Theory of KnowledgeBy: Tuyet-Kha Nguyen

Science and Pseudo-science: Table

Parenthetical Citation-("Look At It This Way")

Science and Pseudo-science: Table

When the word “scientific” is added to any claim, the claim seemingly becomes validated. However, there are many people who claim certain beliefs are “scientific” without proper scientific tests. As a result, these claims are considered pseudo-science. However, in order to be considered pseudo-science, the belief must claim to be scientific while lacking in proper testing and substance. For example, acupuncture claims to be science though is in fact pseudo-science. Although many people claim the medical procedure works, there is no scientific trial to prove its validity. The difference between science and pseudo-science includes vagueness and ad hoc exceptions. As supported on the chart, pseudo-science uses language specifically meant to evade and confuse the audience. As stated in the book, vagueness in language is used to make pseudo-science impossible to prove and verify. For example, intentionally using the words “balance” and “energy” to make it seem virtually meaningless. There is no measureable way to define “balance” and “energy.” As supported by the chart, both the chart and the book agree that genuine science includes precise language in their claims. The book and chart also agree that pseudo-science relies on invalid logic. The book calls this invalid logic ad hoc exceptions. Pseudo-science protects their ideas by constantly adapting to adhere to exceptions. Genuine science does not make exceptions every time counter examples are presented. As supported by the chart, genuine science considers all evidence and counter arguments before presenting a claim. Both the book and the chart agree that genuine science includes clearly stated, and precise language in addition to not making exceptions every time a counter claim is presented.

Confirmation Bias: Journal Entry

Confirmation bias refers to the idea that people tend to disregard evidence that goes against their predetermined ideas. In short, confirmation bias claims that sometimes people only research ideas that prove their preconceived ideas. As a result, these people overlook evidence that goes against their preconceived idea. For example, if a person believes in acupuncture and its curative properties, they will try to find evidence that supports their belief. However, when they come across evidence that disapproves their initial belief and they disregard it, that is confirmation bias. They are only out to prove that their belief is valid while refusing to acknowledge any counter-claims. I remember a time when I came across confirmation bias. I had this friend that completely believed in aliens. Every time someone presented scientific details about the nonexistence of aliens, my friend would not believe it. My friend would argue against these scientific details by showing us articles that proved the existence of aliens. Even though we presented the person with counter evidence, my friend refused to take the counter claims into consideration. My friend would always overlook the counter evidence and only believed in the articles that proved the existence of aliens. I realize now that this is confirmation bias. When a person vehemently rejects evidence that presents a counter claim to their preconceived idea and refuses to take counter evidence into consideration, that is confirmation bias. As stated in the book, confirmation bias can prove to be dangerous in acquiring knowledge because it makes a person close minded and somewhat decreases the validity of the person’s claims.

Confirmation Bias-ContinuedThe book states that taking into account both sides of a claim adds to the integrity of the claim.

In connection to my personal experience, since my friend did not take into account arguments for and against the existence of aliens, their claims of the existence of aliens seemed less valid. Had my friend included counter claims toward the existence of aliens and how their belief was more justified, then their claim would hold more substance. That is confirmation bias.

Loaded Questions-Interview

Parenthetical Citation- (“Gotcha”)

Loaded QuestionsLoaded questions are questions that are worded in a way that is intended to deceive and trick

the person who is inquired. The book states that a loaded question contains a hidden assumption that encourages people to answer in a specific way. However, which ever way a person answers, the outcome is still unfavorable. For example, the question “Have you stopped beating your wife?” is a loaded question. If the person answers yes or no to the question, the results are still incriminating. There is no way to avoid the disastrous preconceived ideas about the topic. As supported by the interview with marriage counselor: Carolina Coda, loaded questions are designed to deceive the inquired. From a marriage counselor point of view, loaded questions are toxic to a relationship. For example, a wife may ask her husband, “How often do you sneak cookies at night?” This is a loaded question. The question already insinuates that the husband is guilty. The interviewee agrees with the book that a loaded question contains a preconceived idea. Coda explains that loaded questions should instead be rephrased in a way that makes it unbiased and encouraging. She explains that asking loaded questions makes the inquired go “on the defensive” and feel emotionally “attacked” by the inquirer. Both the interviewee and the book agree that loaded questions are used intentionally to receive illicit a desired answer and make the inquired person seem guilty. In addition, both the book and the interviewee agree that loaded questions are dangerous in acquiring knowledge. When loaded questions are asked, the inquired is trapped into answering the way the inquired wants them to. Those are loaded questions.

The Observer Effect: Documentary

Parenthetical Citation- ("Take the Money... and Run?“)

The Observer Effect

The observer effect explains that when a someone knows they are being watched or filmed, they tend to act differently than they normally do. In short, when a person knows they are being watched or filmed, their behavior changes to better suit the accepted ideal. The video presented is a Brain Games documentary that includes the observer effect. In the first part of the video, the host is standing inside a makeshift box with a bucket of money. The host states that the money is free, take as much as you like. One would think that when granted the opportunity people would jump at the chance for the free money. However, this proves to be a falsity because not many people chose to take the free money when they knew they were being watched. They did not want to be perceived as “greedy” or “money-hungry.” The people being watched wanted to change themselves to fit the ideal. However, when the host leaves the makeshift box unattended with the promise of free money, many people came to the box to get money. This is because when people are watched, they tend to act in a way they consider “accepted” and ideal. Though when they are not watched, people are more likely to behave as they normally would. As seen in the video, when the people thought they were not being watched ,they were less hesitant to take the free money. It is stated in the book that the observer effect can be prevented through habitation and hidden cameras. Habitation is when a TV show films and watches the topic over an extended period of time. This makes the topic “used” to the cameras and in time able to act normally. The method of hidden cameras was utilized in the video. When someone does not know they are being filmed, they feel less pressure to adhere to accepted ideas. As a result, they are more prone to act normally. That is the observer effect.

The Milgram Experiment: Diagram

Parenthetical Citation-("Obedience to Authority, by Stanley Milgram")

The Milgram Experiment The Milgram experiment was a psychology study that tested the willingness of a participant to obey a

person of authority who told them to perform tasks against their personal morals. Essentially, the study wanted to find out whether a person would perform tasks that went against their moral conscience if a person in power told them to. The Milgram experiment consisted of a series of trials that included three individuals at a time. The three individuals consisted of a mediator, a “teacher”, and a learner. The teacher was tasked in asking questions to the learner and every time the learner answered a question incorrectly, the teacher would administer an electric shock to the learner. The electric shocks steadily increased in voltage throughout the experiment. However, the learner was not actually given electric shocks. The learner was an actor, though the teacher did not know this. When the voltage increased, the learner grew increasingly “harmed” by the experiment. Many times, this would frighten the teacher and they would attempt to stop the experiment. However, the role of the mediator is to tell the teacher to “carry on.” Due to the experiment, we now know that a person is heavily influenced by a person in authority. Even though many participants knew that their actions were morally wrong, over two-thirds of the participants continued to administer electric shocks to the maximum amount. This shows that a person is willing to obey a person in authority even though it goes against their beliefs. This is further justified in the diagram. About 369 participants fully believed that the learner was receiving the shocks. Even so, about 47% of those who believed continued to go on with the experiment. Thus proving that even though they believed in the results of their actions, almost half of the participants continued to go on with the experiment. In addition, of the 158 participants that believed that the learner was probably getting the shocks, 75 of them continued to go on with the experiment. As stated in the book, most of the participants knew that the experiment was ethically wrong. However , many continued to go on with the experiment because they were told to do so. They were told to carry on with the experiment by someone in power and authority. As a result, the experiment proves that when a person is most likely going to obey a person in authority that tells them to do something. That is the Milgram experiment.

Science and Truth: Article Review

Parenthetical Citation-(Langan)

Science and Truth Many times, science is considered “absolute knowledge.” Essentially, science is considered

truth and holds more validity than other forms of evidence. In the article, the author states that science is what is proven and believed through testing at the time. Though the article is also quick to note that people should not embrace relativism. If science is able to prove something through evidence, testing, and consistency in results, it should be believed for the time being. I agree with the article because science should be regarded with the utmost validity. However, science should not be considered the only form of truth and evidence. There are many other forms of evidence that can prove to be just as valid in certain situations. For example, when trying to figure out your ideal mattress, science can attempt to formulate which mattress is best for each situation. However, in order to truly know, we need to rely on our emotions and feelings on which mattress we like better. Sometimes we need to rely on something other than science as a form of evidence. Other forms of evidence also hold validity. In addition, the article explains the theory of everything. As with the book, the article explains that sometimes people consider science’s ultimate goal is understanding nature and the world around us. Although, the article argues that stating that the goal of science as the theory of everything is an “overstatement.” It is very difficult to understand every aspect of nature. It is too big of a task. I agree with this statement. Although science is wonderful, tasking science with deciphering aspects of nature puts is too extensive a task. Just as how science is every changing, nature is ever changing. Nature is constantly evolving and changing along with the people and animals. As a result, science may never comprehend every thing in nature. Which is okay as long as we understand a majority of what nature entails. That is science and truth.

Works Cited

"Gotcha" Questions Hurt Relationships: Marriage Counselor, Susan Orenstein on My Carolina Toda." YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 27 May 2015.

Langan, Christopher. "On Absolute Truth and Knowledge." On Absolute Truth and Knowledge. 2000. Web. 27 May 2015. .

"Look At It This Way." Look At It This Way LAITW RSS. 8 May 2015. Web. 27 May 2015.

"Obedience to Authority, by Stanley Milgram." Obedience to Authority, by Stanley Milgram. Web. 27 May 2015. .

"Take the Money... and Run?" YouTube. YouTube, 15 Jan. 2014. Web. 27 May 2015.