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Theories of Motivation
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Motivation
• Factors within and outside an organism that cause it to behave a certain way at a certain time
• Biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior.
• Play “What is Motivation?” (4:09) Segment #18 from Psychology: The Human Experience.
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Three Basic Characteristics of
Motivation• Activation is demonstrated by the
initiation or production of behavior.• Persistence is demonstrated by
continued efforts or the determination to achieve a particular goal, often in the face of obstacles.
• Intensity is seen in the greater vigor of responding that usually accompanies motivated behavior
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Theories of Motivation• Instinct—motives are innate• Drive—biological needs as motivation• Incentive—extrinsic things push or pull behavior• Arousal—people are motivated to maintain optimum
level of arousal• Humanistic—hierarchy of needs
• Competence - demonstrating competence and exercising control in a situation
• Achievement – directed toward excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some task
• Self-Determination – Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation
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Historic Explanations: Instincts
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Instinct Theory• Emerging in the late 1800s, instinct theories
contended that certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming
• A complex, inherited, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species
• Animals display automatic and innate behavior patterns called fixed action patterns to environmental stimuli
• William James listed 37 instincts.• Criticism: Instinct theories merely describe and label
behaviors rather than actually explaining them.
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James’ Instincts
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Historic Explanations: Drives
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Drives
• Beginning in the 1920s• Organism feels tension created by
imbalances• “Pushes” an organism to restore the
balance, typically reducing the drive and restoring homeostasis
• Part of drive-reduction theory
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Drive-Reduction Theory
• The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
• Eating and drinking are examples of drive-reducing behaviors.
• If you are cold, you would be driven or pushed to put on a coat to warm-up. If you shiver, that would be an instinctual behavior.
• Criticism: Can’t explain why people often engage in behaviors that serve to increase tension and physiological arousal
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Drives as Tissue Needs
• Homeostasis—the constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintain
• Drives may be due to an upset in homeostasis, inducing behavior to correct the imbalance
• Animals do behave in accordance with their tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing caloric intake, drive for salt)
• However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives
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Drive-Reduction Theory
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Drive-Reduction Theory
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Drive-Reduction Theory
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Incentive TheoriesExternal Rewards as Motivators
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Incentive Theory
• Behavior motivated by the “pull” of external goals, such as rewards, money and recognition.
• Drew heavily from well-established learning principles, such as reinforcement, and the work of learning theorists, such as Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Tolman.
• Tolman also stressed the importance of cognitive factors in learning and motivation, especially the expectation that a particular behavior will lead to a particular goal.
• Criticism: Fails to explain behaviors that are not primarily motivated by any kind of external incentive
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Biological Explanations:
Arousal Theories
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Arousal Theory
• Levels of alertness and responsiveness
• People are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal—neither too high nor too low
• Curiosity motive—helps us understand our environment – – Helps explain the power of a negative
suggestion (Derren Brown 3 min clip)
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
• The theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only up to a certain point
• Optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task.
• Each person has an optimum level of stimulation they like to maintain.
• How does this apply to sports? (4 min)
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
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Sensation Seeking
A person high in sensation seeking tends to look for exciting (and sometimes risky) activities
A person who does this… (3 min)
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Humanistic TheoryMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Humanistic Theories
• Motivation is affected by:1. How we perceive the world,
2. How we think about ourselves
3. The degree to which the environment is supportive and encouraging
• Abraham Maslow suggested that motives are divided into several levels from basic survival needs to psychological and self-fulfillment needs
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Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow’s pyramid of human needs begins at the base with physiological needs, and then proceeds through safety needs to psychological needs.
• Higher-level needs won’t become active until lower-level needs have been satisfied.
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Self-Actualization
• According to Maslow, the need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential
• Maslow’s notion that we must satisfy needs at one level before moving to the next level has not been supported by research.
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Clinical Explanations: Achievement &
Competence
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Competence
• Competence motivation—behavior aimed at demonstrating competence and exerting control in a situation
• Motivated to prove to yourself that you can do a challenging task.
• Competence = Confidence in yourself
• Example: Running a marathon
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Achievement Motivation• Achievement motivation—behavior aimed at
excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some activity– A desire for significant accomplishment – A desire for the mastery of things, people, or ideas– A desire for attaining a high standard
• Neo-Freudian, Henry Murray (1893-1988) first established the concept of achievement motivation.
• Used Thematic Apperception Tests to measure it.
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Achievement & Success• Measures of achievement
motivation generally correlate well with various areas of success.
• People who score high in achievement motivation expend their greatest efforts on moderately challenging tasks
• High Achievers tend to display original thinking, seek expert advice, and value feedback about their performance.
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Achievement & Culture
• In individualistic cultures, the need to achieve emphasizes personal, individual success
• In collectivistic cultures, achievements are viewed as a way of bringing glory to one’s family, group, or country.
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Achievement Motivation
• Play “Self-Efficacy” (5:00) Segment #19 from Psychology: The Human Experience.
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Cognitive Explanations:
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
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Self-Determination Theory• Proposed by E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan
• “Inherent growth tendencies” and do most things out of intrinsic motivation
• Humans naturally seek out autonomy, competence and relatedness (social relationships)
• Unlike Maslow, they define autonomy as the need to feel that your activities are self-chosen and self-endorsed.
• Maslow said autonomy is the need to feel independent & focused on your own potential & development rather than opinions of others.
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Self-Determination Theory3 Things People are Motivated by:
1. Autonomy—need to determine, control, and organize one’s own behavior and goals
2. Competence—need to effectively learn and master challenging tasks
3. Relatedness—need to feel attached to others
• People who have satisfied these needs actively internalize external motivators as part of their identity and values
• People who don’t satisfy these needs substitute other needs or show maladaptive (abnormal) behavior
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Extrinsic Motivation
• A desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or threats of punishment
• What things are you extrinsically motivated to do?
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Intrinsic Motivation
• A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective
• What things are you intrinsically motivated to do?
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Clinical Explanations: Motivating Ourselves
and Others
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Developing Self Motivation
• Associate your high achievement with positive emotions
• Connect your achievement with your efforts
• Raise your expectations
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Motivating Others
• Cultivate intrinsic motivation• Attend to individual motives• Set specific, challenging goals• Choose an appropriate leadership
style– Task leadership– Social leadership
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Task Leadership
• Goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention
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Social Leadership
• Group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
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Leadership and Persuasion
• Play “The Power of Persuasion” (11:17) Segment #29 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2nd edition).