5.2 Saponins

Saponins are important in the human diet as they can lower plasma

cholesterol reducing risk of heart diseases. It may also prevent the legume

seeds against attack by insects (Baldev et al., 1988).

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10.5.3 Polyphenols

It is involved in plant defence against insects, pests and invadingpathogens including bacteria, fungi and viruses. Polyphenol oxidasecatalyse polymerization which helps seal the injured plant surface andhence begin the healing process.Many polyphenols exert healthy effectsby acting as antioxidants (Khokar and Apenten, 2009).

10.5.4 ααααα-Galactosides

α-Galactosides ingestion increases the population of indigenousbifido bacteria (a genus of obligate anaerobic lactobacilli commonlyoccurring in faeces) in the colon, which by its antagonistic effectsuppresses the activity of putrefactive bacteria and reduce the formationof toxic fermentation products. On the other hand, the accumulation ofα-galactosides has been realised as their protective role against damageinduced by the cold (Frias et al., 1996).

10.5.5 Lectins

It protects the plant from attack by fungus and insect infestation.Lectins seem to play an important role in physiological function and inthe defence mechanisms against the attack of microorganisms, pests andinsects. In legumes, the role of lectins in the recognition of nutrogenfixing bacteria Rhizobium genus, which have sugar containing substances,has received a special attention (http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plant/

toxicagents/lectins – last accessed on 21/7/2012).

10.5.6 Tannins

Tannins may have fungicidal properties which protect seeds and

seedlings during germination and emergence (Bond and Smith, 1989).

33

10.5.7 L-DOPA

L-DOPA is a pharmaceutically active compound used in the

treatment of Parkinson’s disease (Pugalenthi et al., 2007).

11. Antinutritional Factors-the Need for Processing

Antinutritional factors (ANF) are compounds which reduce the

food intake and /or nutrient utilization of plants including legumes used

as human foods and animal feeds and have profound concern in

determining the consumption of plants for humans and animals.

Also called “secondary metabolites”, most of these biologically

active compounds elicit harmful biological responses. More often than

not, a single plant may contain two or more toxic compounds which add

to the difficulty of detoxification. There are several ANFs that are significant

in plants used as human foods and animal feeds (Aletor, 1993). They are

(i) Enzyme inhibitors (trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, plasmin

inhibitors, elastase inhibitors) (ii) Haemagglutinins (concanavalin A, ricin)

(iii) Plant enzymes (urease, lipooxygenase) (iv) cyanogenic glycosides

(phaseolunatin, dhurrin, linamarin,lutaustralin) (v) Goitrogens (pro-goitrins

and glucosinolates) (vi) Oestrogens (flavones and genistein) (vii) Saponins

(soya sapogenin) (viii) Gossypol from Gossypium species e.g.cotton

(ix)Tannins (condensed and hydrolysable tannins) (x) Amino acid

analogues-β-N-oxalyl-L-α, β-diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP or

BOAA),mimosine, N-methyl-1-alanine (xi) Alkaloids (solanine and

chaconine) (xii)Anti-metals (phytates and oxalates) (xiii) Anti-vitamins (anti-

vitamins A, D, E and B12) and (xiv) Favism factors.

34

The abundance of anti-nutritional factors and toxic influences in

plants consumed as human foods, other human foods and animal feeds

certainly calls for concern. Therefore, ways and means of eliminating or

reducing their levels to the barest minimum should be discovered. Much

of the available data and information on the nutrient and antinutrientcomposition of the more commonly used local foods and feeds do notcover all the foods and feeds and where available, needs updating. Thisis because of the possible effects of variety/genetic origin, climate, soil,processing methods, use of pesticides and fertilizers on the chemicalcomposition of the food plants (FAO, 1966).

Several considerations justify the continued surveillance, knowledgeelaboration and future research on antinutritional factors naturally presentin plants used as foods and foodstuffs and ways to reduce them byprocessing to safe levels of human and/or animal during consumption(Soetan and Oyewole, 2009) with the following reasons.

Firstly, introduction of new plant varieties into our diets may exposehumans and animals to new toxic factors with unsuspected biologicaleffects. So, evaluation of the newly developed or exotic food for toxiccompounds including ANFs should be properly carried out.

Secondly, anti-nutritional factors are increasingly recognized asinsignificant items of the diets of humans and animal (Osagie, 1998).Thus, they affect the overall nutritional value of foods and feeds.

Thirdly, to develop higher yielding or disease resistant varieties theplant breeder knowingly or unknowingly might incorporate someundesirable components as well (Osagie, 1998) which should be evaluatedand removed by processing.

35

Fourthly, the information that anti-nutritional components of foodcan be reduced by effective processing will help dieticians, veterinarians,human and animal nutritionists to recommend foods/feeds in a propermanner and avoid recommending foods/feeds that patients cannot tolerate(Soetan and Oyewole, 2009).

Improper processing of plant food like beans and pulses mayexpose humans and animals to high concentrations of toxic secondarymetabolites or anti-nutritional factors. As an example, soy milk used ininfant formula if not processed properly and supplemented with iodinemay cause goitre in infants (Hydowitz, 1960).

The information on the effect of different processing techniqueson the anti-nutritional factors in human foods and animal feeds will attractinterest by human and animal nutritionist, dieticians, veterinarians, publichealth and food regulatory bodies/authorities on the exploitation of thesetechniques so that nutritive value of food/feed could be efficientlymaximized (Soetan and Oyewole, 2009).

Though a plant or a plant part consumed by humans or animals isan indication of acceptability, factors that determine the nutritive value offoods/feeds are questionable and complex. Adequate importance shouldbe given to the presence of secondary metabolites and its removal bydifferent processing techniques when we consider the nutritive value ofany leguminous plant inclusive of crude protein, crude carbohydrate,crude fibre etc (Soetan and Oyewole, 2009).

12. Review of Literature for Effect of Processing on NutritionalSubstances in Legumes

The nutritive value of grain legumes depend primarily on theirnutrient content and presence or absence of anti nutritional and /or toxicfactors. Nutritive value is the ability of food to provide a usable form of

36

nutrients. Generally, the food processing methods including soaking,boiling, germination, decortication, fermentation and cooking greatlyinfluence their nutritive values. Of these cooking and germination playimportant role as they influence the bioavailability and utilization of nutrientsand also improve palatability which incidentally may enhance thedigestibility and nutritive value. Literature reveals effects of variousprocessing methods on nutritional substances as given under.

12.1 Soaking

Leguminous seeds soaked in tap water or sodium bicarbonatesolution resulted in decreased concentration of sucrose (Abdel-Gawad,1993). Esenwah and Ikenebomeh (2008) reported that soaking Africanlocust bean in water decreased ash content significantly due to leachingof soluble inorganic substances into the processing water. Loss incarbohydrate during soaking could be due to leaching of solublecarbohydrate like sugars into the soaking water. Crude lipid was increasedsignificantly in their study by soaking and this is in agreement with thefindings of Ikenebomeh (1986), Addy et al. (1995) and Omafuvbe et al.(2004). However, Ramadan (2012) reported that soaking soybeanincreased protein content but decreased fat. This decrease in fat couldbe due to the increasing activity of lipases during soaking and alsobreakdown of oil into glycerol and fatty acids. Crude fibre content ofsoybean recorded an increase during soaking in which decrease in sucrosewas conspicuous.

A large increase in neutral detergent fibre was found when fababean seeds were soaked in 0.07% sodium bicarbonate (Vidal-Valverde etal., 1998). It was noted that sodium bicarbonate not only acted as analkaline agent and buffer but also as protein dissociating, solubilising ortenderising agent. It softens the cellulose and hastens cooking process(Srilakshmi, 2010).

37

Zacharie and Sinard (1995) noted that there was decrease in ash,

most minerals, vitamins and some essential amino acids after soaking

common bean. A significant decrease in fat content and ash content in

Dolichos lablab bean after soaking was noted by Osman (2007). High

lipolytic enzyme activity which breakdown the triglycerides to simple

fatty acids especially led to the decrease in fat. Though the ash values

varied, the reduction in ash content might be due to the leaching out of

both macro and micro elements due to soaking. There was significant

increase in carbohydrate content and a decrease in protein content in

their study. However, soaking cowpea seeds for different periods of 6,

12 and 18 hrs. did not alter the protein content while significant improvement

in protein digestibility was observed after soaking and it was increased by

2.9, 5.3 and 6.5% in seeds respectively (Rekha et al., 2005).

12.2 Decortication

Oseni et al. (2011) reported that the amount of digestible

carbohydrate in decoated seed was greater than that of whole seed because

of the absence of seed coat which has more fibre. Mucuna seeds after

decortication contained higher crude protein and crude fat (Mugendi et

al., 2010). Mubarak (2005) had observed a slight increase in total essentialamino acids due to decoating of mungbean seeds.

12.3 Boiling

It is a common adoption of legume processing. Indeed cookingcauses considerable losses in soluble solids especially vitamins andminerals. El-Adawy (2002) reported that cooking treatment causedsignificant decrease in fat, total ash, carbohydrate fractions, minerals and

38

B-vitamins from chickpeas. Increasing the time and temperature ofprocessing has been reported to reduce the nutritive value and availablelysine of legumes (Mubarak, 2005). Further, cooking treatment significantlydecreased fat and ash content because of diffusion into the cooking water.Protein quality of pulses was improved more by moist heat than by dryheat treatment as the available lysine was decreased in roasted pulses ascompared to boiled and pressure cooked ones. Srilakshmi (2010) reportedthat heat treatment caused loss of methionine, the most important aminoacid of legume. Thiamine loss may also occur due to the heat applied.However, cooking had little effect on minerals. With the increase in seedmaturity cooking time was also to be increased.

Heat treatment produced a reduction in mono and disaccharidesof different legumes. Such processing also brought about a general increasein lignin (Vidal-Valverde et al., 1998). Heat treatments also improved thenutrient value of soybean meal by increasing the utilisation of proteinsand amino acids, fats and carbohydrates present in the meal. Proteindigestibility was enhanced even by partial cooking (Walker, 1975). Ashcontent of the sample decreased significantly after boiling due to leachingof soluble inorganic salts into the processing water during boiling.

Many workers have found a decrease in total carbohydrate contentafter boiling process of the legumes (Addy et al., 1995; Omafuvbe et al.,2004 and Osman, 2007). The loss of carbohydrate during boiling may bedue to leaching of soluble carbohydrates like sugars into the water usedas cooking medium. Lipid content of samples increased significantly bysoaking and boiling. This finding was in agreement with the findings ofIkenebomeh (1986); Addy et al. (1995) and Omafuvbe et al. (2004).Cleavage of the protein – lipid or carbohydrate – lipid linkages, thereby

39

facilitating the easy extraction of the oil by the extracting solvent led to

such increase in lipid. The increases recorded in the crude protein and

ether extract might be due to the reduction in the carbohydrate content

and may be regarded as an apparent increase in both the protein and fat

contents to complement the decrease in carbohydrates (Esenwah and

Ikenebomeh, 2008).

12.4 Pressure Cooking

Pressure cooking is a popular method of cooking in many

households as it saves time and conserves nutrients. Such processing

did not affect the total essential amino acids and increased the contents

of leucine, threonine and histidine. It was also observed that pyridoxine,

pantothenic acid and riboflavin were more stable to heat processing of

faba bean than niacin and thiamine (Khalil and Mansour, 2000). Khatoon

and Prakash (2004) observed that thiamine was decreased by pressure

cooking of legumes. While studying the green gram and black gram

cultivars, it was observed that protein content was greatly decreased in

both the pulses by pressure cooking (Kakati et al., 2010). However,

pressure cooking seems to exert a better effect on protein digestibility

than ordinary cooking. This effect seen in most grain legumes probably

occurred by destroying heat labile protease inhibitors and also by denaturing

globulins which were highly resistant to proteases in the native state

(Henardez et al., 1985; Khokhar and Chauhan, 1986). Some workers

found that folic acid was degraded in cowpea during processing by

pressure cooking (Nisha et al., 2005).

40

12.5 Autoclaving

In-vitro protein digestibility of mung bean seeds were significantly

higher after autoclaving than caused by other processings due to

denaturation of protein,destruction of the trypsin inhibitor, reduction of

tannins and phytic acid (Mubarak, 2005). Carbohydrate and ash contents

showed an increase while there was a significant decrease in fat content

in lablab bean following autoclaving (Osman, 2007).

12.6 Roasting

The digestibility of chickpea and peanut increased significantly

on roasting (Hulse, 1991). This type of processing at high temperature

destroyed the anti-nutritional factors which otherwise would have hindered

the protein absorption. Charanjeet and Nupur (1995) observed that

roasting improved the digestibility of legumes and did not adversely

affected the net protein utilization. Similarly, an increase in digestibility of

roasted faba bean compared to raw faba bean has also been reported

by Rani and Hira (1993).

12.7 Germination

Germination improves the nutritive value. During sprouting, dormantenzymes get activated and digestibility and availability of nutrients wereimproved along with reduction in the anti-nutritional factors such as trypsininhibitors and phytic acid (Osman, 2007). Starches and proteins wereconverted into simpler substances as germination proceeds and the ratioof essential to non-essential amino acids changes providing more ofessential amino acids. Germinated seeds have more of maltose. The actionof cytases and pectinases were increased during sprouting and the cell

41

walls are broken down and the availability of nutrients increases. Mubarak(2005) observed that in-vitro protein digestibility of mung bean seedsbecame significantly higher after germination than after other processingsdue to denaturation of protein, destruction of trypsin inhibitor, reductionof tannins and phytic acid. During sprouting minerals like calcium, zincand iron were released from bound forms. Riboflavin, niacin, folic acid,choline and biotin contents were also increased. Vitamin C was synthesizedduring germination and hence germinated legumes can substitute fruits.The increase in vitamin C was around 7020 mg/100g of pulses. VitaminC content was maximal after about 30 hrs of germination. Germinationalso decreases cooking time. The thick outer coat bursts, opening thegrain and the grain becomes soft making it easier for the cooking water topenetrate. Dehusking was also easier when the grains were sprouted anddried. The thick mucus inducing property of legumes was reduced bygermination due to conversion of starch to sugars (Srilakshmi, 2010).

Germination metabolises oligosaccharides and hence does not

produce gas or flatulence. It improves taste and texture and even without

much cooking sprouted green gram can be consumed. Moreover,

germinated pulses add variety of diet. Khalil and Mansour (2000) observed

that the retention of B-group vitamins in germinated faba beans was higher

than in heat treated faba beans. El-Adawy (2002) reported that germination

caused significant decrease in fat, total ash, carbohydrate fractions, mineralsand B-vitamins from chick peas (Cicer arietinum L.). The decrease in

fat and total carbohydrate content can be attributed to their use as an

energy source to start germination.

The nutritive value of mung bean seeds was enhanced during

germination by inducing the formation of enzymes that eliminate or reduce

42

the anti-nutritive and indigestible factors in legumes. It resulted in asignificant increase in crude protein compared to the cooked mung bean

seeds and this was mainly due to the use of other seed components

during the germination process (Mubarak, 2005).

13. Review of Literature for Effects of Processing on

Antinutrients in Legumes.

13.1 Soaking in Water

Significant reduction in polyphenol and phytic acid content was

observed by soaking cowpea seeds for 12 hrs. The reduction was

attributed to the leaching of the polyphenols into the soaking water (Preetand Punia, 2000). Similar reduction in the trypsin inhibitor activity, phytate,

tannins and total phenols contents to the extents of 51%, 15%, 35% and

43% respectively were noted in dry Indian bean seeds after soaking for12 hrs by Ramakrishna et al. (2006) and also for reduction of trypsin

inhibitor activity by 63% (Osman, 2007). Plain water soaking for 12 hrs

also lowered the phytic acid and polyphenols present in mung beans dueto leaching out into the soaking solution (Kataria et al., 1989). In pigeon

pea and chickpea, tannins reduction up to 50% was noted while 25%

reduction was seen in black gram and green gram (Kakati et al., 2010).Polyphenols were generally water soluble and their loss during soaking at

various temperatures may be due to leaching out of phenolics from the

seed under the influence of absorbed solution (Vijayakumari et al., 1995).Soaking seeds in water lowered the antitryptic activity. The extent of

lowering this activity could be increased if seeds were soaked in 1% salt

and 1% sodium bicarbonate solutions separately, the effect being higherin the latter (Mubarak, 2005).

43

A considerable decrease in the amount of monosaccharide,disaccharide, raffinose and oligosaccharides in chickpea and kidney beans

was noted after soaking (Vidal-Valverde et al., 1993). Soaking of legume

in distilled water was an effective way of removing phytic acid fromlegumes. Phytic acid induces a decrease of solubility and functionality

of the protein (Megat and Azrina, 2012). It was observed that longer

periods of soaking of the legumes caused greater losses of anti nutritionalfactors (Rasha Mohamed et al., 2011). For example, soaking the dry

moth bean seeds in plain water and mineral salt solution for 12 hrs

decreased phytic acid to the maximum of 45 – 50% (Khokhar andChauhan, 1997). Similarly, remarkable reduction in the anti-nutritional factor

was also observed by Ibrahim and Embaby (2002) after soaking the

leguminous seeds for 16 hours. While studying various effects ofhydrothermal treatments on certain anti-nutritional compounds, it was

observed that both distilled water and NaHCO3 solution soaking and

autoclaving of seeds of Dolichos lablab var vulgaris L significantlyreduced the contents of total free phenolics to 85-88% (Vijayakumari et

al., 1995). However, the extent of reduction of total free phenolics was

found to be greater in soaking with NaHCO3 solution (56%) as comparedto that in distilled water (47%) as noted by Vijayakumari K. et al. (1996).

Kataria et al. (1989) also reported that in black gram and mung bean, the

loss of the antinutrients by cooking following soaking was greater thancooking of unsoaked seeds. Moreover, it was also observed that soaking

for longer duration caused remarkable reduction in the anti-nutritional

factors (Ibrahim and Embaby, 2002).

While studying effect of soaking process on nutritional quality and

protein solubility of some legume seeds, it was observed that anti nutritional

44

factors such as phytic acid, tannin, trypsin inhibitor and haemagglutininactivity were decreased during soaking in 0.5% NaHCO3 solution

(El-Adawy, 2002).

13.2 Decortication

Dehulling plays an important role in decreasing the anti-nutrients in

legumes. Bakr (1996) observed that dehulling generally reduced condensed

tannin in faba bean and kidney bean. He also found that pre-treatmentprocessing had a significant effect in the changes in the chemical

composition of faba beans and caused a significant decrease in the anti-

nutritional factors especially by soaking followed with dehulling exceptfor phytic acid content.

A high α-galactosides reduction (61 – 80%) was noted following

dehulling of pre-soaked Lathyrus sativus seeds (Martinez-Villalvenga etal., 2008).

Other anti- nutrients like trypsin inhibitor and haemagglutinin were

found to be significantly decreased following soaking and dehullingprocess in mungbean seeds (Phaseolus aureus) (Mubarak 2005).

Likewise, dehulling of other pulses viz. pigeon pea, chicken pea, blackgram

and green gram resulted in 83-97% loss of tannin (Kakati et al., 2010).

Mugendi et al. (2010) observed that decorticated mucuna seeds

contained less tannins and more phytate depending on the proportion of

the hull in relation to whole seeds.

13.3 Germination

Processing by germination is an effective means to reduce anti-

nutrients in legumes. The amount of reduction in anti-nutrients may be

45

related to the duration of germination. Literature reveals that germination

was more effective means of reducing phytic acid, stachyose and raffinose

than did for haemagglunin activity, tannin and saponin (Osman, 2007).

He also reported that germination significantly decreased the TIA in

Dolichos lab lab bean by 19.3%. Khokhar and Chauhan (1997) reported

that sprouting (germinating) of dry moth bean seeds for 60 hrs had a

pronounced saponin lowering effect (46%). Similar observations on other

legumes were noticed in soybean (Collins and Saunders, 1976), lentil

(Vidal-Valverde et al., 1994; Frias et al., 1995), faba bean (Rahman et

al., 1987) and chick bean (Savage and Thompson, 1989). A decrease in

the flatus related sugar content of cowpeas, especially staychose was

noted when germinated for 24 hours (Alani et al., 1990).

It was observed that soaking for 12 hrs and followed by dehulling

and germination at different time periods (24, 36 and 48 hrs) contributed

significantly in reducing the phytic acid and polyphenol content of

cowpeas (Preet and Punia, 2000). Martinez- Villalvenga et al. (2008)

observed that germination was the most effective procedure for removing

α-galactosides (85 – 92%) in Lathyrus sativus. Similar observation was

noted in fababeans in reducing α-galactosides (94%) by germination

(Vidal-Valverde et al., 1998).

Germination for 48 hrs resulted in 10% decrease of tannin in pigeon

pea and chickpea varieties and also 25% loss in black gram and green

gram varieties due to enzymatic degradation (Kakati et al., 2010). TIA

and haemagglutinin of new and processed mung bean seeds were

drastically reduced by germination. Stachyose and raffinose were also

eliminated by germination (Mubarak, 2005). These reductions could be

46

due to hydrolysis of these components by hydrolytic enzymes to

monosaccharides which are used as an energy source during germination.

Mubarak (2005) also observed significant reduction of tannin and phytic

acid by germination.

A recent study by Megat and Azrina (2012) showed that non

germinated peanut contained the maximum phenolics and tannin content

followed by germinated peanut, non-germinated soybean and germinated

soybean in this order.

Loss of total phenolic and tannin content could be as high as 96%

in germinated kidney bean as shown by Shimelis and Rakshit (2007).

The reduction in tannin content after germination was a result of

formation of hydrophobic association of tannin with seed protein and

enzymes and also due to the leaching of tannins into the water and binding

of polyphenols with other organic substances. Moreover, the enzyme

polyphenol oxidase may be activated resulting in degradation and

consequent losses of polyphenols.

Non-germinated soybean contains the highest phytic acid followed

by germinated soybean, non-germinated peanut and germinated peanut in

this order. Reduction of phytic acid content during germination could be

due to increase in endogenous phytase activity depending on different

types of legume leading to enzymatic hydrolysis of phytate and also due

to diffusion (leaching out effect) into the soaking medium (Baru et al.,

1997). Increase in cooking time and concentration of the soaking medium

enhances loss of phytate (Deshpande and Cheryan, 1984). Sprouting

black gram and mung bean for longer duration led to greater reduction in

47

anti-nutrients (Kataria et al., 1989). Similar effect on faba bean germination

for 48 hrs was observed to be reduction of 64 – 65% in TIA and 90 –

91% in tannins which was more than caused by germination for 24 and

36 hrs (Sharma and Sehgal, 1992).

However, Duenas et al. (2009) found that germination increased

total phenolic content in lupin seed after 9 days. Similar finding was also

reported by Chai (2011) using germinated peanut.

13.4 Boiling

Boiling as a method of processing of food has been adopted

since ancient times. Research works on this processing method are in

plenty. Osman (2007) observed that soaking of the Dolichos lablab beans

overnight reduced the trpysin inhibitor activities (TIA) by 6.3% and

cooking of the soaked beans caused further reduction in the TIA by

66.7%. This finding is in agreement with that of Marquez and Alonson

(1999) who also reported a reduction in TIA level during soaking and

boiling of chickpea.

Tinsley et al. (1985) reported 38% and 41% reduction in phyticacid in white and brown tepary bean respectively due to boiling while53%, 7% and 16% reduction of phytate was noted in faba bean, cowpeaand chickpea respectively by boiling . When pre-soaked faba beans werecooked in water, a large amount of phytic acid (35%) reduction tookplace and they further found that if the seed had been soaked in citricacid and cooked, a large reduction in phytic acid ensued on account ofsolubility of phytic acid in an acidic medium (Vidal-Valverde et al., 1998).Tannin content of Indian bean decreased to 76.47% on boiling. Egbeand Akinyele (1990) while studying boiling effect on tannin and total

48

phenol contents of lima beans found that both tannin and total phenolcontents decreased as the boiling time increased. Mubarak (2005) observedthat reducing sugars, stachyose and raffinose were significantly reducedafter cooking processes due to their diffusion into cooking medium. Aconsiderable decrease in the amount of monosaccharides, disaccharides,raffinose and other oligosaccharides in chick pea and kidney beans aftersoaking & cooking was also noted. Loss of oligosaccharide was slightlyhigher when boiled than pressure cooked (Vidal-Valverde et al., 1993).

Various anti-nutritional substances such as total free phenolics,tannin, L-DOPA,TI, oligosaccharides like raffinose and stachyose reducedto significant levels of 67%, 64%, 52%, 62%, 66% and 70% respectivelyfollowing boiling of Canavalia ensiformis L.D.C (Jack bean seeds) (Dosset al., 2011). While studying effect of processing on Canavanine contentin sword beans (Canavanine gladiata), Ekanayake et al. (2007) observedthat overnight soaking and boiling in excess water followed by decantinggave the most pronounced reduction in canavanine, an amino acid whichis a potentially toxic constituent of leguminous seed. Increasing of cookingtemperature significantly reduced TIA and total phenolic compounds.Processing macuna beans at 20ºC and 60ºC resulted in significant reductionin L-DOPA content to 0.31 and 0.12% respectively from 5.71% in rawdehulled seed (Mugendi et al., 2010). Similar finding of greater loss inTIA with increasing period of boiling was observed by Rasha et al. (2011).

13.5 Pressure Cooking

It is a type of processing of food used worldwide. Pressure cookingof soaked dehulled seeds was found to be the most effective method forreducing the levels of polyphenols in pigeon pea (Duhan et al., 1989)which they detected while investigating optimum domestic processing

49

and cooking methods for reducing polyphenolic content of pigeon pea.Duhan et al. (2001) also found that pressure cooking of pigeon peacompletely destroyed trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) much better thangermination followed by sprouting for 48 hrs which reduced TIA by36 – 88% only. A considerable decrease in the amount of raffinose wasbrought about by pressure cooking in chick peas and kidney beans (Vidal-Valverde et al., 1993).

While studying effects of soaking, germination, cooking andfermentation on anti-nutritional factors in cow peas, it was found thatpressure cooking was more effective than boiling in removing the anti-nutritional factors. It was also found that pressure cooking had a greatereffect than ordinary cooking to remove anti-nutrients in amphidiploids(black gram) during domestic processing (Kataria et al., 1989).

13.6 Autoclaving

Autoclaving was also found to be a better processing technique inreducing maximum levels of oligosaccharide such as raffinose (76%),verbascose (80%), tannin (83%), total free phenol (78%) and trypsininhibitor activity (74%) in Canavalia ensiformis L.D.C (jack bean) seeds(Doss et al., 2011).

Vijayakumari et al. (1996) while studying effect of different post-harvest treatments on anti-nutritional factors in seeds of the tribal pulseMucuna pruriens (L) DC found that autoclaving seeds of the tribal pulsefor 45 min significantly reduced the tannin content (71%). Loss of HCNwas greater due to autoclaving (75%) than other processes studied.

In another study to see effect of various water or hydrothermaltreatments on certain anti-nutritional compounds in the seeds of the tribal

50

pulse, Dolichos lablab var vulgaris L. Vijayakumari et al. (1995), observedthat HCN loss was greater during autoclaving (87%) compared to thatcaused by other processings. Autoclaving reduced the oligosaccharidecontent more efficiently (67– 86%) than did by ordinary cooking(53 – 76%). Further, it seemed to be a more efficient method in improvingand eliminating the anti-nutrients studied except phytic acid.

Sharma and Sehgal (1992) studied effect of domestic cookingand germination on the TIA and tannin content of the faba beans (Viciafaba) and reported that autoclaving for 25 min almost completelyeliminated tannin and TIA of faba bean.

Similarly, autoclaving for 30 min with macuna bean significantlyreduced level of L-DOPA (Mugendi et al., 2010). Further, autoclavingfor 45min reduced the tannin content by 72% in Dolichos lablab var.vulgaris L.

Siddhuraju and Becker (2001) also studied various domesticprocessing methods on anti-nutrients and in-vitro protein and starchdigestibility of two varieties of Indian tribal pulse Mucuna pruriens var.utiliis and observed that cooking or autoclaving of both raw seeds and

pre-soaked seeds in different solution (water, tamarind extract, sodium

bicarbonate and citric acid) significantly reduced content of total phenolics

and phytic acid and also activities of trypsin inhibitor, chymotrypsin

inhibitor and L-DOPA compared to done by soaking alone or dry heating.

They also further observed that amongst all the soaking solutions sodium

bicarbonate soaking followed by cooking or autoclaving was the best

method for improving starch digestibility.

51

13.7 Steaming

Steaming is an important processing method in preparing food.

Xu and Chang (2008) while studying phytochemical profiles and health

promoting effects of cold season food legumes as influenced by thermal

processing observed that steaming caused significant reduction in total

phenolic content, procyanide content, total saponin content and phytic

acid content, chemical antioxidant power and peroxyl radical scavenging

capacity and cellular antioxidant activity as well as anti-proliferative

capacities of cool season legumes including green pea, yellow pea, chick

pea and lentil. Xu and Chang (2008a) also studied total phenolic content

and antioxidant properties of eclipse black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L)

as affected by processing method and found that steaming exhibited

several advantages in appearance and texture of the cooked black beans

product, shortening of processing time, also imparting greater retention

of total phenol content and antioxidant activities.

Kapoor and Gupta (1978) observed that soaking alone was

ineffective but prior soaking of the seed for 8 hrs. to steaming for 15 min

destroyed TIA by 93%. Further, it was observed that steaming for 1 hr of

soybean seed proved effective in completely inactivating the trypsin

inhibitor activity (TIA) while steaming of lesser time for 15 min and 30

min respectively reduced the TIA by 25% and 75%.

13.8 Roasting

Roasting is a common method of domestic food processing.

Ramakrishna et al. (2006) had found that roasting of Indian bean reduced

the levels of tannin, phytic acid and polyphenol. There was 40% decrease

52

in trypsin inhibitor activity when Indian bean was roasted. It also brought

about a large reduction in the phytic acid content of faba beans whichmay be due to insoluble phytins formed between phytic acid and some

minerals (Vidal-Valverde et al., 1998). Similarly, other researchers have

reported the decrease of phytic acid in dry bean, chick pea and blackgram (Duhan et al., 1989), cow pea (Akinyele, 1989) and black bean

(Sieve Wright and Shipe, 1986) due to roasting.

14. Problem on the Consumption of Parkia timoriana

Though the people of Manipur relish the food items of P. timoriana,

a small portion of the population refuse the consumption with the fear of

indigestion and for its extraordinary smell evolved from the faeces afterconsuming it. As the maturation of the beans advance, it increasingly

produces indigestion problem. Some people claim that consumption of

premature seed excessively causes drowziness although some workersopine that for legumes the nutritional values of the tender entire pods are

superior to those of other stages (Salam and Devi, 1992). Therefore,

maturation of the bean of P. timoriana may be associated with thedeposition of higher amounts of anti-nutritional substances such as

α

-

galactosides, trypsin inhibitors, phenolic substances, tannins, phytates etc.

15. Trials for Processing Treatments of Parkia timoriana - theNeed

From the above discussion, it has been affirmed that legumes cannot

be quantitatively consumed due to occurrence of antinutritional substancesin substantial amounts. It has also been noted that some treatments

exercised on different legume species produced different changes. Even

53

the varieties of a legume species exhibit different changes when subjectedto the same processing treatment.

Like other legumes the use of P. timoriana seeds as protein sources

has been limited probably by substantial presence of anti-nutritional factorswhich are a diverse range of naturally occurring compounds. The anti-

nutritional factors cause poor protein digestibility in man and animals and

are capable of precipitating other deleterious effects. Manifestations oftoxicity from the consumption of legumes containing anti-nutritional

factors range from severe reduction in food intake and nutrient availability

or utilization to profound neurological effects and even death. To improvethe nutritional quality and organoleptic acceptability of leguminous seeds

processing techniques have been employed to reduce or destroy the anti-

nutritional substances present in them. Unlike other common legumessuch as pea, rajmah, mung bean, pigeon pea etc., mature seeds of P.

timoriana cannot be consumed by preparing into exclusive dhal curry.

This may be related with high fat content (Chapter 2 and 9) and activityof antinutritional substances. Except for salad like dish both premature

seeds along with pods or mature seeds have been consumed by including

into curry items as supplementary ingredient. Usually an individualconsumes less than a dozen seeds (premature or mature) due to quantitative

intake inconvenience. It is assumed to have been caused by antinutritional

substances. Therefore, trials on the processing reduction of antinutritionalsubstances should be practised for P. timoriana seeds. Some of the

commonly used processing treatments include soaking in water, boiling

at high temperature in water, alkaline or acidic solutions, sprouting,autoclaving, roasting, dehulling, steaming etc.

54

Little information is available on the effects of processing on theantinutritional factors of P. timoriana. This study was therefore undertaken

to investigate the effects of processings on some nutritional and anti-nutritional factors in premature seeds, premature pod and mature seedsof P. timoriana by adopting economically viable and acceptableprocessing techniques. Since green pod has been consumed along withthe seeds, processing changes of their antinutritional substances need tobe envisaged.

16. Processing Methods

In a somewhat elaborate way, the study is undertaken with variousprocessing trials.

Mature Seeds

a) Mature seeds were soaked with water at room temperature andcold condition, sodium bicarbonate solution, citric acid solutionand water mixed with a spice powder (commonly used spices).Following each of the above treatments decoating, boiling orpressure cooking and draining of liquid were performed.

b) Processing by single treatment such as decoating.

c) Frying of water soaked and decoated seeds.

d) Roasting and dry autoclaving and decoating of the processed seed.

Premature Entire Pods

Like mature seeds, premature seeds are not adoptable for variousprocessing treatments. The trials included usual processing adoptionssuch as boiling + draining, pressure cooking + draining, frying andsteaming.

55

Before the attainment of mature stage, the seeds have always beenconsumed with entire pod. Therefore, processing trials of premature seedas well as premature pod were performed.

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