THESES CANADIENNE^SUR MICROFICHE

91
c? 'CANADIAN THESES ON MICROFICHE THESES CANADIENNE^SUR MICROFICHE i.S.B.N. 1+ National Library of Canada Collections Development Branch Canadian Theses on Ivlicrofi&he Service Ottawa, Canada K1A0N4 \ B^iliotheque nationale du Canada Direction du developpement des collections, Service - des theses canadiennes sur microfiche . vl * •i * • NOTICE , The quality of this microfiche is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original thesis submittedTor microfilming. Every effort has been^made to ensure the highest quality of reproduction possible. ' :\ . If pages are missing, contact the university which granted the degree: -" i Some pages may have indistinct print especially if the 'original pages were typed with a poor typewriter ribbon or if the university sent us a poor photocopy. Previously. copyrighted materials (journal articles, published tests, etc.) are not filmed. Reproduction in full or in part of this film is gov- erned by the Canadian Copyright Act, R.S.C. 1970, c. C-30. Please read the authorization forms which accompany this thesis. «? « 4 AVIS ' ,'La qualite de cette microfiche depend grandement de la qualite de la these soumise au microfilmage. Nous avons tout, fait pour 'assurer une qualite superieure d'e reproduction. S'il manque de? pages, veuillez cbmmuniquer avec I'unjversije qui a confere le grade. La "qualite d'impression .de certaines pages peut "laisser a desirer, surtout si les pages'originales ont'ete dactylographies a I'aide d'un ruban use ou si I'unjver-' sitd nous a fait parvenir ufte photocopie de mauvaise qualite. i Les* documents qui- font deja v I'objet d'un droit d'auteur (articles de revue, exarnens publies, etc.) ne spnt pas microfilmes. i 'La reproduction, meme partielle, de cp microfilm. est soumise a la Loucanadienne sur le droit d'auteur, SRC 1970, c. C-30. Veuillez prendfe connaissance des formules d'autorisation qui accompagnent cette these. . 4 THlS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN SyUCfROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED J LA THESE A ETE MICR&FILMEE TELLE QUE,, NOUS L'AVONS .RECUE NL-339 (r. 82/J38)

Transcript of THESES CANADIENNE^SUR MICROFICHE

Page 1: THESES CANADIENNE^SUR MICROFICHE

c?

'CANADIAN THESES ON MICROFICHE

THESES CANADIENNE^SUR MICROFICHE

i.S.B.N.

1+ National Library of Canada Collections Development Branch

Canadian Theses on Ivlicrofi&he Service

Ottawa, Canada K1A0N4

\

B iliotheque nationale du Canada Direction du developpement des collections,

Service- des theses canadiennes sur microfiche . vl* •

•i • * • NOTICE ,

The quality of this microfiche is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original thesis submittedTor microfilming. Every effort has been^made to ensure the highest quality of reproduction possible. ' :\ .

If pages are missing, contact the university which granted the degree: -" i

Some pages may have indistinct print especially if the 'original pages were typed with a poor typewriter ribbon or if the university sent us a poor photocopy.

Previously. copyrighted materials (journal articles, published tests, etc.) are not filmed.

Reproduction in full or in part of this film is gov­erned by the Canadian Copyright Act, R.S.C. 1970, c. C-30. Please read the authorization forms which accompany this thesis.

«? « 4 AVIS '

,'La qualite de cette microfiche depend grandement de la qualite de la these soumise au microfilmage. Nous avons tout, fait pour 'assurer une qualite superieure d'e reproduction.

S'il manque de? pages, veuillez cbmmuniquer avec I'unjversije qui a confere le grade.

La "qualite d'impression .de certaines pages peut "laisser a desirer, surtout si les pages'originales ont'ete dactylographies a I'aide d'un ruban use ou si I'unjver-' sitd nous a fait parvenir ufte photocopie de mauvaise qualite. i

Les* documents qui- font dejav I'objet d'un droit d'auteur (articles de revue, exarnens publies, etc.) ne spnt pas microfilmes.

i 'La reproduction, meme partielle, de cp microfilm.

est soumise a la Loucanadienne sur le droit d'auteur, SRC 1970, c. C-30. Veuillez prendfe connaissance des formules d'autorisation qui accompagnent cette these. .

4THlS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN SyUCfROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED

J

LA THESE A ETE MICR&FILMEE TELLE QUE,,

NOUS L'AVONS .RECUE

NL-339 (r. 82/J38)

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n

Evidence for Semantic Satiation

> Lee C Smith

Department of Psychology

Submitted in partial fulfillment

of^the requirements for the

Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

at

' Dalhouslie JJniversity.

, Decem^r* 17, 1984

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T-able of Contents • ^

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Appendix B

p

\ P P ^ X iC ^* G o ^ o o o e a e o o d o o J o o o o & d o o o ® o o q Q o 1 U

M . S X S S - S i i C S S ^ ' o Q o o o e a o o e Q O O Q O o o o j a o o o ' a o o o o . o O U

o j s o « o 6 o o o 0 0 O O O O O O G ' O O O O

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L, 5' - , y «, ,

. s ^ *

V

* "Abstract

When people repe,at. and look at a word for an extended period of #ime i£ is of ten.'reported that the word somehow "loses i<ts meaning"o The,.subjective experience of^loss of meaning t referred to a$ semantic satiation,, suggests /that decisions ' based, on knowledge of te*re~ x-jord's meaning might b°e a'ffectedo) Evidence that prolonged' repetition of a word impedes the retrieval from memory of semantic information

.^pertaining to that concept was obtained^ from experiments "in which subjects first repeated the name' of a category either 3 „or, 30 "times„ • and subsequently made speeded instance

' judgments ab^yj^* exemplars of the- same or a different _categoryo Experiments 1, 2„ and 5 showed that category ' judgment latencies to exemplars of the repeated category increased with number of .repetitions of the criterion category name0 Experiment 4 showed that category judgment latencies to two. exemplar targets from the rep°eated category

• were "similarly . affected by the repetition treatment ' Experiment 5 also demonstrated that prolonged repetition of 1 a category narap retards unintentional semantic processing of a task-irrelevant exemplar, of the repeated category,, as evidenced by the reduced effect the irrelevant word .had" on category judgment latencies to an attended target' exemplar„% In Experiment 3„ however, no effect of the repetition'" treatment was observed on the magnitude of semantic priming when subjects , were required to make lexical (word-nonwordj decisions to target exemplars„

An ad hoc account of these data as'suiiies that prolonged repetition of a word affect's the links or " pathways connecting concepts in semantic memory„ The net effect is to decrease the rate of search and associative spread of activation in conceptual structures0

4 •< I

&9&

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" s ~n ^ 1 .

' . Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the • members ot my thesis-

.committee? Drs." John Barresij, Vin ioloxdoj'Jim Neely„-(and

Ray Kleino My sincere gratitude .to Jojin follows from

several years enjoyment of his intelligent observation's on

psychological issues and - the stuff of ' science„ * I ' was

onoured that Jim leely could serve as ift .external exaifiinejr „

Tb Ray„ I can only fall short of expressing.the extent and

depth of my gratitude„• Ray. hat pr©vic]sd me almost JPiiaitless

encouragement, enthusiasm, intelligence, patience ?ia and

sppport. * c '

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*«1 * - , . „ - - ' -" o *

SEMANTIC 'SAT ATIOM, " •- *, '; ' '/'Page 1

* " ' * ' V ' *

' ' ', ° •' Evidence' for Semantic Satiatidh '

• ' , ' . ' ' ' ' - ..'

t . "• • a< *•• ' " * - . «-•

The'term*"semantic satiation0 refers to the subjective c' ;

experience of loss of" meaning ofa a word" as a r„esult of • » , < • , *• s " • - . ' •

prolonged inspection and repe'tartlorv of tne worth' The reader *.

, may 'quickly experience thiss' "Repeat aloud some word - tone*

firste that occurs to y.q,u? house, for instance - over and

over againi presently ' .the sound of the .word *> become's

.meaningless and tjlank?. »you .are pussled and a, morsel

.frightened • as you hear it" (Titchener, •1915, pp021>-27)»' * '" °

Observers in Titchener's laboratory d(Bassett »and Wariae,

1919; ' Dap anQ .Weld, 1924? Severance and Washburn, 1907)'. ' ' " , • . • » . - * * > »

noted a variety of events including -visual and 'verbal-motor

(phonetic) -transformations-,- lops of f ami liarrty.-wifch the

. wqrd, and' lapse .of meaning (sise also- Wertheimer and Gillies, ' ' . ' ' -' . . V ' '• • . - . > . ,

1958).. . " , '

"Subsequent •• stu'dies stimulated by , such introspect ive"

^acdounts . in i t ia l ly ,^ accepted "the idgsj t ha t loss of. msariing • =<

' occurs" following r e p e t i t i o n of a word, and' employed- t h e . & a

a t « ' v

^"technique as*, a 'manipulation to examine "the correlation of - ' '" "° ° K

' aut6nbmic„rresponse§ with mental states- (Mason, 1941}^ the • ' ' I * i o .

ft " . . • •> o

„' relation between personality types "and conceptual processes .'

• J ,

"(Smith a#id"Raygor, 1956)', and the func t iona l ' co r re l a t e s of

' , .-pnomatopo'eia (Wertheimer, ,1958).

Beginning with the s%tudy by 'Lambert and Jakobovits

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. - • ' . - ' ' . v " /• ' ••*v

/SEMANTIC SATIATION " * . • . j^|9e 2

1(1960), a body of research accumulated which at first.'

op.ti'mis tic ally sought to estimate the^extent of semantic

" -satiation "(reviewed in Amste-r, 1964), but"^subsequently

, faltered' as methodological problems and^hallenging evidence

'Cast doub.t ©n? whether semantic- satiation 'ever0 truly

• occurredo By the time of ' Esposito and Eelton's (1971) •= _ , \ " ' / - '» ' •

'critical examination. ,of tfre. semantic satiation literature, * . '

the methods for measuring the effect of repetition comprised .

pre-v and post-repetition ratings^ on> some of Osgood's (Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum, 1957) semantic differential

scales '{e.g.-? Lamberts and "Jakobayits, ' 196-0 ? Messer,

Jakobovits, Kanungo, and Lambert, 1964), the commonality and

o "number of associates generated in response to ' the satiated

wo-rd (e.g., Barasj 1968?" Cramer, 1968? ^anungo and Lambert,.

1963), pdired-associate learning '(e0g0, -Kanungo, Lambert, ' •• . '$ \ °

and Mailer, 1962? Pyke, Agnevf, and Adams, 1966), and synonym

judgment and associate retrieval time {EiljLenb,aum,, 1964?

Gough and Rohrman, 1965? Gorfein,' 1967). Esposito and*

? Pelton Showed that this literature^ provides o inconsistent

support _ for 'the semantic satiation (loss of meaning)

hypothesis, and results'- which are' .open to alternative

explanations• Although 'they indicated "which 'experiments t a

were needed to resolve some of- the ambiguity present even in

encouraging reports," '.the fundamental impact ,of their

critique seems instead to have been, to .discourage further

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'SEMANTIC SATIATION . v / ' Page 3

/"

<V

work on the problem. ^ - • » \ ' '

« In the same year, Jihat Esposito0 and Pelton's1 (1971) <

review 'was published,' Beyer and Schvaneveldt'S (1971)

seminal papthr appeared which., along with 1 the papers"'by

- • ' ° I ' Collins and Quillian (1969, 1970), broke lnew* ground for the study of- semantip memory0 In this vne 7 context of paradigms

and models of semantic information processing, Neely .(1977a)

reported . an experiment which applied the semantic priming '

procedure to'the s"emantip -.satiation phenomenon Semantic • * - fa , ' '* '

priming is . thev observation that lexical -(word-nonword)

"decisions are faster when a target word "is preceded by a

\semantically-related prime word, as compared, to a .neutral or*

semantical ly.-urirela ted stimulus (e.g., Neely, 1976 f 1977b)» a,. *

The-3 mechanism, of semantic priming was thought to involve a

spread of activation from- the .representation .of the prime-* .

word to- semantically-associated structures in memory13 (e0g0 ,

Collins and Loftus, 1975), By this -account, spreading .

activation effectively facilitates encoding and recognition J

of semantically-reiated words, as evidenced aby faster

decision latencies* Weely (1977a) argued that evidence -

suppcrtin, -th. ~ i c satiation ^ W - in' t„e a

priming-lexical decision task would come 'from ,'a , » .

- demonstration that the magnitude of the' priming -gffect was 0 *

reduced wjaen the prime ' word was repeated for an extended

\^J ' ° * . period. His argument assumes that semantic satiation would

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SEMANTIC SATIATIOM . 0 . . - , ' , Page 4"' C

reduce or eliminate activation- of the 'prime* word, and

proportionately •" limit activation^ a spreading „ to . ' • * • • • *

semantically-associated concepts.

Weely^s (1977a) experiment obtained' no^ evidence to

. s-uppprt t h i s <prediction0 • However, Kee-ly0 usaad an 11-secbnd r epe t i t i on per iod , which may\ be too short for suf f ic ien t

s a t i a t i o n to deve lop^ Gg&ene,' Smith, . and Klein (1978) ^ *

tested the semantic'satiation hypothesis by- having subjects * „• * " ) • •

first pronounce a' prime word either once or repeatedly for

30 seconds, and then make a* lexical decision about a target * ft *

letter-string„ In their Experiments . 1 and 3 the* target

> iffords vje're either associatively related or unrelated to the

prime >word, and m their Experiment 2 the target words were

' either 'identical to" 'or unassociated,Vith?>the prime word»

Although the response ,time (RT) to related '(or/ identical)

words was faster than, -to unrelated wop3s/ as would.be

expected with their' priming procedure, these 'experiments

'.also 'obtained no evidence of ata effect of number of

repetitions' on priming -magnitude. Cohene et al 'concluded

that the' subjective experience- of. semantic satiation is "not

truly „relatea to the loss of meaning"of a word" (p.139? and

see Esposito and PeAon, 1971, p«>344, 'for a similar

conclusion)„ " . •

-An .alternative interpretation of these resuSts*is that

priming with the lexical decision task is not sensitive to

A

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f ° s . * * • . • • . -M - ft t- * O ' J .AT.

a

SEMANTIC SATIATION ' ' - *' -',**, *' „ ° ^ $ V P a g e > 5 " •S

. s ejitantic satiation.' First, a "lexical -"decision- involves „•

'deciding whether ^or "hot a .target item has a corresponding5*^ A

entry i'n #he "subjective lexicon -(Miller-, 1978)«, which"* • may ~

not' require retrieval oof houga information concerning the

rae'anrng of -the target word <o to be sensitive to ,-^emantic

. satiation r(cf. Balota and Chumbley, 1984). Second, the ;

possibility that- lexical priming is mediated by mechanisms ' „ " i " '. " T-

or structures .that are " different -from' those that ,-are « ' *• • A'iUtfi. °

(i affected by., the satiation0 treatment^ cannot* be »completely

ruled out", on . the. basis ^of existing data. --Eodor (1982, .

pp.73-75)' has, recently argued, "for instance, ' that lexical

priming is mediated by almost contentleW S-R links. These _ ^ f \ •

arguments - indicate that a clearer "tesk ' for " semantic

satiation would entail ar decision .that requires"retrieval of -««

semantic information about the repeated 'word. One such task'

would" require- subjects to make category i^sjyijMK judgments

-on target exemplars, alrter a period of repeating the namet, pf 0

' a category. ' • . ., u „° . . .

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s *>

SEMANTIC SATIATION . ^ • ° .Page 6 •c; '

Experiment 1, . , _ ' : . . ' v •=•

Experiment 1 required subjects to pronounc€ the name' of <&.

a- category (e.g., FRUIT) either 3 or 30 times, and then to

'decide whether or not a target word (e.g., APPLE, ROBIN) is $* * ', ** &

an instance o'f .the repeated category. The category & . ° . » . • « "* .

membership decision requires' .the retrieval of some of the

semantic properties of botn the category name and target"

word. If*prolonged repetition, of a *category name does

reduce the availability of semantic inf E fma'tiion pertaining . • , ft

to the* word, then responses to 'member8 targets .should be-

. "slower .following 30'repetitions relative to 3 repetitions.

Although a variety of- "outcomes Jcould -,be ' imagined for » « »

'nonmember' targets-, the mos't straightforward prediction, is , "• ~? ' •, '"•/*'' ' " > that there should be no effect of number of repetitions.

1 . - • • ' • * •*> _ - ' This prediction* is foase<| oh the two (illustrative)

assumptions that the retrieval"of the name of the category

of ar nonmember exemplar is' not impaired by repetition of

"some othdr category name, and that a nonmember decision can

be lads, without- reference to any semantic information about

the-repea'ted category (but is instead based on discrepant graphemic, phonological, or episodic information).

Methods t . . . '

Subjects. Sixteen introductory psychology students

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*°\

SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 7

•participated in the experiment for course c r ed i t . ,. All a if

subjects were native English speakers. • • *

r ' ~ . '

Stimuli and Apparatus. The priming words were .40

category names and the targets were one dominant exemplar

from each of the 40 categories. Two lists of 40

category-exemplar pairs were constructed, and are liste'd ' in

Appendix A. Each list contained 20 exemplars paired with

their derivative category name (MEMBER condition) \and 20

pairs where the exemplar was paired with some other category

name (NONMEMBER condition). A target served" as a MEMBER in

'one list and as a NONMEMBER in the ot e.r list. A similar,

list^of 16 pairs derive'd from a different set of categories

and exemplars served for practice. *< >

The words were shown on a Tektronix 604 oscilloscope,

controlled by a PDP 11/03 computer located in an adjoining

room. The words were > plotted in capital letters, and

subtended, on average., . about o6<8 x 1.06 degrees of visual

angle at the viewing distance- of abOut 29 cm. Subjects

signaled their response with one of two response switches

mounted in plexiglass and resting on the table. An intercom

allowed 'the experimenter to monitor the subject's

repetitions in an adjoining room.

/ **•»

Procedureo ' The subjects were ^ea£ed individually in

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« > { • . .

1 q » . /

. SEMANTIC SATIATION , < . Page 8

LI * ">

single sessions lasting about 35 minutes. "Each subject

.completed 16 practice and 40 experimental trials. Half'of

the subjects were tested with one list, ,and' half with the

other list. The experimental series, comprised ten trials in

each of the'four conditions" derived from the combination '> of

type of relation (MEMBER, NONMEMBER) with number of t^" •< • •* *

" repetitions (3,„30). The assignment of trials to number of / ' ' '/ -

„ repetitions was ''counterbalanced across subjects. Each "

f * subject received a'unique random ordering.',o£ the trials. %

A tria\began with the appearance of a fixation point in

o the.center of the screen. One second later a category name

appeared in two locations, about 1 degree above and below

-'the fixation point. The category name was displayed either.

3 , or 30 times for 500 msec with a 200 msec interval between •

exposures. Subjects v/ere ^instructed to .prdnpunce the a> - - , . <

category name 'clearly, to. begin; articulation .of the word

coincident $i£h ' its appearance on the scree-n, and to

continue • watching the word throughout. Subjects were told i a

that the experimenter would be monitoring their "repetitions

via the intercom. . ,

After the final repetition the fixation point was

brightened for 1 second to serve as a warning signal. The

target word was then written on the screen, centered at the

fixation po-int, until the subject responded. Subjects

received no feedback. The intertrial interval was 5 0

. \

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SEMANTIC SATIATION • ^ Page 9

seconds"/ Half "of the subjects signaled MEMBER with" their

left index, finger and NONMEMBER with their right index

dinger, and the other half had the reverse mapping.

. r "

' o

if

R e S B l t S , , , . , ' /

b ' The median response ^ times for the correct category

membership decisions and the percent error data for the

experimental trials were subjected to separate analyses - of

variance including the factors list, response-hand

assignment, type of decision, an<j" number of repetitions".

phe mean of the subjects' me'dian response times and mean

peir|gnt errors are given in the top half of Table 1. There

were no 'effects involving eithe r list i>r response-hand

assignment (all'F's <1.4). The MEMBER decisions were 110

mseq, faster than the NONMEMBER decisions

[F(l,15)=44.16,p<o05]''o There was no reliable difference n ' a

between decision times ' as a function of the number of

repetitions [F(l,15)<.2]„ The significant interaction of decision-type with number of repetitions [F(1,15)=6.04,

t

p<.05] suggests that MEMBER decisions were slower following

30 repetitions and NONMEMBER decisions 'were faster following

30 .repetitions. Two-tailed t-tests showed that neither of

these differences was reliable [t(15)=1.57, p>.05 for the

MEMBER ' condition? t(15)=l„79, p>.05 for the NONMEMBER

condition]„ A similar analysis of variance of the percent

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^ SEMANTIC SATIATION . " Page 10

tr error data showed no main effect of type of deoision

4 ' "

O

[F(l,15)=2.01]„ The . interaction "of type of decision with

number of repetitions did not approach significance

[F(l",15)=1.77] .

Discussion ' ' v

The results of this experiment are marginally consistent < >

with the idea that semantic satiation of information about a t . > \ •

category occurs following "repeated pronunciation of the

category name. The trend for subjects to take more time to ' 4 a

correctly decide that an ^exemplar was a member of the

criterion category following 30 repetitions is predicted by

the semantic satiation hypothesis. Unexpectedly, there was

also a' trend > for RT to be faster following 30 repetitions

when the subjects correctly decided'that a target was not a

member of the repeated category. These trends account for

the obtained interaction of decision-type with number of

repetitions. However, neither of these isolated effects was

shown to be reliable.. Therefore, since no decisive

statement regarding the semantic satiation hypothesis can be

extracted from these data, the category membership

experiment was repeated with twice the number of subjects in<

an attempt to unequivocally confirm or refute the

impressions derived from the first experiment. In the

replication, subjects were given RT^feedback following ,*each

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SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 11

of their responses to encourage faster responding, and to

thereby shift their performance away from the asymptote on

the "speed-accuracy trade-off function (see Pachella, 1974).

Also, the category name* was presented in only one location

on the screen. It was .felt tha>t neither *0f these changes J7 , - . ' * * »

would influence the-phenomenon of interest.'

v

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SEMANTIC

11

Methods

0 "

SATIATION

* v i>

Page 12 s

Experiment 2

Subjects. Thirty-two paid subjects were recruited from - . » • < . .

*the Dalhousie University subject pool. All subjects were

native. English speaker^ and none had ".participated- in

.Experiment 1. , * * / ' " • „ * <•

. f Procedure. All aspects of the experiment w'ere identical

to those of Experiment 1 with the exceptions that subjects

received RT ^feedback following each" trial, and that the " a *

category name was presented only above the,, fixation point

(a's opposed to above and/below fixation). ' •• .'

Results , V o . •

The bottom half of Table 1 shows 'the mean of the

subjects'* median RTs and mean percent,errors. There were no

effects involving either list or response-rhand- assignment

(all F's^ <1..0). MEMBER decisions were 53 msec faster than

NONMEMBER decisions [F(l,31)=6.71, p<J05]. For ' MEMBER

decisions sjabj&c'ts were' reliably slower" following 30 as

compared to 3 repetitions [t(31)=2.55, p<.05]. There was no

effect of repetition for NONMEMBER decisions [t(31)=„54].

Similar tests on the percent errors showed that there was no

effect of number of repetitions for either the MEMBER

[t(31)=0.Q] or NONMEMBER [t(31)=1.27] conditions.

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SEMANTIC SATIATION ' 9 Page 13

Although the trend 'for accuracy in <tlie NONMEMBER

condition to improve with fu repetitions was not

statistically reliable,_ it might nonetheless be argued that

the RT data are potentially open to a response-?bi°as

•interpretation; subjects are slower to make MEMBER decisions

following 30 repetitions because they developed, a bias to

respond NONMEMBER,- In its purest form, the response-bias

acrdspunt requires a reciprocal relation between speed and,

accuracy. However^ the data show n6 change in accuracy for

MEMBER decisions, and no^, decrease in RT with number of

repetitions for the NONMEMBER condition. "Thus, the overall

.pattern of RT and accuracy in this experiment is not in

complete agreement with the.response-bias account. A more

convincing repudiation of the response-bias hypothesis was

obtained by examining,the data of subjects grouped on the

basis of their accuracy patterns. When we examined the data

from only those* subje.cts (N=6) who- showed an increase in

err.ors in the • NONMEMBER condition between 3 and 30

repetitions (the opposite of'the,response-bias prediction),

%H increased by 117 msec with number of repetitions in the

MEMBER condition,, For subjects v;ith fewer errors in the 30

relative to 3 repetition-NONMEMBER condition (N=10), MEMBER

RT increased by 65 msec, and for the subjects that showed no

change „in NONMEMBEjfcrror rate (N=16), MEMBER RT increased

by 60 msec with number of repetitions. Thus, there is no

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/ ^ - ." . SEMANTIC SATIATION - " "' ' /* .•'"•/ " Page 14_

evidence to supp'ort a response-bi'as -interpretation of ttfe RT

data. . » .» , o .

1 o , < " ' . ! . » • ft o *

. ' , •>„ <3

Discussion . / ) »- / ~ <,

The semantic satia.t^on hypothesis • maintains that

activation > of semantic information about a word is'retarded

following extended repetition of the word. The experimental

literature reviev/ed in'.Esposito and Pelton,, (1971) deployed a'

range <of tasks to test <this hypothesis, but the /findings

were generally mixed or-were difficult to interpret. Neely t - v

(1977a) -tested"the semantic satiation hypothesis with the semantic priming-lexical' decision task and failed to find I • I , o 4 «

supportive evidence. , Cohene et al« (1978) had subjects

repeat' a prime word .once dr^for 30 seconds and measured

lexical decision latencies. No differential priming . effect

was obtained for associated and unassociated or identical

and unassociated word, targe'ts as. a function of repetition

period. v . '

' The present experiments"were based on the" premise tha°t

the priming-lexical decision paradigm may be insensitive to

the effect of satiation, give'n the possibilities that' the

information that ,is satiated does not mediate p"riming and/or

is not germane to the ' lexical decision process. To.

circumvent this criticis% subjects pronounced the name of a

category either 3 or 30 times, and then performed' a speeded

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SEMANTIC SATIATION *„ ' Page 15

category membership decision with words that either were or

were not exemplars of the repeated category.\ Experiment 1 «, «* .' °% * i ' /^~7~ ' X -

obtained weak evidence " to suggest „ that" MEMBE-R .decisions

(e.g., prime-WEAPON,\^target-GUN) were slower following 30

repetitions, a finding that "is consistent wi'th the semantic

= satiatipn ° hypothesis. Als.o,,( ^data from Experiment 1

suggested that NONMEMBER decisions (e.g. ,' WEAPON-JAZZ)* mights,

. be facilitated -following 30 repetitions. The replication ' . » c ° ' . > . . .

o

experiment confirmed only that MEMBER decisions a<re slower

following the satiation treatment. No evidence of an effect

of number of- repetitions i,jas obtained for • NONMEMBER ; v • -decisions.

The results from the caj/egory membership experiments atfe

clearly supportive 'of ' the semantic satiation hypothesis^

Furthermore, the absence of an effect of number of

repetitions with the priming-lexical decision" task (Cohene

et al,. 1978) considered in conjunction with' .the _ category

membership data may provide an important clue" concerning the

locus of the repetition effect on semantic decisions". Note",

however, that it seems possible that procedural and/or •a N

stimulus material differences between the Cohene et al• .and

the present experiments might instead explain the difference

between tasks in the effects ofj number^ of repetitions.0 „To determine whether incidental differences between the two

ii

tasks were responsible, the next experiment was conducted

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SEMANTIC SATIATION . . ,., -' Page- 16'

« * •

using the priming-lexical, decision, task, and' the same

materials and procedure as in Experiment f insofar as the

task change would allow.

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"

SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 17

Experiment 3

V Methods •

Subjects. Thirty-two introductory .psychology students

participated in the experiment for course credit. None had

participated in the previous experiments. All subjects were

native English speakers. . . . . .

s

Stimuli. The same materials—were -used as /before. In

addition, 40 pronounceable, orthographically-legal nonwords

were generated by changing a single- letter in each of the 40

target words. Four stimulus lists of' 40 pairs each were

constructed such that each list contained 10 semantically

related (formerly . MEMBER) pairs, 10 semantically unrelated

(formerly NONMEMBER) pairs, and 20 category 'name^nonword

pairs.. Each category name appeared once i-n each list, and '• — ' * 'It across lists was paired once with an exemplar, once with an

0

unrelated "word, and with two nonwords that were not derived

from an exemplar of that category. A similar list of 16 new

pairs nas developed and used for practice.

Procedure^ The experiment followed essentially^ the same

procedure as in Experiment 2°. Subjects were instructed to

make word-snonword decisions on the target item which was

presented following 3 or 30 repetitions of a category name,

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SEMANTIC ^SATIATION - ." Page , 18

. 0 > ".

P

and "both response speed and accuracy were emphasized.

'Subjects were also told about the possible relations between ie category names and target words. Following practice", a

tt uibject received'the 40 experimental trials from,, one of, the ^ , « ' . ' ^

four^iistSo t The experimental series consisted of- five

trials in each of the four conditions derived from the

combination of type of relation (Related, Unrelated) with,

number ,'of repetitions of the category name 4(3, 30), and 10

.nonword trials in each repetition condition. Eight subject's

were tested with each one of the four Iftsts. The assignment-

of items to conditions was counterbalanced across subjects. ' A " " ° -*

Half of the subjects0signaled 'word' with their left index,

finger and 'nonwbrcT with their right index fingert and the

other/half had the reverse mapping.

Results

The mean of the subject's median RTs and mean percent

errors are given in Table 2.. There "were no effects

involving either response-hand assignment or list. The RT

* to related targets .was 70 msec faster than to unrelated" IE?

targets [F(l,31)=22.4, p<.05] , evidencing the typical"

iming effect. There was no difference in RT as a function

of number of- repetitions^ for either the- related' or unrelated

conditions (both t-values <,39), nor was any difference

found in the analyses of the percent errors " (both t-values

t,

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/

SEMANTIC SATJATION ^ ^ , << > ^ a 9 e 1 9

i £»

<.83'). Similarly, the analyses of the nonword RTs^ and i f . " ®

percent errors showed -.no' reliable differences between

repetition, conditions [t(31f=1.03 • and .87, respectively].

Discussion '' * . » ' , " '

^ The results from 'the experiments "have demonstrated that

' / prolonged fixation and repetition of, a category . name (1)

increases • category membership decision time for"exemplars,

(2).does not affect category decision time lor nonexemplars,

and (3H does not attenuate priming in .the lexical decision

task (replicating the.findings of Cohene' et al, ° 1978? see

also Neely, 1977a). 'These data are compatible with the idea

that sustained inspection a<ad, pronunciation of a category t P

n - •

name reduces the Accessibility from" memory of semantic

information pertaining to that categoVy.

. , .The _ tempting convergence of the category membership

decision data with the subjective experience of" • loss of

meaning that can .accompany repetition might encourage one to

search for a psychological process model that could account

for these few empirical observations. A crucial constraint i ti

i

on any proposed model, ' and one of the more interesting

/ aspects of 'the, present data, is the differential effect of

number of repetitions-^ in0 the , category °" membership and

« priming-lexical -decision tasks^^^1 though the ' earlier

explanation of -0the insensitivity -of the priming-lexical

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A SEMANTIC SATIATION " ' - Page 20'

ft - • " ' ?

decision paradigm to the effects of satiation (see pg. 6)

might /be correct, an additional and.important difference

between the "two tas-k situations exists. The-'difference has

to do with the relevance of the repeated .category name to

the ° decision the subject must * subsequently make. <* The

category .membership task explicitly required that subjects

_ heed the category, whereas a lexical^decision * is indifferent

to the 'category, as well as to the meaning of the target.

s "" Many subjects indeed pointed out during the instructions in

the- lexical decision experiment that the .repetition word had

nothing to do with-the decision required in response to the

target .stimulus. Exactly what the difference in relevance

of the category name between''the two tasks »might mean in

.terms of the observed effects of repeti/tipn on decision

latencies is not certain". .One possibility i/s -that when „ the

category name is irrelevant to the decision at hand, as in *• >

the lexical decision task, subjects may opt not to attend to

the meaning of the word they are repeating, and maintain the

process effyrepeating the word « by means of an automatic

articulation loop (Baddeley, 1978). On the other hand., when

the c pegjaey name is relevant to the decision, as in the

category membership task, subjects might attend to the

meaning of the category, consider possible exemplars that

may be' presented (Blaxton and Neely, 1983), and theteby

promote semantic satiation, "Generally stated, the concern

&7

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SEMANTIC SATIATION * Page 21

is that subjects may have engaged different repetition

strategies / in the too tasks such that semantic satiation of

<• the categoryxpccurred pending the stimulus for a * category

membership decision, but not for a lexical decision.. Notice

that this account does nothing to impugn the basic effect of

number of repetitions on category membership -decision

* - J latencies, but ' instead raises the possibility that the

\abse$j$e of .an effect on the magnitude of priming in the /

lexical •decision task may be ' attributable to lack of

satiation, rather than to insensitivitiy of the task to

semantic satiation. The value in evaluating the repetition

strategy hypbthesis lies, of course, in deciding whether to

' retain or reject one of the principle converging operations

•(i.e., the difference between the too tasks in the effect of

number of repetitions on decision latencies) on the . effect

of number of repetitions on semantic decisions.

One' way to address this question is to turn the

statement of the problem around and ask whether the effect

of repetition on semantic decisions v/ould be eliminated if

the repeated category name was rendered irrelevant to the

decision. This was done in the next exjpriment with ' a

category matching task in which subjects first repeated the

name of a category, were then shown two words, and decided

whether both words were from the same category or from o

different categories. Whether the exemplars are from the

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SEMANTIC SATIATION . £> I Page 22

" ; ' '" " A :' repeated category was not relevant to fehe task. » To

i - ° * V .

i£-3oistrate| -subjects might repeat • the category name FRUIT,

and subsequently be shown either the two exemplars

APPLE-PLUM, or ROBIN-HAWK. Both pairs require a MATCH

deoision. A NO MATCH decision vrould 'be required -for the

pairs ANT-TRUCK and PEACH-SHIRT. The latter condition,

comprising pairs of words in which one word is a member of t>

r v

the Repeated category and the other is not, was included to

eliminate the strategy of^making a positive decision if just

one of the target words was a 'member of the repeated

category. An additional condition was included as a

"precautionary step to avoid the possibility that subjects'

would make their decisions on the basis «of any' semantic

similarity between the target, words, rather than on the

desired basis of coordinate relation. Put in other words,

given the four conditions outlined so far, detecting any

kind pf relation or correspondence between the target words

, would be sufficient to reach an accurate MATCH decision, and

in the absence of any detectable relation between the target

words a correct NO MATCH, decision would be indidated. It

could not be asserted with certainty that subjects we're

indeed performing a category matching decision, instead of a

decision based on some other., perhaps more,, elementary,

semantic analysis (as in Smith, Shoeben', and Rips, 1974).,. a

Accordingly, the fifth condition consisted of pairs^ of»

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SEMANTIC SATIATION' , '~LT Page 23

t'arget words taken from different categories, which

nonetheless formed a clear noncategorical relation? pairs

such as TABLE-TENNIS, CAR-OIL, COW-MILK, and YELLOW-TULIP.

Both to refute the repetition strategy hypothesis and to

bolster th@^ evidence for semantic satiation, category

matching decisions to pairs*of. exemplars from the repeated

category must be slower, following 30 as compared to 3

.repetitions. No effect of repetition should obtain in the

other conditions with the possible exception of the

condition where "one of the1 'target, words is an exemplar of a

the repeated category 11]„

r. r°

4

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Experiment 4 \

Methods

* i Subjects. Forty-five paid subjects were recruited from

the Dalhousie University summer subject pool.. All.subjects

were native English speakers and none had participated in

any.of the previous experiments. -

Stimuli. Fo'rty category names and two dominant

exemplars from each of the categories tcomprised, the stimuli.

The stimuli'for a trial consisted of a category name and two

target exemplars. In the' list of 80 trials that was !) If

developed, each category name and exemplar was used twice.

Five conditions were generated according to the pairing of

exemplar target words and the assignment of .the pairs to

category names. The MEMBER-MATCH condition comprised 20

trials in which both targets were members of' the repeated

category name. The NONMEMBER-MATCH condition comprised 20

trials in which both targets were from the same ) category,

but were not members of "the category repeated on that trial.

The ONE MEMBER-NO MATCH condition comprised 14 trials

consisting of pairs of exemplars .from different categories",

with just one of the exemplars being a member of the

repe'ated .category. Half of the exemplars from the repeated

category appeared as the upper word and half as the lower

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SEMANTIC SATIATION, Page 25

word, and this was also equated in the too 'repetition

conditions (see below). Fourteen trials where neither of

the exemplars was from the repeated category name, and were

not otherwise related, made up the NO MEMBER-NO MATCH

condition. Finally, 12 pairs of exemplars, both "from

different categories and neither from the repeated

category,, but • which were associatively related (e.g., 1>

TABLE--TENNIS), comprised the ASSOCIATED-NO MATCH condition.

There/was therefore a total of 40 MATCH and 40 NO, MATCH

trials, with each category name and each exemplar occurring

once for' each type of decision. The list is given in

Appendix B, For half of the subjects, half of the trials in

each of the five conditions were assigned 3 repetitions of

the category name, and the other half 30 repetitions. The

other half of the subjects had the opposite assignment of

trials to number of repetitions, so that each trial served

' as its own control as concerns the repetition treatment

Twelve practice trials, using different categories and

exemplars, were provided to illustrate^the task requirements

and to familiarize the subject with the displays.' > * *

Procedure.' Each subject was tested in a single session

lasting about 40 minutes. Subjects were instructed in the

repetition procedure as before, arid were told about .the type

of decision required .of , the target words, with the

appropriate decision illustrated by examples (not used in

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SEMANTIC SATIATldk " Page 26

practice or the actual testing)- of eactu of the five

conditions. It- was emphasised that they should be careful

to make category matching decisions and not to be lured to a

.MATCH decision by a noncategorical associati6n between the

target words (i.e., ASSOCIATED-NO MATCH trials). Each"

subject then completed the 12 practice and 80 experimental

trials.

The* sequence and timing of events 'on a trial followed"

that used in the last two experiments. The target words

were displayed above and below the, location of the fixation

point, separated -.by about 1 degree. Half of' the subjects"

signaled MATCH' with their left index finger and NO MATCH

with their right index/finger/^and the other half had the

1 reverse mapping.

0

^Results and Discussion • (

The data from 13 of the subjects were not considered

because they responded incorrectly on 50% or more of- trials

following either 3 or 30 repetitions in one or more specific

conditions (N=8, ASSOCIATED-NO MATCH condition?/ N=5,^

NONMEMBER-MATCH condition). It seems plausibjjs that the

discarded subjects in the former group were inclined to base

their decisions more in-terms of semantic similarity than

category membership, while the latter subjects possibly

. thought that they should respond MATCH when the otwo

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SEMANTIC SATIATION . Page' 27

exemplars were from the repeated category, and NO MATCH

otherwise. 9 '

Table 3 presents the mean of the subjects'1 median RTs

and mean percent errors for thye 10 experimental conditions.

An overall analysis of variance of the RT data revealed ho

main effect for the' assignment of trial items to repetition,

condition [F(l?30)=1.30] or interaction of this factor with

target >cond tion [F(4,120)=»19J, repetitions [F(l,30)=1.59],

or both [F(4,iL20) = .49] . -There were no effects involving -w

response-hariH assignment. The effect of target-condition *

[F(4,120>=^5.98] and its interaction with repetitions

[F(4,120)=3.11] were significant.

The comparisons of interest involve the effect of

repetition in each target condition. Two-tailed t-tests

indicated a significant effect of repetition on RT in the -. ==>

MEMBER-MATCH" [t(31)=2.74] and NO MEMBER-NO MATCH

[t(31)=2015] conditions. None'of the other comparisons were

significant; NONMEMBER-MATCH [t(31)=1.09-] ; ONE" MEMBER-NO

MATCH [t(31)=0.0] ? ASSOCIATED-NO MATCH [t(31)=1.43] „

A similar series of analyses on the percent errors•

revealed only a main effect of target condition

[F(4,,120)=29.'26] . None ofo .the other main effects,

interactions, or comparisons within target conditions

approached significance.

The main prediction derived from the semantic satiation

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\

SEMANTICvSATIATION ' ' • Page 28

hypothesis for this experiment was supported? Decision times

on MATCH trials * increased with repetitions • when both

exemplar's were from the repeated category (MEMBER=MATCH) ,

but was not significantly affected when the targets were

both exemplars of some- other -category (NONMEMBER-MATCH-) .

Since in this task, as in the lexical decision task,, the

repeated category name was irrelevant, -.the repetition

strategy hypothesis' was not supported. Although RT was

faster in £he MEMBER-MATCH condition as compared _ to the

NONMEMBER-MATCH condition, this difference might reasonably

be viewed as a priming effect not entirely unlike that

observed in the lexical decision task (Experiment 3>„ An

national, but not critical • (see footnote 1) prediction was

that RT in the ONE MEMBER-NO MATCH condition would increase

with repetitions, but this effect was clearly not present.

To determine whether the relative position (above or below)

of the target exemplar that was from the repeated category

might have modulated any repetition effect in this

condition, median RTs were accordingly derived for each

subject (the data from two subjects could not be retrieved,

so N=30). Display positiondid not modulate the repetition

effect in RT [F(3,87)=.ll]. _ However, there was a

signifleant* effect -in percent errors [F(3,87)=3.32,

MSE=119.0? above position 8.82, 3.63,° below 0.0S," 4.22 for 3

and 30 repetitions, respectively]. Post hoc contrasts

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SEMANTIC SATIATION- *' Page 29 0

a

showed that the values x;ere ordered as follows^ 8.8 > 3.6 »=

"4.2 > 0".0.° Thus, more errors were made following 3 as

compared td 30 repetitions when the exemplar target from the

repeated category \ was' shown in the upper location, and the

reverse was true when) it appeared in the lower location0< 0 -3

i

The former finding is 'consistent with an effect of semantic

satiation, while'the' latter, provides an inconsistent effect.

I can find no explanation for; these finding-s.

Reaction time also increased significantly» in the NO

MEMBER-NO MATCH condition. This condition is unique with

respect to the others in that there . existed no semantic

assoeiations among the three/$ords that comprised a trial?

neither of the ' targets were exemplars of - the repeated

category, and the targets were neither associatively nor

categorically related. There are two points of view thai

may be taken concerning this result.- One is that the effect

is not real, but is instead a product of sampling error.

Marshalled in "support of this conclusion is the fact that

the data of only. 662 of subjects were' concordant with the

direction of the effect. The other view, that the effect is •* ' „

„ indeed a 'real' one, is difficult to reconcile with the

putative effect of the repetition treatment according,to the

semantic satiation hypothesis. Perhaps the most serious

implication of this view "for the semantic satiation

hypothesis is that there exists some common -process

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Jk

SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 30

underlying the effects observed in both the MEMBER-MATCH'and

NO MEMBER-NO MATCH, conditions, ''if some common process is if

responsible, it clearly must be. strategic and not

structural. Because the interesting formulation" of the

nature of semantic satiation proposes that - repetition

affects the representation of the concept, evidence pointing

to a strategic explanation provides a . strong challenge to

the - theory. As is often the case with specifying

Strategies, however, solution can be elusive when the . "task

itself is not .completely understood and specific

hypothetical operations«are not tested. Nonetheless, the

possible presence of a strategic influence on the effect of

repetitions on semantic processes was explored in two ways.

First, if the RT increase^ with 30 repetitions in "the NO

MEMBER-NO MATCH condition is due to some strategy, then the

results sin someo of .the remaining conditions of subjects *

.showing this effect should differ from those > who do not.

'Table 4 presents the mean RTs and percent errors derived .by

dividing the subject population into two groups

distinguished by the direction of "the repetition effect in

the NO MEMBER-NO MATCH condition? twenty-one subjects had

slower RTs after 30 repetitions, and 11 had faster RTs. Fete

convenience these sub-groups will be referred to as the slow

and fast groups, respectively. An ANOVA was performed on

both the RT and percent errors that included the 'two groups,

0

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SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 31

A ' *

, A - t

the other four target conditions, and number of repetitions '

as -factdrs, None of the interactions involving group was

significant (all Fs <1 .,0). Moreover, \ an analysis which

included only the MEMBER-MATCH condition also showed that

the interaction of group with repetitions was not

significant [F(l,30)=2„72] [2]. These analyses therefore

indicate that there is no relation between the effects of

\

repetitions 'observed in the MEMBER-MATCH and UNASSOCIATED-NO

MATCH conditions.

The second approach to an evaluation of the possible

importance of strategies was more direct ,and empirical. To

examine whether the effects of number of repetitions that we

have observe.d might -be attributable to expectancies or ' v

strategies having nothing to do with loss of meaning, the

next experiments attempted to construct a situation in which

expectancies or strategic effects would be minimized or

" 'eliminated, while still • allqwing for-a an «operation that

should be susceptible to any effect'of semanticvsatiatipn.

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SEMANTIC SATIATION . Page 3 2

Experiment 5

One v;ay to dissociate the possible effects of strategy

and semantic satiation would require a manipulation that

affords a semantically-mediated process which can foa

affected by , satiation,, and which- is simultaneously 'distant

from strategic control. Perhaps the only type of

manipulation that meets these specifications involves

automatic semantic processing. This^type, of manipulation is

justified on the evidence (slle below) that automatic

semantic processing is not significantly affected by

strategic factors, and ' on th4 assumption that such

processing should be affected if/ the activation - of -the

representations that mediated such processing is attenuated

by the repetition treatment.

Well-known procedures which have promoted a general

interest in automatic psychological processes are the Stroop

task (Stroop, 1935? see Dyer, 1973 for a review), priming

(e.g., Neely, 1977b? Taylor, 1977), and unconscious word

perception (e.g., Balcfta, 1983? Cheeseman and Merikle, in

press? Groeger, 1984? Marcel, 1983). In all of these tasks i ' •«. •

the information available from the irrelevant dimension of a

I stimulus, as in the Stroop .situation, or from a .priming stimulus frequently has been shown to affect processing of a

3

relevant stimulus event without intention on the part of the

subject to make use of that information. An important,

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SEMANTIC SATIATION ^ • Page 33

caveat is that in semantic priming experiments (whicftao 'not

make use of a masking stimulus_ in an attempt to eliminate

\ ' awareness of the prime word? see Cheeseman and Merikle, in

press) the rnterval , between the presentation of the prime

and target words (stimulus onset asynchony? SOA) . must be

short" (say Jess than^250-300 msec.? see Neely, 1977b? Posner,

1978). It'has been shown that only with long SOAs can

' atte' tion'al and strategically-flexible operations regulate v » •

th® impact of the prime word on decision latencies (e*g.,

Becker, 1980? den He/er, Briand, and Dannenbring, 1983?

Neely, 1977«b? Simpson an<3 Burgess, in press? • Smith, Briand, < -V

Klein, and denHeyer, 1984? Tweedy and Lapinski, 19"81? ' " V ' \ >

Tweedy, Lapinski, and Schvaneveldt, VL977) [3].°

Consistent with experiments reported earlier in this

thesis .(Experiments 1 and 2), the category membership task , -a

was again used? following repetition of a category name,

subjects were required to decide whether a single target

word was a member'of the" repeated category. The' innovation

on this task consisted in presenting another word along with

the target. The additional word, which will be called the

flanker, was irrelevant to the decision required of. the

target word, and subjects were instructed..to ignore its It

was predicted, however, that the "flanker word would have a

measureable effect on' decision rimes bv virtue of its

semantic-categorical relation to (a) the criterion "category.

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J -

w

• ^ r s *

\

% •=* . "

SEMANTIC SATIATION ' Page 34 • •/

.I * a-

and/or *(b) the target word'(see Flower and Wilcox, 1982?

Shaffer and LaBerge, 1979). With regard to relation (a), a

flanker that is from the same' category as , the criterion '

1 . category might facilitate response, decisions to the target

word since the response implied by the flanker agrees ' w.ith

the response required , of the target (Flower and Wilcox,

198'2? Pachella,' 1974). Also with regard to srelation ' (a), .-a -

flanker that is f^om a category that is different- from the

criterion category might interfere'with response decisions , *•

y since the response implied by the flanker conflicts with 'the

U response 'required"of the target. With regard to relation

(b), a flanker that is related to a target might facilitate

"encoding of the target by a mechanism 'like priming

activation, and thereby reduce response times.. The evidence

regarding whether a prime word (here, a flanker) that' is -" ' ' '

unrelated to the. target" ,word can inhibit encoding of 'the

target is inconclusive (cf.- Antos, 1979? Neely, 1977b? • „ "

- Smith/^ and Klein, . 1984). We will therefore not commit our

predictions one way or the other on this, latter point.

S&meyexamples of the^conditions in'the experiment will

serve/ to illustrate these predictions. Table 5 lists

examples of the conditions and indicates the predicted

direction of. the flanker effect in terms of encoding arid

response selection processes. We will' imagine just 3

repetitions for the present, and suppose that the "repeated

( / \/

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category name was FRUIT. Two flanker conditions were

, established for positive (MEMBER) trials, with a target such

as APPLE? the flanker could be PLUM or TRUCK,. If seftia'ntio

information about the flanker is activated, evea though

subjects were instructed to ignore the word, in the former

case (targets APPLE, flankers plum? we will adopt the

convention of printing the* target in capitals and the

blanker in lower case) the consistency Of the flanker with t

the category and response appropriate for the target may

facilitate a correct decision. For the latter case

(APPLE-truck) the flanker may have an opposite effect for

the opposite reasons. Three flanker conditions were

"established for NONMEMBER trials, with a target such as CAR?

the flanker could be plum, worm, or truck. In the first

condition (CAR-plum) the flanker is consistent with the

criterion category, but conflicts with, the category of the

target and hence with the appropriate response? the conflict

should increase - decision time and possibly errors. Errors

might increase because the flanker indicates an incorrect

response. In the second condition (CAR-worm) the flanker .is

from' neither the criterion category nor from that of the

target. The flanker is thus consistent with the response

but inconsistent with the category" of the target. Decision

time should be faster and subjects less prone to error -than

in the previous, condition due to response consistency. The

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third condition (CAR-truck) displays a flanker from the same

Category as the target? .the redundancy^ gain here ,should

provide for the. fastest; decision times 'of the three

NONMEMBER conditions. We also should' recognize that the

flanker word itself may be primed if it is from the repeated

category.' More rapid encoding of the.flanker should tend to

'increase its impact on target proces sflng. o l 't> l *

In summary, we have raised v%he general question of a

whether the effects of number of repetitions on semantic

decisions^- are an'artifact of strategy or affe instead due to

loss of meaning.'" It seemed desirable to fimd a task that'

provides an effect due 0to autOmaMdWjs^ma'ntic prpcessing,.

.which the literature indicates would be immune to strategic

effects, but which should be susceptible to the,»*hypothesised

effects of semantic satiation. We anticipate some-^clear

effects* of automatic semantic processing in the task"that

has just been outlined.* Should the flanker in fact exercise

such effects, it was then proposed that they would be

attenuated by semantic satiation in those conditions where to

the flanker is from the criterion category. If semantic

satiation is not produced by the repetition treatment, the

flanker effect should be unaffected.

- Before putting the latter hypotheses to the test, it

seemed wise to firsgt see whether the flanker .effects

outlined above could be Obtained at all. A full report of

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the pilot experiments is provided, followed by .a more • ' i

thorough reviex-j of the predictions »Sor this task in terras of

the satiation treatment, and then the experiment proper.

/Methodsi Pilo.t experiments

i

Subjects. Thirty-six people (ages 18-25) obtained

through the local employment agency were paid for their

participation. All had .English as their first language and

none had participated in the previous experiments.

.Materials,? Thirty-six category names and four dominant '

" 'exemplars from each of the categories comprised the stimuli.

.Two lists of 144 trials each were constructed, and. in each

t o I

list every category name occurred four times, each exemplar

twice. The number of trials forming each o,f the five

flanker-decision conditions in each list, using examples of

the stimuli for each condition as the least awkward

nomenclature (the criterion category used will be FRUIT),

were; (a) target-APPLE, flanker-plums 36? (b) APPLE-trucks •f

36? (c) CAR-pIums 24? (dLCAR-worms 24? and (e) CAR-trucks ' ^& \> -a

24. ' r • Four additional constraints directed list constructions

.(1) each'"'exemplar appeared -in both „ MEMBER and NONMEMBER

decision trials in each list? (2) within each list, an

. exemplar appeared once as a flanker and once" as a target?

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(3) in the judgment of the experimenter, no incidental

relations „ (categorical or associative) between the category

name, flanker, and target words composing a trial were i

present? and (4).' all of the pairs of exemplars were \

different in'the"two lists. Appendix C provides the lists.

Twenty-four practice trials, using different oategoi{i

and exemplars X-^were provided to illustrate the

requirements and to familiarize the subject with the

displays,

'Procedure. The procedure was the same as in Experiment

2 with two major departures. First, the category name was

flashed on the screen and repeated 3 times by the subjects

on all - trials. The repetition instructions were not

otherwise changed. Second, too display arrangements were

tested" in separate sub-experiments. Twenty subjects were

shovm the flanker word about 1 degree above the fixation

point, 2Q0 msec before the target word replaced the fixation

point (the SOA experiment). In the other sub-experiment, 16

subjects were .shown the flanker word about 1 degree both v

above and below the target word, all appearing

simultaneously (the Simultaneous experiment). In both cases

the^flanker and target words remained on the screen until

the subject's response. The instructions urged the subjects

to ignore the flanker word, pointing out that it is

completely irrelevant to the decision that must b'e made for

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Cr . * , JJ

the target word, and to concentrate their attention in the

• area of the -screen where the target word would appear.

Each subject completed 24 practice trials and six blocks

of 24 experimental trials, separated by a minimum 30-second

rest period. Half of the subjeots received one of the word

lists and the other half received the other list. Half of

the subjects in each display situation signaled MEMBER with

their le'ft index finger and NONMEMBER with their right index

finger, and the other half used" the reverse mapping, " ' i

0

Results and Discussion

The mean RTs and percent errors for the five conditions

are given in Table 6. The data ", in the left and right

columns are from the Simultaneous and SOA experiments,

respectively^ In an overall analysis of these data, no

effects involving list, repetition- trJal assignment, or

# response-hand assignment were observed (all F's" <1„7). The

effect of the flanker on MEMBER decision RT was significant

in both display experiments [t(15^=4„38, t(19)=2-068 for the k °» . • s

Simultaneous and SOA experiments, respectively]„ The effect

,on a'ccu'racy was reliable only inv the Simultaneous experiment

[t(15)=3„00?' SOA, t(19)=lo76]. Performance was therefore

better when the flanker .was consistent with the cri'terion

category and the response required of the target word, .as

compared with a conflicting flanker word. *N>

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For the NONMEMBER conditions", the effect of flanker,

conditionn on RT ' was significant only in the Simultaneous

experiment [F(2,°30)=5.29, MSE=1028'? for the SOA - eapferiment,

F(2,38)=2,21, MSE=1294] . Mutually-orthogonal cor" rasts, were

used to evaluate, the Simultaneous results furthere ' The 36 b

msec difference 'between the CAR-plum and CAR-'truck

conditions was reliable [F(2,30)=5.04].» ' The second-contrast

compared the combined effects of the preceding conditions

with the CAR-worm condition. The comparison was, not ' * V '>. ' significant [F(2-,30 )=.19] J* The latter contrast implies that , •> . « •

RT in the CAR-worm condition fell between the observed-,-.,

values for the other two conditions.- vThe effect of flanker

condition on percent errors was not reliable in either.-

- experiment [Simultaneous; F(2,3Q)J=1,69? SOA; F(2 ,38) = „34] „

•b In this experiment, the effect of a flanker word on

category "membership decisions was examined with two. methods

of flanker presentation. The crucial predictions, laid out

earlier (pp. 35-38), were entirely borne out in the data.

from the Simultaneous experiment, and were upheld only for

MEMBER decisions in-the SOA experiment.. The difference in

results between the too methods of flanker presentation - is

interesting, since it might seem somewhat counter-intuitive

that the "effect of the flanker' is smaller or absent when it

is available 200 msec prior to the presentation of the

target as compared to simultaneously available (the account

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provided in Si-mpson and Burgess, in press, could be applied

here).' .However, our interest was to determine whether the

flanker-category membership task would provide a basic

effect of automatic semantic processing. The Simultaneous

'version of the task does provide this effect, and so we will

not consider further the data from the SOA experiment.

To review the bindingss The presence of a flanker from

the criterion category that was consistent with the required-

MEMBER decison (APPLE-plum) seemed to improve performance? a \ji

flanker, from the criterion category that was'inconsistent ) r » I . AS

"with the response (CAR-plum) seemed to hurt performance. In

terms of processing operations, it is not clear whether the

flanker effect might be located at the response - selection

stage, .at the stage of target encoding, or both. The

evidence from the NONMEMBER conditions (RT for "CAR-truck <

CAR-worm °< CAR-plum) suggests an effect of the flanker by

both mechanisms (consult Table 5), The important point is

that the flanker-category « membership task has been

demonstrated to provide a basic effect which is dependent on ' L -

the meaning off the flanker-, and which can now be used to

evaluate further the phenomenon of/semantic satiations

The predictions accorded the' " semantic sa\iation

. hypothesis will now be described for the effect "of « •

repetitions in this task. We will assume the effects just reportedo Firsts the effect of -repetition observed in

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>

Experiments 1 and 2 on MEMBER trials should be replicated,

with no effect for the. NONMEMBER trials'. How-will the

flanker effects just reported be modulated by semantic

satiation? If the repetition treatment reduces the

availability of the1 meaning of concepts, then the effect of

redundancy gain or conflict supplied by a flanker when it is

from the category repeated 30 times should be reduced or

eliminated. Therefore, the second hypothesis is that the

magnitude of the flanker effect expected with the MEMBER

conditions with 3 repetitions should be reduced after 30

repetitions. ^The effect of the oflanker in the CAR-plum

condition should be reduced as well. *. Interestingly, the

implicationtfrom the latter condition is that a performance

improvement in the CAR-plum condition is expected following

30 repetitions since- the deleterious effect of 'plum" is

predicted to be reduced when FRUIT is repeated-30 times. If

obtained,-this result would enhance the generality of the

evidence for semantic satiation, since in the previous

studies performance decrements only have been observed.

Performance in ' the other NONMEMBER conditions is not

expected .to change.

Now the potential effects of strategy will be

considered. First of all, if the effects of repetition

observed, so far are. due-to some strategic factor, then the

effect of repetition on category membership decisions should

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SEMANTIC SATIATION „ V • 'Page" 43

be similarly observed -here. However, the evidence on

automatic semantic processing suggests that strategy should

not penetrate the effect of the flanker, given the •timing

' and the structure of the task'. Moreover, the contingencies

v/hich a strategy built on the satiation treatment «wquld have

to additionally accommodate, given the variety of

.category—flanker-target relations, would make it unlikely to,

prove useful (or be contrived). Thus, the strategy class of

explanation must predict that the flanker effect will not be

affected by the repetition treatment. . , * i; -

Methodss Main experiment

Subjects, Forty-two introductory psychology students at

Dalhousie participated in the experiment for course credit.

The data •fro'ai too subjects were not considered because they

responded incorrectly on 402 of trials in one of the

conditions. ^All subjects had English as their first

language and none had partiqipated in any of the previous

experiments.

Materials, The two lists froifl Experiment 5 (Appendix C)

vjere usedo

* . • ^ /

Procedure. The procedure and {instructions were

identical to those of the Simultaneous pilot experiment,

.with too major differences. Half of the trials in each CfJ

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condition were assigned "3 repetitions of the category name,

and the other half, 30, An equal number (20) of subjects-

was tested with each of the two lists? half of the subjects '

in these subgroups were given the opposite assignment of .

number of repetitions'to trial-words. The second change was

that all subjects signaled MEMBER with their right index

finger' and NONMEMBER. with their left index ' finger.

Instructions again urged subjects to ignore the flanker

word. Subjects completed the 24 practice and 144

experimental trials in a session approximately one hour

long „ ' ^

Results and Discussion 3 *

The'mean RTs and percent errors are given in Table 7,

Looking first at the effect of the flanker on MEMBER RT with

3 repetitions of the category name, it appears that the

present results replicate those from the pilot experiment

(see Table 6, Simultaneous experiment). The effect

expressed in accuracy in the pilot experiment, however,

•seems not to have been obtained here. Secondly, looking at

the effect of repetitions on category membership decisions

independently of flanker condition, RT increased by 41 msec

for MEMBER decisions (and increased by 7 msec on NONMEMBER

decisions), which*" parallels the effects 'observed -in

Experiments 1 and 2._ The third and most interesting aspect

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•P

of these data concerns the interaction between flanker

condition and number of repetitions of the category .name.

For MEMBER decisions the flanker effect was 23 . msec

following 3 repetitions and was reduced to 7 msec following

30 repetitions. This indicates that extended repetition of

the category name attenuated the impact of the flanker word

on MEMBER decisions.

For NONMEMBER decisions, it seems that the effect of the

flanker on RT with 3 repetitions paralleled the effect

observed previously (i.e., RT in CAR-truck < CAR-worm <

CAR-plum). Second, the overall effect .of repetitions on

NONMEMBER decisions was much smaller than that observed for

MEMBER decisions. Finally, it would appear that repetitions

did not appreciably' attenuate the flanker effect as

estimated by RT. Although "the difference between . the

CAR-plum and CAR-truck flanker conditions-, as,, an example,

was reduced from 28 msec with 3 repetitions to 19 msec with

30 . repetitions, thisris largely due to the 12 msec increase

in RT in the CAR-truck condition. If we consider errors, T however, subjects seemed to make substantially more errors

©

after 3 repetitions when the flanker was an exemplar of the

criterion category, as compared to all of the other

NONMEMBER flanker-repetition conditions. It would seem that

the meaning of the flanker word in the CAR-plum condition

.sometimes intruded in the response decision process to lead

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«

subjects to' an incorrect response. Following -30

repetitions, this difference in accuracy disappeared;

An overall analysis of both RT' and percent errors,

revealed no effects involving list or repetition-trial

assignment (all F°s <1.0). Table 8 'provides a summary of

the table present the contrasts that were tested %nd their

the subsequent analysis of these data. The three panels of

ant

outcomes for RT for MEMBER (panel A) and NONMEMBER (panel B)

decisions, and for perce&t errors far NONMEMBER decisions

(panel C)? there i?as not a significant overall effect of

condition in errors for MEMBER decisions [F(3,117)=.83,

MSE=31.49]'.

In panel A (MEMBER decisions, RT), the analysis revealed

that the flanker effect was-present following 3 repetitions

(contrast 1) but was not present following 30 repetitions,

(-contrast 2), and that the effect of repetitions overall, was

to increase decision time (contrast 3).

In panel B (NONMEMBER decisions, RT) the analysis showed

that there was no reliable effect of repetitions in any of

the 'flanlcer conditions (contrasts 1-3). The last two

contrasts evaluate the effect of the flanlcer on decision

times. Contrast 4 revealed that RT was longer in the

"CAR-plum condition as compared to the CAR-truck condition.

The last contrast was not significant, and^implies that RT

in the CAR-worm condition was intermediate between the too

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former conditions. " 0 - *•

In panel C (NONMEMBER decision^ percent errors), the

results from-the cascaded set" of contrasts indicate*.. that

subjects made more errors in the CAR-plum "conditions X:

following 3 repetitions than in any of the Q;kher conditions

(contrast 5), which did not themselves differ (contrasts

1-4). -Thus, the effect of the flanker was observed in o

accuracy only in the .CAR-plum-3 repetitions condition. ' >0 r 0

These results may° be summarized as fdllowss (1)

prolonged repetition of a category name increases the time

to correctly decide tfhat an .exemplar is , a member of ffoat

category? (2) category 'membership decision performance is

susceptible to the meaning of an irrelevant flanker word?

and (3) prolonged repetition of a category name eliminates

reduces the impact on category membership decisions of a 11 —

flanlcer word that is an exemplar of the repeated category. o

The last point is qualified because on NONMEMBER, decisions

the 'flanker «effect in the CAR-plum condition, as estimated

by RT, was not affected by the number of ^repetitions. As

estimated by performance accuracy, however, the flanker

effect was eliminated.

"It seems unlikely that reduction of the'flanker effect

by prolonged repetition of 'a category name can be explained.

as an artifact of strategy. These data can therefore be'

viewed as constituting strong evidence converging- with the

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) results from Experiments 1, 2, and 4 on the, hypothesis that

prolonged repetition reduces the availability of the' meaning

General -Discussion

The current experiments have shown that prolonged visual

• fixation and vocal repetition of a category name selectively

impedes the processing of semantic information pertaining^.to

that category. This was demonstrated in three different

ways. First, the RTs for category membership decisions to-

exemplars from the criterion "category increase with number

of repetitions (Experiments 1, 2, and 5). Second, the

amount o£ time required to decide that two words are'from

^ the same* category increased following prolonged repetition

of a category .name that was irrelevant to the decision, when

'the target words were members of the repeated category

(Experiment 4).' Third, the repetition treatment attenuated

automatic semantic processing of an irrelevant flanker word > * "

taken from the repeated category, as indexed by the reduced

effect the flanker had on category membership decisions to

an attended0target.

An additional finding, replicating previous work (Cohene

et . aifee 1978? Neely, 1977a), was that-priming by a category

name in the lexical decision task is not influenced by the

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number of times that the subject repeats the prime word.

Many general theoretical approaches to these data can be

found in the literature on inhibitory semantic priming

effects. However, the evidence of inhibition from prior

exposure to semantically related material is derived from a

variety of methodologies which includes episodic recognition

(Neely, Schmidt, and Roediger, 1983? Roediger and Neely,

1982) and recall (Mueller and Watkins, 1977), alphanumeric

matching (Neill, 1979), target generation JBlaxton and

Neely, 1983? Brown, 1981), and category matching (under

certain conditions? Rosch, 1975), One might suspect that

evidence of inhibitory semantic priming, obtained from such a

diverse set of tasks might be due to a common . mechanism.

Recent syntheses of this literature (Blaxton*and Neely,

1983? Roediger and Neely, 1982) provide some ideas,* but as

yet no completely satisfactory or unifying account.

Borrowing from some of that work, several general accounts

of the present data will be considered.

A parallel-access framework, along the lines of Morton's

(1970, 1979) logogen model, or one that makes use of the

resonance metaphor (e.g., Gordon, 1983? Ratcliff, 1978),

provides a. possible understanding of some of the present

data. Upon"presentation and pronunciation of a word, the

logogen for that word and other logogens that are

graphemically, phonemicallyV* anjjr semantically similar will

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i . c.

I . pe activated. Initially, this lwould generally facilitate

retrieval of information in activated logogens (see Morton,

1979, for details of the principles of his model). However,

if logogens can be fatigued by prolonged activation (e.g.,

Martindale, 1981, pg. • 199), as in the repetition treatment,

then retrieval of information related to the satiated word

would be effectively inhibited [4].- Similarly, 'by adopting

the assumption that prolonged' activation can engender

negative threshold changes or localized inhibition, models

of spreading activation in semantic memory (e.g., Collins*

and Loftus, 1975) can afford an account of semantic

satiation. Decisions which require activation (i.e.,

retrieval) of information in logogens or nodes in semantic

memory will require more time if the stuctures are resistant e

to such activation. ' Effects „due to automatic se'mantic

processing will be also be suppressed.

The logogen and spreading activation accounts must

handle the finding that category membership decisions t-Jith

nonexemplars are not affected by number of repetitions

(Experiments 1,2, and 5). One of many possible solutions to

this problem is to suppose that subjects evaluate a target

exemplar to determine the name of the category (or

^categories) to which it may belong. If the taxonomic

category for the target exemplar does not match the

criterion category in a graphemic,phonological, or episodic

\ . \

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code, a NONMEMBER decision can be made. No information

about the meaning of the criterion category is required. .

Therefore, within the present framework, NONMEMBER decisions

would not be affected by prolonged repetition of. an

unrelated category.

The logogen/netoork models also must address the failure

to obtain evidence for an effect of number of repetitions

with the priming-lexical decision task (Experiment 3). At

the core of many models of lexical priming (e.g., Collins

and Loftus, 1975? Neely, 1977b) is the postulate that-

priming relies on activation of nodes in ' semantic memory, „

If we accept the position that semantic satiation, by some

mechanism, inhibits activation of semantic information

related to the satiated word, such models of lexical priming

seem inadequate? lexical priming should be impaired.

One convergence of ' the semantic satiation and

priming-lexical decision experiments that can get around

this problem assumes ' that priming in the lexical decision

task is not mediated by 'semantic' structures (Fodor, 1982,

pp.73-75? Morton, 1970). According to this position,

lexical priming might be based 'on associations between

words, perhaps at a phonological or graphemic level of

representation. If priming by an ostensibly semantic

relation is indeed mediated by nonsemantic structures,

semantic satiation should have no effect on its magnitude.

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Although this account of priming is not widely accepted, it

cannot be ruled out.

Retaining the conventional semantic network framework

(Collins and Loftus, - 1975? Neely, 1977b), a different

account of the data from the present experiments is based on

the assumption that semantic satiation reduces the rate of

spread of activation and search in the satiated category's

structure. Put in other words, it is assumed that the rate

of flow of aetivation along a link between nodes in memory

is reduced when' that link is repeatedly utilized as. during

repetitions (the "sluggish link' hypothesis). Activation of • " " to •• * "

nodes '- er se, however," is not in aj3y way .impaired. It. is

also assumed that the grocess of retrieving the name of the

category sof which a target word is an exemplar,, or

determining that two- exemplars) "'arte- from the same category,\ ' 1

involves traversing links which connect the exemplar to the

superordinate category. * From these assumptions it- follow?

that (a) semantic satiation will increase, the sea'reh. time or

MEMBER decisions and hence MEMBER RT (Experiments 1, 2, and

5). I30NMEMBER decisions would not b.e affected by semantic

satiation since retrieval of the category name and the

process of comparing the retrieved and criterion category

names does not involve the slug°gish -links within the

structure- of the satiated category? (b) the time to decide

that two words are from the same category- (Experiment, 4)

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will similarly take more time since the search process would

be slowed? (c) lexical priming would be expected to remain rv

intact. tThis is because priming activation 'of exemplars

*would still occur during the lengthy satiation period J ,even

though the time for, activation to arrive at* exemplar nodes C U J,

following each repetition would be increased. .Implicit in

this argument0, is the assumption that lexical decisions can

be made without actually penetrating the semantic structure^ '

(d) the " impact of automatic • semantic processing of an 0 i V

irrelevant flanker word wjhich is an exemplar of the

semantically satiated category, presented at the same time

as a target word for a semantic decision, should be reduced.

The evidence from Experiment 5 suggests that a flanker word

exerts its effect by (i) .facilitating encoding of the target

word when it is from the same category as the flanker word'

(the RT difference between the, CAR-truck .and CAR-worm

conditions), and (ii) by response consistency or conflict.

The former -mechanism requires that we assume,associations

between exemplars within a category? a simple link [5].

Encoding facilitation is thus equivalent td automatic

priming activation, which would be impaired by sluggish" • D

links, given that the f;lanket. and target are temporally

coincident. Response consistency or conflict also .depends

on 'activation of the category name of which the flanker is ft " .

an exemplar. The process of accumulating sufficient

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evidence^ updn which to base a decision ^(see Logan and

Zbrodoff, 1979? Pachella, 1974) can be either facilitated or

extended in time if the contribution fr&m -the flanker word J * • . .

is either consistent or conflicts with the evidence .from the

target word. Sluggish links would-' inhibit the 'accumulation

of evidence normally contributed by the flanker, and

accordingly remove the benefit or cost of consistent or

conflicting evidence,in, the decision process.

The sluggish ltink assumption, embedded in current/ views

of semantic information processing, seems to"enable an ad

hoc account of the performance manifestations of semantic

satiation. However, the above theory was required" to

accommodate very few empirical observations, and has not

beeji directly tested. This remains for future work. The is-

present contribution is an empirical validation of the* term

"semantic satiation" as a'description of the consequences of

prolonged repetition of a word.

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Footnotes

.«*

\

[1] There 4 are three possible outcomes for this condition. - First, »RT could increase with repetitions," which could reflect .an effect of semantic satiation, given that one of the targets is an exemplar of the/repeated category. Second'', RT may show no change. This outcome would not challenge the semantic satiation hypothesis since subjects can determine a NO MATCH decision by lack ,of an elementary semantic "relation between the targets. Third, RT could decrease with number of repetitions. This i£ the only outcome that could be damaging', to the semantic satiation hy/pothesis.

a [2] Given the reduced sample sizes,' for the purpose of argument we will examine trends in these, data for clues as to "possible strategies that may have been used. Comparing the slow and fast groups, >it seems that there was a general tendency for subjects to respond more quickly following 30 repetitions in the fast group across almost all conditions. Iri this group only the conditions in which one or both of the targets were'members of the repeated category is there an indication that the 'fast' tendency was frustrated. On the surface of it, then, this weak pattern appears to be •consistent with the semantic satiation hypothesis.

If an opposite tendency to respond more slowly followingq "*30 repetitions was present in the slow group, then one might . expect RT to be slower across conditions, but this seems" not '. to be the case. One conspicuous aspect of the slow group's data is the 22S. error rate following 30 repetitions in the ASSOCIATED-NO MATCH condition (compared-with 12.2S in the fast group)» This might indicate that the subjects in the slow group were more sensitive to the presence of some relation in the words composing a trial, especially following 30 repetitions. If this was so, since the NO MEMBER-NO, MATCH condition is characterized by an absence of any relation,, subjects might have engaged an additional check on those trials following 30 repetitions,- to ensure that they had not mistaken the absence of a relation. This

^ Trou-ld explain the increase in RT that defines the slow group. There is nothing in these data to indicate why subjects would have performed11 the additional check following 30, , repetitions", but the effects of boredom, or fatigue that accompany about 23 seconds of repetition might ' conceivably be compensated by increased reliance on semantic similarity as a basis for decision.

This analysis', speculative as it is, does not conflict with the semantic satiation, hypothesis. Although I have not

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SEMANTIC SATIATION ' Page 56

found one that does, ' it seems, pragmatically and statistically, that, there is no relation between the effect of repetition in the MEMBER-MATCH and NO MEMBER-NO MATCH conditions.

[3] Forster (1981) and others (e.f., Becker, 1980? de "" Groot, -1983, ch, 6? Neely,- 1976? West and Stanovich, 1983) have proposed that priming effects might not be completely attributable" to, encoding facilitation of a target due'to spreading activation, Jsut may additionally derive from post-lexical decision-based operations.' In its'most general e form, this class of theory assumes that evidence concerning '-the' identity-- of the 'prime word -is integrated with evidence about the target word in terms of -converging on a response decision. ' In the complicated process of translating lexical, information into a response decision, compatibility of the' targeJ't wor/S with the context supplied by the priming ..stimulus can facilitate a decision. While the details, and-similarities and differences found. in the.., proposed po'st-access theories are extensive, for our present purposes we .need only recognize that they were all primarily designed pto -explain results from experiments (a) with sentence "contexts, which ^necessarily provide sufficient time for attentional processes, to strategically influence decision operations' ('e.g., Eisenberg and Becker, 1982? Forster," 198,1? Stanovich and West, 1983), hand (b) single word, priming experiments that make use of long SOAs (e.g., Becker, 1980? den Heyer et al, 1983? Mitchell and Green, 1978? Simpson and Burgess, in press?.Smith 'et al, 1984? Tweedy et al, 1977? see discussion in Stanovich ,and West, 1983). .When

/ post-access and decision-based explanations -of single-word priming effects have, been considered to successfully accommodate evidence from "experiments using a short SOA, it has been recognized that their operation is probably •automatic (e.g., palota and Chumbley, 1984? de Groot, 1983? • Shaffer and*La^erge, 1978? Simpson and Burgess, in press?-Stanovich -and West, 1983, pp„28-29). Thus, the bulk of the evidence and argument supports the assumption that semantic processing of context-words at • short SOAs facilitates target processing , and' decision operations automatically, and without the participation of flexible strategies.

The, work by Logan (1980? Logan and -Zbrodoff, 1979)- on-the rc/le of' strategy in a Stroop-like task should also be considered. In thosQ experiments, subjects^ were assigned different response_ buttons for the words ABOVE and BELOW, which could appear either above or below the fixation point (after Palef and .Olson, 1975). -Logan and Zbrodoff found that there was'an inverse rel/ation between the probability, known in advance bp^the subject, that the irrelevant spatial information could predict the response, and RT. This

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SEMANTIC SATIATION . •" • " • Page 57

occurred with both consistent and conflicting word-position information, __although asymmetrically, favouring the consistent case,- This demonstration of the strategic utilization of information from an ' ostensibly irrelevant, though integral, dimension of the stimulus is not of concern in the present experiment. The deoision mechanism accommodates the information from, the" irrelevant dimension of the stimulus by adjusting decision criteria before a stimulus is ^presented, an.d can therefore 6e $lewed as a limited attentional process, rather that as one which makes use of- contingencies that, become apparent only after the stimulus has been presented. Also, by interpolation, when the predictive value of the irrelevant dimension was about ,5, no effect was apparent,. In the present experiments, the pre.dictive value of the flanker was ,58,

[4] Blaxton and Neely (1983) considered how information concerning a specific category might be inhibited by prior processing in the same semantic category in,a situation where subjects are expected to generate exemplars of' a category that begin with a specified letter. Some of those ideas might be considered here. Subjects, may covertly ' but actively retrieve many exemplars from the category in anticipation of an exemplar target (Brown, 1981). ' To « sustain retrieval of new candidate target exemplars during the extended, 30-repetition period., items which had been retrieved initially might need to be inhibited, effectively increasing RT for these latter items. A variant of this 'position is that prolonged retrieval of items from a single category may instill a global retrieval blo€k of exemplars (see Blaxton and Neely, 1983? Brown., 1981). Accounts of this type might assume that the observed effect of number of repetitions arises not from repetition and satiation of the category name per se, but from prolonged implicit recollection of exemplars. However, the informal reports by our subjects indicated that they were quite occupied by the rapid pronunciation task itself, 'and -did not claim to actively recall as many exemplars as possible, Repetition also engenders an experienced phonological distortion (Warren, 1968) of the word, which may require additional concentration in order that correct pronunciation of the word be preserved. Also, Experiment 4 demonstrated an effect of semantic satiation when the- decision was not based on any particular category, a situation in which generation of exemplars from a particular category might ' be more distracting than fruitful. Nonetheless, these ideas remain plausible-;

. « •* . i

[5] I' want to make a few points concerning the use of the terms 'link' and 'node'. In my view, these are" terms of

•a

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SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 58

convenience that serve to simplify communication about' the macro-structure of semantic knowledge. The information 'contained' in a node is-rarely revealed by authors who use the term, and -they could be relying on any of many conceptual schemes. <• It is usually used in a context which suggests that it refers to the psychological representation of a concept. Discussion of the nature of concepts and categories (Fodor, 1982; McCloskey and Glucksberg, 1979? Smith o and Me,din, 1981? Wilson, 1980)^ quickly reveals'that a, concep°t, such as 'tree', is actually a collection of properties or propositions (has leaves/needles, is tall, has roots, needs water, etc), which "are themselves concepts. Thus, a concept is by its very nature 'linked" to other concepts (tree-shrub) by virtue of shared properties. Hollan (1975) essentially .has made this point in his arguments that" network theories (i,e. Collins and Loftus, ' 1975) are notational -variants of semantic feature models (i.e. Smith et al, 1974). The network notation is, as suggested earlier, more- convenient and powerful for constructing theories of processing the meaning of sentences (Anderson, 1976? Johnson-Laird, Herrmann, and Chaffin, 1984?**' Lindsay and Norman, 1977). Thus,-a node 'can be viewed as a set of relations '(intra-node links?) between properties that comprise a concept, and links (inter-node links) can be viewed also as representational structures that specify relations between concepts. Exactly where a node end^ and a link begins is an artificial issue raised by ihe network metaphor? it is important to simply appreciate /that nodes and links, as the terms are used here, do different jobs in representing and using knov/ledge.

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SEMANTIC SATIATION 0 " Page 59

Number of * Repeti t ions MEMBER NONMEMBER

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

3 -

30

3

30

638 (1.9)

571 (2,5)

634 (4=7)

% 5 (4.7)

775 <5.6)

754 (3.1)

723 (9.1)

721 (6.2)

Table L. Mean Reaction Times (and Percent Errors) from Experiments 1 and 2.

(

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V

Number of Repetitions RELATED UNRELATED NONWORD

: *

3 622 (5.6) 696 (12.5) ^ 766 (8.7)

30 627 (7.5) 693 (15.0) 779 (7.2)

Table 2. Mean Reaction Times (and Percent Errors) from Experiment 3. _

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SEMANTIC SATIATION (

Number of Repetitions

- Condition 3 30

Member-Match 864 (4.4) 910 (5.3)"

Nonmember-Match 1075 (14.7) 1047 (15.3)

Associated-No Match 1253 (15.6) 1203 (18.7)

One Member-No Match Q 1077 (4.0) 1078 (4.8)

No Member-No Mafch 1076 (1.3) 1134 (2.6)

Table 3. Mean Reaction Times (and Percent , -Errors) from Experiment 4 .

Q

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Slow Group Fast Group

Condition

Number of' Repeti t ions

30 30

Member-Match 872 (4.3) 939 (5.7) 846 C4.5) 856 (4.5)

Nonmember-Match " 1076 (13.8) 1035 (15.7) 1070 (16.4) 1029 (19,1)

Associated-No Match 1275 "(16.7) 1237 (22.0) 1210 (13.6) 1136 (12.2)

One,Member-Wo Match 1108 (4.7) 1093 (5.3) 1016 (2.5) 1042 (3.8)

Ho Member-No Match 1053 (1.3) 1196 (2.7) 1120 (1.3) 1016 (2.5)

Table 4. Mean Reaction Times (and Percent Errors) for the sub-groups identified in Experiment 4 (see text).

1

..a *

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SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 63

Cr i te r ion Category Target Flanker Encoding Response

FRUIT APPLE

APPLE

CAR

CAR

CAR

plum

truck

plum "

worm

truck

+

o/-

o/-

' ~o/-

+

+

-

-

+

+

Table 5. Predicted direction of the flanker effect (+ indicates facilitation; o indicates no 'effect; - indicates inhibition or inter­ference) for the five conditions in Experiment' 5„

\

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SEMANTIC SATIATION P'age 64

Essperiment Cri ter ion Category Target . Flanker Simultaneous ' SOA

FRUIT APPLE

APPLE

CAR

CAR

CAR

plum

truck

plum -

worm

truck

664 (7.3)

695 (14.2)

737 (7.1)

725 (5.4)

701 (4.6)

640 (5.3)

668 (9.0)

701 (4.6) <> 682 (4.5)

680 (3.6)

Table 6. Mean Reaction Times (and Percent Errors) from the two pilot sub-experiments (Experiment 5).

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SATIATION Page 65

Criterion Category Target Flanker

Number of Repetitions

3 30

FRUIT

1!

11

II

II

APPLE

APPLE

CAR

CAR

, CAR

plum

truck

plum i

worm

truck

^580 (6.0) '

603,16.4) # o

656 (8.5)

641 (4.1) "

628 (3.7) *

629 (4.5)

636 «(5.'8)

659 (4.-7)

649 (3.8)

640 t4.§)

Table 7. Mean Reaction Times (and Percent Errors)° from Experiment 5 (Main).

T"

l • •

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Condition APPLE-plum APPLE-truck APPLE-plum APPLE-truck Repetitions 3 3 30 30 Sample mean 580 • 603 . 629 ^ 636 Fh

* P<°05 . , - , Table 8 - Contrasts used in the analysis of Experiment 5 (Main). Panel A: MEMBES conditions, RT.

Panel B: NONMEMBER conditions, RT. i^anel C: NONMEMBER conditions. Percent Errors.- The « column of numbers in parentheses at the left in each panel is the contrast's number, as

referred to in the text.

en

. (1) (2) (3)

-

Condition * Repetitions Sample mean

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Condition Repetitions Sample mean

(1) (2)

- (3) - (4) (5)

'

1

1

CAR-truck" 3 628

1 a

1 1

CAR-truck. 3 3 7

1 1 1 1 -1

-

-1.

1

CAR-truck 30 640

-1

1 1

CAR-truck 30 3.8

-1 1 1 1 1

-?

\

' ' 1 -1

-1 --1

F(3,117)=25.06,

CAR-worm 3 641

1 .

-2'

CAR-worm 3 4\1

-2 1 1 1

CAR-worm 30 649

--1

-2

CAR-worm 30 " 4.6

-3 1 1

3.47" - .32 22.03*

MSE=1017.

CAR-plum 3

. 656 '

-

1 -1 ' 1

F(5

CAR-plum 3© 4.7

f

' * * , -4

1

CAR-plum 30

" 659

o-

-I -L 1

,195)=3.46.

CAR-plum 3 8.5

, *

-5

F(5,195)=3.56,

, MSE

MSE=

-

Fh .

.37

.06

.02,. 2.83' .00

=15601

Fh

.00

.02

.09

.07 3.44*

<36.16

s >3 o Cfl

t-3

o 3

-

&

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SEMANTIC SATIATION

Appendix A Stimuli from Experiments 1-3

List Prime

Time Metal Dog ^Colour crime ''Weapon Sport Music Vehicle Dance Flower Tree Snake Drug A>

Pood Tool Spice Game Car * Month Gem Animal Cloth Fuel Liquor • Fruit Weather Bird Toy Insect Disease Pish City Plant Country Money Snack Drink Seafood Emotion

. 1 Target

Minute Gold Poodle Blue Mure1 or Gun, Hockey Jazz Truck Disco Rose Maple Cobra .Heroin Bread * Hammer Pepper Chess Ford Apsril Horse Cotton Oil Scotch Apple Rain Robin, Doll Spider Cancer Salmon Halifax Cactus •Russia Dollar .Candy > Water Lobster • Lovte plafond

List Prime

Gem Animal' Cloth Fuel Liquor Fruit Weather Bird Toy Ingect Disease Fish City Plant-Country Money ' Snack Drink Seafood Emotion Time •Metal Dog Colour- ^ Crime Weapon Sport Music Vehicle Dance .Flpwer Tree Snake Drug Food. • Tool „ Spice Game Car Month •

2 Target 0

Diamond Horse Cotton' Oil ' Scotch Apple Rain \Robin DoJ.1 Spider Cancer Salmon Halifax Cactus Russia Dollar Candy Water Lobster Love Gold Poodle Blue -Murder Hockey Jazz -.Minute '- Truck Disco Rose , Maple . Cobra Heroin. B°read * Hammer ^Pepper Chess • Ford April Gun

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Appendix B a Stimuli from Experiment 4

S

\

Category name Targets

(MEMBER-MATCH)* Time. «0 Gem Metal'| „ , . Animal J3og

* C Loth \ Cqlour , \Fuel ' ' \ <2rime „

;- Liquor \ flower ? 4

Tree Fish' '„ Snalce * .Furniture Drug- • • Plant • Food Country

(NO MEMBER-MATCH)' Weapon Fruit Sport Weather • * Music Bird ^ v

Vehicle ' s Toy > Dance Insect

' TOQl Money Spice Snake

( Game Drink 'Meat Rodent Planet Emotion

8 Minute Ruby Copper tGOW Poodle. Cotton" Red Oil

tMurdeV I Whiskey Rose Cancer ,v Maple ' *«' Trout - • Cobra

^ Table, 'Heroin

Bre%d * Fra-nce

i"1

Ant-Jazz Robin Gun , x-Slp. u ** Hockey Apple-" Hail Car Disco T.enssis Candy Rat

• wrench Pepper, Love * -Dollar Pluto Milk Pork

Year Opal Iron Bear Collie Velvet Yellow

C$ Coal • Fraud

% Rum Tulip

s Flu Oak

, ' Guppy Fython

• ^Sofaa '.Aspirin, ; Cactus • Cake x ,

Mexico b.

Flea Blues

' Owl Rifle

„ Skate Soccer

„ Peach Rain Truck Waltz -

. Golf Gum

' Gopher .« "Hammer

''Gar lid Anger

>\ P^so Mars* ,Juice Veal

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\ SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 69*

Appendix B continued

Category name Target Flanker

(ASSOCIATED-Time Metal Dog Flower Tree Snake

• Weapon Sport Music TOOl tSplce Game

(ONE MEMBER-Gem Animal Cloth Fuel Disease Fish » Furniture Fruit ,Wea ther Bird Vehicle Money? „ Drug

' Meat

-NO MATCH) Ruby

, Flu ' " ( Car K Hockey \Mexico -Table Mimute Coftton

- s&i'K. /RUIiJJ><i \Y_el^Qw/ Garli/c

>N0 MATCH) ~r Opal Be.ar .Velvet Coal

i Cancer

v Guppy**' .Sofa Blues Ant

> Cactus ' Poodle

' ' Pluto

tCobra °D£SCO„

(NO MEMBER-NO MATCH) Crime Liquor-Cplour Plant Food Country o. Snack ** "' Toy .;.

- Dance ,,. 'Insect Drink 'Rodent Planet. J" Emotion

Cdilie Year France

n Fraud ""' . Golf

Python Gopher

" 'Gum. *} , _. Iron

„ Apple Pepper" 'Trout Lvy Rat %

Red Aspirin Oil Skate Peso Tennis <," Waltz j Candy^/ MiSlc Cake Tulip Bread

• Ju\ce Copper Murder Love Wrjnch Rose Whiskey Peach Rain

' Owl Truck Dollar Heroin„

\ Pork

'Mars. , I$.ea

Ve'al Robin

o Oak Gun Soccer

( Hail Maple Hammer Rifle Jazz Anger Ski

<D

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SEMANTIC SATIATION

Appendix C Stimuli from Experiment 5 (List 1)

Category name Target Flanlcer

(APPLE-plum) Time ' Gem Metal Animal Dog . Cloth \ Colour Fuel -Crime Liquor Flower Disease

• Tree Fish. Snake Furniture Plant'* Food 4

Country, ' Weapon Fruit Sport Weather Music

• Bird Vehicle Insect Tool Vegetable Spice Clothing

° Game -• vDrink ^Meat Rodent Emotion

* Year Opal Iron Bear Collie Velvet Yellow Coal, Fraud Rum Tulip

' Flu Oak Guppy Boa SofaT" Cactus Cake Mexico Rifle ' Peach 'Soccer -Rain Opera Owl Truck Ant Wrench Pea Garlic Skirt Poker Water Bacon Gopher

, Anger.

Minute Ruby Copper Cow Poodle Cotton Red Oil Murder Whiskey Rose Cancer Maple Trout Cobra Table Ivy Bread France Gun Apple Hockey Hail Classical Robin o Car Fly Hammer Bean Pepper Socks Chess Milk Beef Mouse Love

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Appendix C (List 1) continued

Category name

('APPLE-truck) ? Time Gem Metal „ Animal Dog Cloth Colour Fuel Crime Liquor Flower Disease Tree Fish Snake Furniture Plant Food Country Weapon Fruit: Sport . ' Weather " Music gird \ -.Vehicle ^ — ~ 'Inject I nT01« \' Vegetable \ Spice •" \ Clothing ,

,„ Game Drink •Meat Rodent Emotion

Target

Second' Emerald Zinc Lion Hound Silk Blue Gas Rape Gin Daisy Polio Pine Shark Python Chair Vine

" Rice Poland Sword Pear Tennis Snow Jazz Hawk Buq * Beetle Saw " Lettuce . Cloves

s Coa,t Bridge Juice Veal !•**' Squirrel -Joy

Flanlcer

Cheese Russia Plum Bomb-Golf Thunder Folk Canary Jeep Wasp Chisel' Onion , Oregano Hat Monopoly Porkr Rat Fear Coffee Week Diamond Tin Horse Beagle' Rayon Purple Butane Theft Scotch Diabetes Orchid ^Willow ^ Viper ° Desk Weed Tuna '

&

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Appendix-C (List 1) continued

Category name Target Flanker

(CAR-plum) Time Gem Metal '• Animal Dog Cloth Colour Fuel "" Cr,ime Liquor Flower Disease Tree Fish Snake Furniture Plant Food Co'untry Weapon Fruit Sport Weather Music

0

Orchid Poodle Murder Scotch Table Maple Cobra Cheese Cancer Thunder Gun Classical Mouse f Apple Jeep Ruby Fear Diabetes Cotton Willow Copper Ivy Golf Russia

Year Opal Iron Lion Beagle Silk Blue Gas Rape Gin Tulip Flu Oak ' Guppy Python Chair

( Weed Rice Mexico Rifle Peach Soccer Snow Opera

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Appendix C., (List 1) continued

Category name

(CAR-worm) Time Gem .„ -Metal Animal Dog Cloth Colour Fuel Crime Liquor Flower Disease Bird Vehicle Insect Tool Vegetable Spice Game Drink Meat

» Rodent Emotion

Target

Hammer Rat Trout Minute Chess Car Hail Fly Chisel Cow Diamond Weed Coffee Beef Oregano Canary Tuna Socks Week Oil . Monopoly Purple Wasp

• Flanker

'

Squirrel Second Cloves Poker Rain Saw Shark Polio Cactus Emerald Truck Owl Pea Coat

^ Wrench Beetle Bridge Joy

' '- Bacon Pine Gopher Bus Juice

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SEMANTIC SATIATION > _ Page 74

Appendix C (List 1) continued

Category name Target . Flanker

^(CAR-truck) Tree Fish Snake Furniture Plant Food Country Weapon Fruit Sport Weather Music Bird Vehicle Insect Tool Vegetable Spice Clothing Game Drink ,'~s\ Meat J RodenE*-^ Emotion •

Prance Tin Horse ' Beagle $ Butane Red Viper Bread Theft Plum 'Whiskey Rose Water Desk Bomb Hockey Robin Rayon Bean Folk

t Hat Love Pepper Pork

Poland Zinc Bear Collie Coal Yellow Boa Cake Fraud Pear Rum Daisy Milk Sofa Sword Tennis Hawk Velvet Lettuce Jazz Skirt Anger Garlic Veal

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SEMANTIC SATIATION

Appendix C (List 2)

Category name

(APPLE-plum) Time- Gem Metal Animal Dog Cloth 'Colour Fuel crime Liquor Flower Disease Tree Fish Snake Furniture Plant Food Country Weapon » Fruit Sport Weather Music Bird * Vehicle .Insect f Tool •Vegetable Spice Clothing •Same Drink

' Meat Rodent Emotion

Target

Week Diamond Tin Horse Beagle Rayon Purple Butane Theft Scotch Orchid Diabetes "Willow Tuna ' •> Viper* Desk •* Weed - Cheese ,Russia. Bomb • fttum Sffolf Thunder Folk Canary Jeep Wasp Chisel Onion Oregano Hat Monopoly-Coffee Pork Rat\ 'Fear

Flanker

(

Second Emerald Zinc Lion Hound

A Silk Blue Gas Rape < Gin Daisy^ Polio Pine Shark Python Chair Vine Rice Poland Swprd Pear Tennis Snow

* Jazz Hawk Bus Beetle -Saw Lettuce Cloves Coat Bridge Juice Veal Squirrel j o y — —

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SEMANTIC SATIATION'

Appendix C (List 2) continued

Category name Target'' Flanker

(APPLE-truck) "'' Time Gem Metal , _ • Animal i Dog -Cloth „ Colour Fuel • Crime • ., ^Liquor ,•

Flower* m. „ Disease Tree ' '

- -Fireh Snake > • a

I ° I

urniture lant

i Blood ' Country '.Weapon Fruit.' Sport

, Weather Music i - J -Bird Vehicle Insect Tool -Vegetable ' «pice ""' _

• Clothing # ' « „ 'Game " ' •*»' •Drink* •. Meat ' „Rodent * ,1 Junction <,

. Minute Ruby" Copper C9W •Foodie Cotton Red 'Oil Murder' 0 . Whiskey Rose '" » ^ Cancer Oak • Guppy Cobra ." "?

(.Table , * v

'ivy ;L Bread . »

" France Gun „ , .Apple ^Hoek.ey •>' ' ••„' Hat°l: ' . \ Classical0

Robin * ' Car -° -Fly Hammer ' , •Bean •' Pepper ^ Socks "Chess ^"'' , ''•Water o '# „Beef <•• Mouse Love . »"

c. -

Trout Boa Apple Sofa . Cactus Cake Mexico Peach • Owl" Soccer 'Poker Opera Rifle Truck Arife Garlic Opal Wrenph P 3 . »' Skirt Rai'n

_ .Rum Bacon

„ Gopher An§er * Year Pea Milk

• Collie Velvet .Yellow Coal^ Fraud Bears Tulip Flu Iron

"fr*

" <>, I 1

V

' 0 %>' ,0c

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)l>

(CAR-plum) Time ,

" Gem Metal Animal Dog Cloth Colour .Fuel _ ' Crime Liquor

- Flower Disease Tree Fish" Snake Furniture Plant » Food ^ Country Weapon

' Fruit Sport Weather ^

••„ Music"

-Squirrel Rain Polio Maple Boker Flu Beetle Trout Milk Saw Bus Cactus Poland

. Emerald Rifle Tennis Jazs Python Hawk Silk SoSa Ant, Bridge Pine

Week Ruby Tin Horse Beagle Cotton Purple Butane Theft Whiskey Rose Diabetes Oak Tuna Cobra Desk Weed ^Cheese France

/Bomb / Apple Hockey l

Hail • Classical

* \

Vf, - '

Oil"

V,

«t

*>

"i

•Si

V

* f>

of a

* (

< ? * • * "

*. fa

' .1

V

P

SEMANTIC SATIATION ' . Page 77

' * • ' • y Appendix C (List 2) continued

Category name Target Flanlcer

/

b.

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SEMANTIC SATIATION

Appendix C (List 2) continued

Page-7&

V

Category name

(CAR-worm) Time Gem Metal Animal / Dog Cloth Colour Fuel _-' Crime/ Liquor Flower Disease » Bird Vehicle' • Insect -' Tool Vegetable Spice Clothing Game• . . Drinks Meat Rodent ° »Emotio'n N

Target

Lettuce Garlic Shark Second Opal

• Trucks-Vine Gopher' Veal Bear Zinc

. Year ° Collie Coal Yeliox-7 Coat Cake .

, Fraud Pear Gin Daisy Wrench Anger Snow

Flanker

Wasp Beef. Thunder Jeep Mouse Cancer Chisel Willow

_ Guppy Chess Robin • Monopoly < Diamond " Fear Oregano . Coffee Socks- . 'Rat Minute Hamsueij Car Fly Ivy Bean

' 4

^

t>

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Appendix C (List 2) continued •

Category name' Target Flanker

(CAR-truck) Tree Fish Snake Furniture Plant Food Country 4 Weapon Fruit Sport Weather ' Music Bird Vehicle Insect Tool Vegetable Spice Clothing Game Drink Meat Rodent -Emotion «

Mexico Iron , Lion' ; Hound Gas Blue Boa Rice Rape, Peach Rum Tulip Juice Chair Sword « Soccer Owl Velvet Pea Opera Skirt Joy Cloves BacOn

Russia Copper Cow Poodle Oil Red Viper •Bread Murder Plum Scotch Orchid Water. Talkie1' • Gun> Golf Canary Rayon '-Onion Folk Hat Love Pepper Pork

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o SEMANTIC SATIATION Page 80

References

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