There's a FUNGUS - Emporia State University€¦ · There's a . FUNGUS . among us . Robert . J. ......
Transcript of There's a FUNGUS - Emporia State University€¦ · There's a . FUNGUS . among us . Robert . J. ......
There's a
FUNGUS among us
Robert J. Boles
THE KANSAS SCHOOL NATURAL/ST Kansas State Teachers College
Emporia, Kansas December Vo l. 18 197 1No.2
The Kansas
School Naturalist Published by
The Kansas State Teachers College of Emporia
Prepared and Issued by
The Department of Biology, with the cooperation of the Division of Education
Editor: Robert J. Boles
Editorial Committee: James S . Wilson, Robert F. Clarke, Gilbert A. Leisman, Harold Durst
Exofficio: Dr. Edwin B. Kurtz, Head, Dept. of Biology
The Kansas School Naturalist is sent upon request, free of charge, to Kansas teachers, school board mem bers and administrators, librarians, conservationists, youth leaders, and other adults interested in nature education. Back numbers are sent free as long as supply lasts, except Vol. S, No.3, Poisonous Snakes of Kansas. Copies of this issue may be obtained for 2S cents each postpaid. Send orders to The Kansas School Naturalist, Department of Biology, Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Kansas , 66801.
The Kansas School Naturalist is published in October, December, February, and April of each year by The Kansas State Teachers College, 1200 Commercial Street, Emporia, Kansas, 66801. Second-class postage paid at Emporia, Kansas.
"Statement requi red by the Act of October, 1962: Section 43(j9, Title 39, United States Code, showing Ownership, Afanagement and Circulation." The Kansas School Naturalist is published in October, Deccmbl'r , Fcbru:H)' , :tnU April. Editorial Office and Publication Officc at 1200 C()mmercial Street, Emporia, Kansas, GG801. The Naturalist is edited and published by tIll' Kansas State T cachers College, Emporia, Kansas. Editor, Robert .r. Boles, Department of Biology.
3
THERE IS A FUNGUS AMONG US Robert J. Boles
THERE IS A FUNGUS AMONG US Almost everyone ha s observed mush
rooms growing in the woods, or has heard people arguing how to tell a mushroom from a toads too l, or ways to tell a poi sonous mushroom from an edibJe one. Mu sh rooms belong to the great group of plants ca lled the fungi. Fungi come in all shapes and colors and sizes, and there may ac tually be more different kinds than there are kinds of nowering plants. They include not only the mushrooms, but also the molds, mildews, ru sts, smuts, and both beneficial and harmful bacteria. Thi s issue of The Kansas School Na turalist will discuss some of the important fungi, with most of the emphasis upon the more familiar mushrooms.
The Parts of a Fungus
A fungus starts from a tin y, mIcroscopic bit of protoplasm called a spore. Even under the powerful magnification of a miscroscope a spore doesn 't look very la rge. However, if such a spore falls upon suitable food, in a dark, warm, moist place, it will sta rt to grow into a fungu s plant. The number of spores a mushroom may produce may literally number In the multiplied millions!
Tin y tr anspa rent or whitish thread s, called hyphae, will grow OUt and extend through the organic matter upon which the fungus is growing. All of the hyphae are collectively referred to
as the myceli um, or the bod y of the fungus. This mycelium may grow for weeks, months. or even yea rs before the part referred to as the "mushroom" is produced. Once established, a mycelium may persist for yea rs or even centuries.
When the proper time ha s arrived. little "bumps" or enlargements will appea r along the mycelial threads, or hyphae. Such a swelling will increase in size until it projects above the so il or wood in which it started to grow . Thi s "knob" will become the familiar "mushroom." or spo re-bearing stru cture. Because much of the increase in size of t he fruiting bod y is due to the abso rption of moisture, mushrooms seem to literall y "pop above ground" right after a summer' s rain . The term "mushroom growth" IS sometimes applied to si tuations such as a very rapidly growing area of a city.
One or the most commonly-seen fun gi is the gi lled mushroom. Such a mushroom looks so mething like an umb re ll a. or a little stoo l upon which one or the toad s of the woods mig ht perch, as suggested by the common name "toadstool." The umbrella-like part is referred to as the cap. The radiating ti ss ues on the underside of the C<.lp <.Ire called gi ll s. Thi s structure grows on the end o f <.I Ilesh y st<.llk .
On some mushrooms a ring of ti ss ue remains around the stalk below the cap after the cap ha s opened. This ring of tissue is called the veil. The
4
" " - cap
~4------- r in g
--volv a
hypha
presence of such a veil is used as one of the id entifying features 01' some of th e very poisonous Amanita mu shroo ms.
You may have heard people say, "mushrooms are edible, toad stoo ls are poisonous," Actually, some of the mushrooms shaped lik e a n umbrell a are quite edible, and so me of th ose without the umbrella- or stoo l-like shape a re in edible , if not poisonous.
Where Did the Names Mushroom and Toadstool Come From'?
The name mushroom probab ly came from the word" Mousse ron," a French word derived from "Mousse," or moss.
Both moss and fungi req uire damp pl aces in which to grow, but mosses, unlike the fungi, con tain chl orophyll , and can make their ow n food from the inorganic nutrients about them.
Some of yo ur pare nt s may remember the old prim ary book containing a picture of a toad sitting on top of a "toadstool." [n some places in Europe term s meaning " toads's hat " or "toad's bonnet" a re st ill used. The belief is th a t mushrooms a re formed fr om th e harm ful substa nces of the ea rth and the venom of toads (note th at they are not ca lled "frogs tool s," as frogs are not co nsidered to be poisonous) and th a t fungi always grow in places where toads may be found , and give shelter to them a t times.
One o ld report sugges ts that the na me fungu s came from the word "funu s" (funeral) and " ago" (I lead to). Were a nyone to ea t so me of the mos t poisonous types, it might well actuall y result in a tri p to the graveyard,
How Do Fungi Live'?
Fungi, unlike green plants, cannot manufac ture their ow n food. Li ke hum a ns, they must depend upon other organ isms for th e nourishment they need for growth and repai r.
Most of the higher fungi, called mushrooms or toads too ls, send their hyphae into dead or decay ing organic matter, such as manure and rotten wood, where enzymes are secreted to diges t the food material. This liquified maller IS tha n abso rbed into the
where the mushroom uses it to carryon its metabolic processes. Such a method of called saprophytism. Such mushrooms an important part in Nature, as
to restore the nutrients tied up In
dead bodies back into Nature's cu board.
Some live upon lIVIng organisms, deriving theil' needed materials from these Needless to in many cases the upon which
live injured In some way. Such may cause considerable economic
loss when the organism upon which they live is one of man's crops, as in the case of wheat rust, his domestic animals. or man's own body, as when he gets worm or athlete's foot. Such a method of has been given the name
that go into a sort with other
with both of the deriving some benefit from the association. Such a
is referred to as mutualism. that their
roots of certain trees, from draw needed sustenance.
they also contribute some-to the host tree, so that both
gain the association. In the Far North a fungus has with an to form what is commonly called "reindeer moss." The caribou the ice and snow to find this plant, which forms an nt of the cari bou 's other A rctic animals') diet.
Our Earth was at one time probably mostly rock, and it has been the ageslong of lichens (a fungus and
an alga IlVJng together) which slowly broke down the rock into smaller particles which became the soil upon which ollr crops grow They are still
so, but their action is so slow most of us don't realize such an ac
is going on. Next time you are around stones or
if you are in the mountains, look for the colors of the various lichens that encrust them.
Some Harmless and Edible Mushrooms
Most of the over 38,000 known of mushrooms are not
ous to man. are edible thousand kinds have been repOrled to be so), some or the edible ones are far from palatable.
Mushrooms have been eaten since times. The Greeks and Roma ns
were fond of them. are the chief food of natives on Terra del Fuego at the of Sou th and of natives in some parls of Australia. More in Europe eat mushrooms than do Americans. In most the consider mushrooms as table delicacies rather than as a main food.
Fungi are aboutelgnty-elght percent water. Almost half of the rest of the mushroom is bulk that is indi!Zestible by man. Mushrooms are
not any more nourishing ca leaves.
Mushrooms must be fresh when eaten. None should be eaten if it shows the least si!Zns of decay. or if insects
5
6
have been feeding on it. Also, it is dangerous to eat any mu shrooms that have a milky juice.
Only a skilled person can tell a safe from an unsafe mushroom. The aga rics, which contain many edible varieties. includes the commo n table mushroom. These mushrooms have brown spores, no cup, and delica te pink gi lls when young, but which turn dark brown later. These are considered to be import ant points for a mushroom-picker to remember. There are usually more edible mushrooms avai lable in the fall or la te summer than at other parts of the yea r.
Puffball s are one of the commonest fungi in meadow s and past ures. Th ey may range from abo ut half an inch in diameter to over a root or more across. When mature they give off lillie clouds of spores, which no doubt account s for one of th e common names, the Devil's-snuff box . One huge specimen in New York Slate was mistaken for a sheep at a distance; it measured over five feet in diameter'
One of the most interesting of the mushroom s are those called the Bird 's Nest Fungi. The fruiting body resembles the nest of a small bird, and inside the "nest" ma y be seen what appears to be a clutch of tiny eggs. Each of the lillie egg-like structures contains great numbers of spores. These fun gi may be found growing in damp pl aces on rOlling wood or ot her organic maller.
Not all mu shroom s send up a sporeproducing structure above ground, but pass thei r entire lives below the surface of the soi l. Perhaps the best known
of these a re the truflles, which have a high repute in cookery. These plants have been a source of wonder since the dawn of knowledge. The ancient Greeks and Roman s marveled that such a plant should exist. Their origin wa s a special puzzle, and many wild an swers were suggested . Some thought them to be tuberou s roo ts (the word "trurlle" means tuber), while others thought lightning or thunder, along with warmth and so il, gave rise to the plant. Cicero thou gh t them to be "children of the earth," while other sc holars of the time thought they might be the unwanted children of the Gods.
One early writer (about 1500) desc ribed seeing as many as twenty-fi ve to thirty camels loaded with truffles on the way to marke t in Damascu s. He stated that all the mushrooms were so ld within a few days. Some of the foods menti oned in the Bible may ac tually have been trumes. Some of their popularity as a food ma y have been because they were reputed to "cause women to become more tender and men to be more amiable."
Trurlles may sometimes be located by observing the swarms of nies that hover above th e hidden fungus, upon which they prefer to la y their eggs. The highly-deve loped sense of smell of pigs and goa ts, but more often dogs, is often made use of in locating the hidden plant. There is a story of a poor lame boy who, some hundred and fifty years ago, made hi s living by sniffing out trurlles for hi s neighbors .
Some fungi have very disagreeab le odors. Perhaps the best known of thi s group are the "stink-horns." The
A large puffball.
conical, cylindrical cap on the end or the stalk or a mature rruting bod y is covered with an olive-green mucus which drips rrom it, and is responsible ror the "stink." It is very attractive to flies, especially dung flies and those that feed on dead and decay ing flesh, which soo n remove the mucus, leaving the surrace a white, honeycomb-like network . The rungus then has no orfensive odor. An actual spo re-count or a single "fly speck" made by a i'ly that had been feeding on the mucuslike substa nce on the cap was reported to have contained 22,400,000 spores, each capable or producing a new stinkhorn mu shroom.
The emergence or thi s rruting body is very rapid, and it may "grow" as much as three inches in ha ir an hour. The rapid growth or the rruiting body gave ri se to much wonderment by people years ago. One explanation was
that they were the eggs of spirits or devil s.
The rruiting bodies were form er ly used by country people in Central Europe in ointment s and powders for gout, rheumatism, and epilepsy, and love potions were brewed from them. The Chinese use this plant as a treatment for ulcers . As late as 1865 so meone se riou sly suggested th at the st inkhorn was probably the cause or the di sease cholera and similar epidemics.
Fairy Rings
.. He ")1<1 goe.< hi' 'he/oirr rillg .\'ol'(/ulll1()r [1 ill I' -"hollse!!:
A lid he ")1<1 ('{c{lns Ih<'./Ilirr rillg
A II ea.lI· deelli shall dee." - Old S<,olli.l" Rlil'/JJe
Some or you may have noticed rings or mushrooms in yo ur ya rd or in a rield arter a rain . Such rings a re now known as fairy rings. The y were also once called rairy walks. fairy dan<.:e s, or, by the less romantic and poetic, hag tracks. These colorful names were given to thi s a rrangement or mu shroom s back when many people believed in the existence or rai ries and other tiny people. Because the mu shrooms usu a ll y pop above ground during the night , and are rir st see n earl y in the morning , people thought they were left by the rairies arter a midnight party.
Not all ancient people thought the rings were lert by rairies, however. I n Germany they were attributed to witches. Some thought a winged dragon had scorched the earth with
7
8
A mature puffball produces millions of spores.
his tail of fire , and mushrooms were the first plants to grow again in the burnt area.
Country girls used to think the dew from the grass inside the ring was good for the complexion, or could be used for a love potion .
Huge rings of up to fifty yards in diameter have been recorded. Such large rings were sometimes attributed to lightning from a cloud striking the earth below.
The modern explanation of the fairy ring is that, as the fungus grows, it causes chemical, biotic, or physical changes, such as using up the available nutrients, taking from the soil something necessary for its growth, or it may give off a substance poisonous to itself. Thus the plant is only able to grow around the periphery, dying to the inside, but constantly extending
outward into new soil that will support its growth.
Once in awhile a second ring will be seen within the larger ring. However, this inner ring is usually a different species of fungus, having different requirements than the outer ring.
Mushrooms as Food
All the dangerously poisonous mushrooms in this country belong to the genus Amanita. There are over a dozen species of this mushroom. A few are harmless and edible, a few (three or four) may be commonly classed as poisonous, and only one is probably responsible for most of the fatalities resulting from "mushroom poisoning. " However, there are some other kinds of mushrooms that may cause such illnesses or discomforts as nausea , vomiting, and upset stomach . Some, though edible, are unpalatable, because of their bitter, acrid or otherwise disagreeable taste, or because they are so tough and woody a human's digestive tract can't handle them. A feeling of nausea usually causes the person who ate them to throw up, thus ridding the body of the distasteful or undigestible material.
In spite of the fact that people have died from time to time from eating mushrooms the past several thousand years, men still persist in including them in the diet. Thus it is important for a person to learn to recognize the common edible ones, if he wishes to escape illness and possible death. No single feature of any mushroom is
sufficient to determine it s identit\ or edibility. The only safe way is to kno\\ it thoroughly, at all stages of development, The collector should be able to recognize the appearance of an edible mushroom as readily as he would the face of one of his best friends.
Of the many "rules" that have been proposed to tell the edible frolll the poisonou s, some are entirely unreliable, while others have so many exceptions that they are misleading and practically worthless.
One edible mushroom that everyone should be able to recognize is the puffball. Probably all such mushrooms may be eaten without injury (keep in mind that some rare species that might not yet ha ve been "tested" and could cause illness m<ly exist - remember that even the poisonous A manila group has a few edible species).
Many of the over one thou sa nd varieties that are known to be good to eat belong to the group called the agarics (Latin: "field"). This group includes the common table mushroom. They have brown spores, no cup, <lnd the gills <Ire a delicated pink when young, which turn dark brown later. The characteristics mentioned above are important for a mushroom picker to keep in mind when looking for members of thi s group. They are most common in the fall or late summer.
Another edible mushroom that is held in high esteem by the mu shroom eaters is the morel, a fungus that looks like a cone-shaped sponge, pitted like a honey comb. It grows best among lea ves or wood as hes.
Care should be exercised in the se
lection of species known to be edible. Select only plants in good condition. Old , partly decayed, water-soaked . worm-e<lten or withered plants should be disca rded . Do not keep even the so und plants too long without cooking them, as so me are very perishable and deteriorate rapidly. I f more are collected <It one time than c<ln be eaten it is generally better to cook them all at once and keep them in the refrigerator cooked rather than raw. Cook the mushroom s the sa me day they are collected if possible. This is especially true in the case of the inky fungi , as the gills soo n change to a black inky nuid. Puffballs should be eaten only when the inner nesh is pure and white.
Many insects, both in the adult and larval stage, like to feed upon mushrooms. Be sure to look inside the mushroom for these insec ts or their galleries. Mushroom s infested with such insects should not be eaten. A colony of larvae in the lower part of the stem, even though they have not yet invaded the upper part, may have a great effect upon the navor of the cap.
Some mu shroom s are harmless to so me people, but cause illness to others, just as eggs or strawberries can't be eaten by certain individuals.
What Happens When You Eat a Poisonous Mushroom?
There are actually few pOisonous mushroom s, probably less than there are poisonous species among the tlO\\ ering plants. However, some of the species of poison ous mush roo ms
9
10
Mushrooms cannot manufacture their own food, so must grow upon organic matter, such as a dead tog.
can kill mercilessly. The most deadly species belong to the genus Amanita, and have been given such descriptive names as, "Death-Cap," "Fool's Mushroom," "Panther," and "Destroying Angel."
The sy m ptoms of Amanita pha!!aides (the Death-Ca p mushroom) poisoning are characteristic and terrible. The general course of the di sease is as follow s. After the mushroom has been eaten, no discomfort is felt for a period of from ten to twelve hours . This late onse t of sy mptoms is almost diagnostic . (That is, if someone has eaten mushrooms, and the above time lapse occurs, followed by illness, a doctor may a lmost ass ume the mushroom s were poi so nou s) . The first di scom fort is followed by sudden and intense abdominal pains with vomiting, cold swea ts, diarrhea, and
excessive thirst. The skin Illay take on a bluish hue. These symptoms become less severe after about two da ys, but this period of apparent relief is most dangerous , as they then return in more seve re and inten se forill . Usually the nervous sys tem is gradually para lyzed, the liver degenera tes, there is delirium following coma, then collapse and death . Death occurs three to ten days after eating the poisonous mushrooms, depending upon the resistance of the victim and the amount of the fungus absorbed into his system. All parts of the fun gus, including the spores, are poi sonous, and a surprisingly small amount will cause illness and even death. The chance of recovery has been estimated to be from ten percent to fifty percent, depending upon the species of poisonous mushroom eaten. We do know that at least ninety percent of the recorded deaths through fungu s poisoning have been caused by the Amanita pha!!oides group. Surprisingly, there are some mu sh rooms , such as Satan's mushroom, that are poi so nou s to some people but not to others.
Mushroom poi soni ng is not new . Among the celebrated mummies of the Tour St. Michel at Bordeaux, dating back from the beginning of the fifteenth century , there is a famil y of seven which show strong evidence of having died from poisoning by Amanita phalloides, and traces of pain still show on their faces. The ny Amanita is reported to have killed Czar Alexis of Ru ssia.
All of yo u are probably familiar with the custom of clinking glasses
Puffballs juS! emerging from the ground. Many
poisonous and nonpoisonous mushrooms look much alike a! this stage.
together when drinking a toast. According to legend, this custom arose long ago, when poisoning was one of the common methods of "gelling rid" of someone a person didn't want around. The odorless, colorless, tasteless juice of the deadly Death-Cup (Death-Cap) mushroom was ideal for this purpose. A small amount squeezed into the wine cup of the intended victim did the trick. Not until some hours later would the ill-fated person realize what had happened to him-and by then it was too late' Because of the wide-spread custom ofpoisoning, people naturally became suspicious that they might be one of those marked for an untimely end. In order to prove to a guest that the drink was not poisoned, the host would pour some of the guest's wine from his cup into his own . and then take a sip. The guest would. in
turn, to show that he had no intention of disposing of his host, do the same with his cup. Through time, poisoning as a way of eliminating those you don't particularly like has declined in favor, and now the old custom has degenerated down to Just clinking the glasses together before the toast is drunk.
Not all poisonous mushrooms have the same effect upon the victim. For example, one kind has a poison that acts much like the venom of the rattlesnake, separating the red corpuscles of the blood from the serum. Another paralyzes the nerves that control the heart action.
Some soldiers in New Guinea ate Finger-Cherries because of their attractiveness. One or two of these fruits did no apparent harm, but nine to ten caused total and apparently permanent blindness.
The Fly-Agaric, though poisonous, is not deadly, and probably wouldn't kill a healthy person. The incubation period is uS1Jaily only one to three hours. There is usually a period of excitement and hallucinations that resemble alcoholic intoxication, soon followed by a deep coma and complete forgetfulness upon awakening. Sometimes, however, the person who eats this mushroom has a worse "trip," with delirium, loss of memory, and convulsions. Recovery is rapid. From the above symptoms, you can see why some of the present-day drug users may include some of the mushrooms among the materials they consume to "get high." The name "Fly-Agaric" comes i'rom the ancient practice of
11
break up this mushroom and placing it In milk, to stupefy nics. A related is used in Jaoan to kill flies.
The of some mushrooms causes extreme excitement. The Vi of old are said to have eaten this mushroom to become berserk, and days in the United States some found
and just as effective as Some tribes
a person with the does what the spirits inside
him tell him what to do. Modern women-lib advocates will certainly not be in favor of the habit of some
of having the women first chew the m thus most of the toxic and then giving the wad of chewed mushroom to the men, who then ex the excitement and hallucinations.
Certain mushrooms are used during the religious ceremonies of some of the I ndians of Mexico, and may even be considered to be sem i-sacred. The
drugs, and some members of
the present-day culture, are obtained from such mushrooms, gen
grown in Mexico.
There is no antidote available for the poison produced the deadly mushrooms.* As the poison cannot be seen, smelled, or tasted, the powerful toxin is not detected until it is too late. The hope is to clean out the stomach prom with a stomach pump shortly after the mushrooms have been eaten. A few years ago a
student brought his teacher one of the mushrooms his had collected over the week-end, and intended to eat for dinner that the mushroom one of the
t he teacher rushed to the and called the child's par
ents, thus saving them from severe illness. and possi a horrible death.
.The Institut Pasteur in France has produced a serum that good results when injected hypodermically or intravenously shortly after the firs! sign of poisoning. However. the few cases of mushroom poisomng make it impossible for the pharmacists to stock fresh serum, and we may safely assume that none will be available in time if suddenly needed.
Ergot
that causes various
rye. Animals grain suffer from
a serious disease called Ergotism shows two distinct
gangrenous and convulsive. Though both occur in parts of Europe, America has been remark free of the disease, because of better
of sistant varieties and seed treatment.
In gangrenous the limb affected becomes swollen and Inflamed in a few weeks, with violent burning ns alternating with very cold. Gradually the affected part becomes numbed, then shrunken and mummified. The extent of the gangrene varies from the mere of nails and the loss of fi ngers and toes, to that of whole limbs.
The underside of the cap of a gill mushroom.
Conv ul sive ergotism shows pronounced nervous sy mpt oms, with twitchin gs and tonic spasms of the limbs, and strong permanent contractions, particularly of the hand s and feet. I n severe cases the whole body is subjec t to sudden, vio lent , general convulsions. One of the early sy mptoms, which often con tinues, is a ting ling sensation "as if an ts were running about under the skin ."
As might be suspected , the presentday " drug culture" enthusiast s have shown a strong interest in the potent poison produced by ergot. The powerful hallucinogenic drug , LSD- 25, is a man-made derivative of ergot. The drug is so powerful th at a single ounce is enough to pr ov ide 300,000 human doses. Less than 5 c~ will kill an elephant' Weigh the effects produced by the drug in ergot mentioned above when thinking about " taking a trip" on LSD-25'
Some Very Valuable Fungi
Many people think of most of the fungi as destroying crops and forests,
attacking man and his domestic animals, spoiling his food s, and weakening the timbers of hi s buildings. There is no doubt th at they cause a grea t deal of damage, but they also aid in the preparation of certain industrial products and help in the sa ving of a great many lives.
A number of mold s a r~ used because their actlVltles upon orga nic materials result in products useful to man . Yeasts cause bread to ri se, and ferment grains and grapes to produce alcoholic drinks, suc h as wine. Some fungi convert nutrient suga r so lutions into citric acid. Fungi can a lso be used to produce gluconic acid and oxa lic acid. Roquefort and Camembert cheeses are produced by the ac ti on of certain fungi.
One of the greatest discoveries in medicine was that the fungus Pen icillium (which most of you have seen grow ing on such foods as bread, jam , apples, oranges, or lem ons as a so ft , greeni sh, fu zzy mass) gives off a substance that inhibit s the growth of certain bacteria. Bac teria are responsible for many types of diseases and infection s. The substance obtained from the fungu s is one of the antibiotics, and has been named penicillin, after the fungus from which it is secu red . One of the best stra ins of this fungu s fo r the production of penicillin was discove red by a housewife, growing on a mouldy cantaloupe in a local mark et' Since the discovery of penicillin a great many other types of molds have been found to produce substa nces with germicidal effects. Your doctor has no doubt prescribed at least one of these to help yo u combat so me illness .
13
14
. ,.' .. ~. '" ~.~~;...~t '11. ~'~;4. • ..... ~ .. ~ !'t'~':.·~~~~i' ..I.t ..~.. ~ ..~.'§,..•.•ojt .. . , .. -i(. "1~_~,.." -,: ... ~of· .... ~~ . ,. " .q " ~ - ~ "~",,, . , .; ..... .. .:-\ .'. -'.,~~,~~~, .... '~';'-.~'> I, · fi,,-;'I: ..-~• .ti! .. . ~f· ~-o.;l:i _ '-"I •. _ ~.: . •" '~"'" , .: ....);;,... F''''.~.. _"X.~...,.:if-. ' '; ~ ;:t~t..e: ,~j1~ •• ;, '". . ~'.: - .I." .~a~·.·· ~' g~, '(: C ~ .~P~i7., :t:._'~~~'~'~' ,~ ,..<>. _','.;"
L',
:;.:~ ': : i< '/.. 'oCS' ~ ~. ~ .~ .~ ....~''''-~'''J.''"",.~,.:.. ''~ ....~-.i.. _.' _
." ·~;"'-"'4.'!-f""''''''"f;~a,_ "-.i ,.J;,. ~. ;'.1' ":;- ' .- ~.' ~-;. :::?\~..'. . ,,",.'-ill-~'''' hl~...__ ..~ ,Tf:t. ,,, ....:,-1; • ;.•. 1,.,>... .. . ....;:"l~,. i~.~:~ .~1:~ >.~ • ·;,,;~~.'..·~~~i -. ~:.ia .:<:;1;~
'--':.':,"',; '::";"', -:""':"':'., ... !:l
Lichens (a fungus and an alga Ii,iog logether )
grow upon Irees aod rocks. Some have brighl. allraclil'e colors.
• Spore Prints
Remove the cap from the stem of' a mature gill mushroom, and lay it on a piece of paper, gills downward. Protect it from air currents by cover ing it with some thing like a large g lass or bowl. Try to keep the gill s in a vertical position, as this results in the best spo re pri nt.
After waiting a f'ew hours, ca refully lift the cap from the paper. Millions of tiny spores, which have rall en from the cap, will give a pattern rad iating out rrom the center like the spokes of a wheel. The color of th e spo re print can be used as a clue to what I'amily of mushrooms the spec imen belongs. There are five families of gill mushrooms, each of whose spo res are either white, some shade of pink , rusty brown, purple, or black. A few "odd" species may have spores that have colors of
lilac or green hues. Be sure to warn anyone collecting mu sh rooms to be eaten to be especially ca reful if the spores are white, as white spores are a characteristic of the deadly Amanita mushrooms.
Mushroom Culture
Some people grow mushrooms for a so urce of income. More and more are grown around the larger cities every year. Such an enterprise requires but a small area, such as a cellar, cave, or old quarry. It is essential that a dark environment with a warm , stead y temperature be maintained. [I' yo u are interested, you might write to the United States Department of Agriculture for helpful bulletins on the su bject.
15
SUGGESTED REFERENCES
Christensen, Clyde M. 1970. Common Fleshy Fungi. Burgess Publishing Company. 426 South 6t h Street, Minneapoli s, Minnesota 554 15.
Frieden, Lucious von. 1969 . Mush room s oj the World. Babbs- Merrill (Printed in Ital y).
Hesler, L. R. 1960. Mushrooms oj the Great Smokies. The University or Tennessee Press. Knoxvi lle. Ten nessee.
Lange, Morten, and F. Bayard Hora. 1963. Mushrooms and Toadstools. E. P. Sutton and Company, 1ncorporated. New York, New York.
McKenney, Margaret. 1962. The Savory Wild Mushroom. University of Washington Press. Seattle , Washington.
Ram sbot tom , John . 1954. Mushrooms and Toadstools. Collins. 14 St. James Place. London, Engla nd.
Thoma s, Willi am S. 1928 . Field Book oj Common Gilled Mushrooms. G. P. Putn am ' s Sons. New York, New York .
PLEASE! Help us in keeping our mailing li st
up-to-date . If you move , be sure to include both the new and old addresses, so that the old one may be removed from the mailing li st. If you get married , be sure to include your former name and address as well as yo ur new name and address.