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Then, Now, and Beyond

We were there 1960-2019

A book of essays about how the world has changed written by members of the MIT Class of 1964

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Copyright@2019byMITClassof1964

ClassHistorianandProjectEditor-in-chief:BobPopadic

Editors:BobColvin,BobGray,JohnMeriwether,andJimMonk

Individualessaysarecopyrightbytheauthor.

ANoteonExcellencebyF.G.Fassett

FromtheJune1964issueofMITTechnologyReview,©MITTechnologyReview

Authors

JimAllen

BobBlumberg

RobertColvin

RonGilman

BobGray

ConradGrundlehner

LeonKaatz

JimLerner

PaulLubin

JohnMeriwether

JimMonk

LitaNelsen

BobPopadic

DavidSaul

TomSeay

DavidSheena

DonStewart

BobWeggel

WarrenWiscombe

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Table of Contents TableofContents................................................................................................................................iii

Preface...................................................................................................................................................viiIntroduction..........................................................................................................................................ixArtsandCulture....................................................................................................................................1ThenandNow-Didourworldgetbetter?Maybeyes.......................................................................2PeriodofAwareness......................................................................................................................................................2

ThenandNow-PersonalExamples.........................................................................................................................2

FlatteningtheTechnologyProductivityCurve..................................................................................................3

BetterBrakethanAccelerator..................................................................................................................................4

ClosingThoughts-ChangeisGood...........................................................................................................................5

ItWasDifferentThen—EspeciallyforWomen.....................................................................................8ConsideringEliminatingWoman’sAdmissions-1956.................................................................................8

TheEarly1960s..............................................................................................................................................................8

TimesHaveChanged.....................................................................................................................................................9

CoeducationatMIT......................................................................................................................................10Abstract.............................................................................................................................................................................10

Introduction:WomenatMIT...................................................................................................................................10

Prologue—The1870sthrough1951.................................................................................................................12

TheHamiltonCommittee:1950s...........................................................................................................................24

Epilogue:The1970sandBeyond..........................................................................................................................39

PartingThoughts:TheBottleneckFacingWomeninAcademicEngineering....................................44

Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................................................48

References.......................................................................................................................................................................48

Business................................................................................................................................................53HowTechnologyHasChangedTheLaw................................................................................................54IncreasedProductivity...............................................................................................................................................54

NewTechnology-RelatedLegalIssues................................................................................................................55

TechnologyComestoShopping...............................................................................................................57Prologue............................................................................................................................................................................57

TheWindsofChange...................................................................................................................................................57

CreditReports................................................................................................................................................................59

EnterthePersonalComputersandMyActivities...........................................................................................60

TheInternet....................................................................................................................................................................62

FinalComments.............................................................................................................................................................62

ChecksareGoingAwayandHaveBeenforaLongTime.................................................................63Banking1960’sStyle...................................................................................................................................................63

BankingattheMITBursar’sOffice.......................................................................................................................63

CashWasKingandYouDidn’tGetitfromanATM........................................................................................64

AnAccidentalBanker..................................................................................................................................................66

The1970s.........................................................................................................................................................................68

ClearingHouses,NetworksandDevicesChange............................................................................................68

The1980sand1990s..................................................................................................................................................69

ChangesinCheckProcessing...................................................................................................................................70

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2000sPoisedforaNewSetofChanges..............................................................................................................71

CheckImageCapture–PaperBecomesElectronic........................................................................................71

2010sChecksContinueDecline.............................................................................................................................74

Summary..........................................................................................................................................................................75

ScienceandTechnology..................................................................................................................77Moonshot.........................................................................................................................................................78Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................78

MyEarlyInterests........................................................................................................................................................79

MyPathtoMIT...............................................................................................................................................................79

AtMIT................................................................................................................................................................................80

TechnologyDevelopedfortheMoonLanding.................................................................................................81

AfterGraduation...........................................................................................................................................................82

Apollo.................................................................................................................................................................................82

Exhibitions.......................................................................................................................................................................84

AfterApollo11...............................................................................................................................................................85

ConcludingRemarks...................................................................................................................................................85

TheJourneyofanAeronomer..................................................................................................................87BeginninganAeronomyCareer.............................................................................................................................87

EducatinganAeronomer...........................................................................................................................................87

TravelsasanAeronomer..........................................................................................................................................90

ANewAeronomyCareerDirection......................................................................................................................92

TeachingAeronomy.....................................................................................................................................................93

ComparingAeronomy,ThenandNow................................................................................................................94

RocketScienceisHard...............................................................................................................................................99

SuccessatLast-21stCenturyAeronomy.......................................................................................................100

HalfaCenturyofMedicine......................................................................................................................103NewDiseases...............................................................................................................................................................103

OldDiseases.................................................................................................................................................................103

NowSomeGoodNews.............................................................................................................................................104

NewDrugs....................................................................................................................................................................104

NewTreatments.........................................................................................................................................................104

MITandMedicine......................................................................................................................................................106

PaymentforHealthcare..........................................................................................................................................106

AnalogtoDigital-Close-UpView.........................................................................................................108TheHouseofAnalogHorrors...............................................................................................................................108

FromPongtoPCs.......................................................................................................................................111IntheBeginning.........................................................................................................................................................111

IBMWasthePlacetoBe.........................................................................................................................................111

CaliforniaandMemorexBeckon.........................................................................................................................112

EnterthePC!................................................................................................................................................................113

ThoughtsfortheFuture..........................................................................................................................................113

HowElectronicsChangedSinceGraduation-ACompressionofSpaceandTime...............114EarlyImpressionsofComputerTechnology.................................................................................................114

Moore’sLawaMajorDriverinAchievingGrowthinComputingCapabilities...............................114

CompressionEnablesCellularCommunicationsandBigData..............................................................115

ConsequencesandImpactsoftheElectronicsRevolution......................................................................115

FromAeronauticsStudenttoCitizenLobbyist................................................................................117ANewDirection.........................................................................................................................................................117

ClimateChangeisReal............................................................................................................................................119

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WeMustDoSomething...........................................................................................................................................121

ReflectionsonEnergy...............................................................................................................................122ForecastingisNotEasy...........................................................................................................................................123

AdventuresinAlgeria..............................................................................................................................................124

FutureEnergyDirections.......................................................................................................................................126

MyPersonalOdysseyinClimateScience...........................................................................................129RadiativeTransferBeginning...............................................................................................................................129

ClimateScienceBegins............................................................................................................................................130

SomeLaterYears.......................................................................................................................................................130

PaleoclimateThoughts............................................................................................................................................131

NuclearDeterrenceandSatelliteCommunications.......................................................................132NuclearDeterrenceandtheColdWar..............................................................................................................132

MITLincolnLaboratorySatelliteCommunicationsPrograms..............................................................133

ExperiencesinthePrivateSector.......................................................................................................................137

Mirror-TwinMagnetMavenandMountaineer................................................................................141TheGoldenYears!......................................................................................................................................................141

MagnetWonk...............................................................................................................................................................141

EarthDayImpact.......................................................................................................................................................143

MountainsandNature.............................................................................................................................................144

TheEvolutionofInstantPhotography...............................................................................................146TheStartofInstantPhotography.......................................................................................................................146

ArrivalatPolaroid.....................................................................................................................................................147

TheRiseofDigitalTechnology............................................................................................................................147

Recreation..........................................................................................................................................149AmateurPhotographyandCinematography...................................................................................150BeforeMIT....................................................................................................................................................................151

MIT1960-1964...........................................................................................................................................................152

AfterGradSchoolandNavy–1968–1989....................................................................................................153

AnalogVideo1990-1998......................................................................................................................................154

SeriousEditingBegins1995-96..........................................................................................................................155

DigitalStillPhotography.........................................................................................................................................157

MyDigitalStillConversion–2012.....................................................................................................................157

HowSmallBoatCoastalNavigationHasChanged...........................................................................160MidshipmanCruise...................................................................................................................................................160

SailingtheChesapeakeBay...................................................................................................................................162

ToMarbleheadMassachusetts.............................................................................................................................163

ABiggerBoat...............................................................................................................................................................164

ASmallerBoat.............................................................................................................................................................166

TheImpactofTechnologyonIceClimbing.......................................................................................167BasicTools....................................................................................................................................................................167

Crampons......................................................................................................................................................................170

IceTools.........................................................................................................................................................................171

IceScrews.....................................................................................................................................................................173

Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................174

Epilogue.........................................................................................................................................................................175

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Preface

“Then”isthelate50’searly60’s.Youtookexamswithyour“slipstick”andoftenyoucouldbringanything intoanexamexceptanotherperson.Telecommunicationswasoften tele-typeandcomputerinputwaspunchedcardsandtape.Computerswerebigandnotverypowerful–suchastheIBM709,7090,7094,TX-0,orPDP-1.Youwaitedyourturnforthemainframemuchasasupplicanttothegods.ThentherewasProjectMAC(MITProjecton

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MathematicsandComputation)whichintroducedtimesharing–nonotsharesinavacationhomeorjet.

“Now”iswellNOW.Computersabound–theywaitonourwantingtousethemandappli-cationsgetwrittenwithstuffyoudon’tneedtoproveyouneedanupdateandafasterma-chine. More power in a tiny device than existed in a room full in 1964.Wi-Fi antennasabound.Calculatorshavesolarcellsinpartbecausethebatteriesaremoreexpensivethantheelectronics.TheInternethasalotofinformationincludingstuffaboutourundergradu-atedays,wherewelive,whatwedo,meetingswegoto,etc.etc.WouldGeorgeOrwellhaverecognizedthe“Newprivacy?”And"Beyond"iswellBEYOND.Itsintheoffing-muchlikewhatalandlubberseeswhenshestares towardthehorizonandsee theshipsgoing to faroffplaces. Itswherepredic-tionsofthefuturedon'tnecessarilycometrue.Buthardlyareasonnottopredict.

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Introduction Themembers of theMIT Class of 1964, look at a 59-year period in time through a lensshapedbybeingbroughttogethertoexperience“TechisHell”andthenatgraduation,withbeaver rings turned around, being ejected into theworld.The essays thatmake up thisbookareablendofhistoryandbiographywrittenbythosewholed,participated,andob-served the unfolding events inmany disciplines, not just science and engineering.Someareaboutprofessional life,othersabouthobbiesand interests.Manyalsoshare theirau-thor’sviewofwhatthefuturemighthold.

WhenwearrivedinAugustof1960DwightEisenhowerwasPresident,theColdWarwasstillaliveandwell, theSoviet launchofSputnikwasstill freshinmemory,andROTCwaspopularoncampus.MITwasabitsmallerthantoday–signsinKendallSquare(nowen-velopedinMIT)directedustocampus. Internationalstudentswerefew,women(akaco-eds)fewerandblackstudentsevenfewer.Academicdisciplinesweremorelikelytoliveintheir silos than be housed together, and many biology related disciplines were yet toemerge.Most freshman wanted to go into physics, but that changed.Lasers were newenoughtobethesubjectofademonstrationinphysicsclass.Computerprogrammingwaslearnedonourown tosolveabilliard tableproblem.Computer timewassomethingyoustoodinlinefor.$1,500tuitionwasabitlowerthannow–therewasevena“$1,700istoodamnmuch”campusprotesttoatuitionincrease($14,426in2018dollars).

Whilewewereholedupat theTuteanumberofmajorand less-majorevents tookplacewithripplesintothe21stCentury.ThefollowingselectionistakenfromalistpreparedbyLeonKaatzforourclasswebsite.

1960 September to December • USS Enterprise – the first nuclear powered aircraft carrier is launched • Nikita Kruschev shoe pounding incident at the United Nations • Discovery XVII shot into orbit • John F. Kennedy elected President

1961 • Chimpanzee Ham completes one day flight in Mercury space capsule • Leakeys unearth bones of earliest Australopithecus • Yuri Gagarin becomes first man in space • Alan Shephard becomes first US man in space with suborbital flight • White mob attacks Integration Freedom Riders at Birmingham, Alabama bus sta-

tion • Great Britain applies to join European Common Market • The Twist by Chubby Checkers is No. 1 on the pop charts • James Davis becomes first American killed in the Viet Nam conflict

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1962 • Decca, major British recording studio, rejects Beatles, convinced they would

never make it on the music charts • U.S. Rocket Ranger strays off path, misses Moon by 20,000 miles • Cuba sentences Bay of Pigs invaders to 30 years in prison • First live worldwide television show broadcasts with Telestar communications

satellite • House of Representative passes bill mandating equal pay regardless of sex • World population exceeds 3 billion • Maiden flight of Boeing 727 • Mariner 2 spacecraft sends close up photography of Venus

1963 • Viet Cong down 5 U.S. helicopters in the Mo Key Delta in Viet Nam • France opposes entry of Great Britain in the European Common Market • Robert Oppenheimer wins Fermi prize for research in nuclear energy • Boston Celtics win 5thstraight NBA title • Dr. No, first James Bond movie, premieres • Martin Luther King “I Have a Dream” speech at the Lincoln Memorial • Los Angles Dodgers sweep New York Yankees in World Series • President Kennedy assassinated

1964 • President Johnson pledges war against poverty • Beatles arrive in America for Ed Sullivan Show appearance • First US Gemini test flight orbits earth 3 times • MIT Class of 1964 Receives their diplomas

EssayAuthorsExplorechangesinavarietyofareas:• We’vebeentothemoonandmanyoftheplanets;andsentobjectsoutofthesolar

system.• Withonlineresearching,lawyers’shelvesfulloflawbooksareforshowonly.• AtMITwomennowmakeupabouthalf ofundergraduates, but thepercentageof

womenfacultyintheSchoolofEngineeringstilllags.• Equalpayforequalwork–disparitiescontinuetoexist.• Freonboathornshavebeen replacedbya concern forglobalwarming, at least in

manycircles.• GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)letsyouknowwhereyouarewithincrediblepreci-

sion,exceptperhapsforjammingandmassivesolarflares.• BritainisnowtryingtoexitfromtheEuropeanUnion,whichitjoinedinthe1960s.

ClassHistorianandProjectEditor-in-chief:BobPopadicEditors:BobColvin,BobGray,JohnMeriwether,andJimMonk

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Arts and Culture

Left,Seniorphotographbeingtakenofoneof the22woman, who along with 914 men, entered MIT in1960, as part of the class of 1964. During the early60sthetotalnumberofwomen(graduateandundergraduate) increased significantly from a tiny base,reachingabout280by1964.Below, 2010, graduates, including many women,moving towards the stage to receive theirdiplomas.TheMITClassof2022had49%womenand50%menentering,quiteachangein58years.In2012,45%ofundergraduates were woman, 32% of graduate stu-dents, 22% of faculty, and only 18% of the scienceandengineering faculty. Stillaway togo,especiallyremembering in 1964 the House of Representativepassedabillmandatingequalpayregardlessofsex.

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Then and Now - Did our world get better? Maybe yes. David Sheena

Period of AwarenessAllofushaveheardthestoryabouttheinventorofchess,whopresentedhisgifttotheKingofIndia,andaskedonlyforagrainofriceonthefirstsquare,twoonthesecond,anddou-bledtocompletetheboard.Weallknowthepoweroftheexponent,butasanyonewhohastrieddoublingatroulette,quicklydiscoversthatwhatisinitiallymanageabletakesasharpcornerandescapesintotheimpossible.Inthestoryoftherice,thekingcanmanageacou-pleof rowsof the chessboard’sgrainsof rice,putting them intohisequivalentof a truck,andthenheiscrushed.I feel likethegrainofrice,andtimeisthechessboard.Atsomepointneartheendofmyundergraduatetenure,IheardtheDeanofEngineeringwarnusthatthehalf-lifeofanengi-neerisamerefiveyears.Formyfellowengineersandme,whoarefortunatetobeabletocommemorate our 55thmilestone,we have passed this half-lifemarkmore times than Icaretoknow.Ihavefeltthesharpcurveoftheexponentialchangeintechnologyandhisto-ry—andinthesocialorder—speedpastmyabilitytobelievethatIcaneventrytokeeppace.Ourassignmentforthisessaywastolookatour59yearssinceweenteredMIT.Iwanttostretch that. If I takewhat I call our “periodof awareness”— that is the fieldof viewofourpersonal experience oftechnological and historical events beginningwith the storiesandhistoriesofourparentsandgrandparentstillthisday—thateasilycoversmorethanacentury.And, inmy particular case, the extent is even greater. Iwas born in Baghdadwhichwasabout20 to30yearsbehind theUS, somypersonalcalipersencompassevenearlier.

Then and Now-Personal Examples So,IrecollectfromtelegramtoInstagram;sciencefiction(thinkDickTracy)wristphonetoreal Applewatch; photographs to virtual reality; electronic circuits to genetic circuits; areadingmachine at RLE that took up a full lab to your smartphone; IBM 7090 comput-erthatwemarveledat,aswepassedbyitswholewinginBuilding26,tomultiplecomput-ersinourpockets.Librariesthatcannolongerremaincurrentwiththevolumeandspeedof information in the globe’s knowledgebase; and access to marketplaces right in ourhands.Unreachablestellarobjectsarenolongerthestuffofsciencedreamsandhavehadtheirdistances conquered; and, landing to themoon is50yearsold this year; fewornophotographsofourgrandparents, totheentirerecordedhistoryofthelifeofchildrento-day,inlivingcolorandsound.And,inmynativeIraq,horsecarriageswereplentiful,andtheywerenotfortourists.Evenwithinthecity,itwascommontoseeacamelcaravanarriving.Milkwasdeliveredtoourhouse via the cow itself, beingmilked aswewatched.Now Iwould never recognize theplaceofmybirth.

Then and Now - Did our world get better? Maybe yes. | 3

Inallthehistoryofhumankind,knowing, letalonecontrolling,thesexofanunbornchildwasthedomainoffortunetellers,andinthepresent,wetalkofdesignerbabies.Inthespanof our period of awareness, deadly Infectious diseases first became treatable, and theneradicated.Andnowwewitnesstheironythattreatmentsarebecomingineffectiveandin-fectionshavebecomeagravedangeragain.ItisnotonlythetechnologicalchangethatissooverwhelmingbutthefactthatweatMIT,theepicenterofchange,wereitswitnesses.

Flattening the Technology Productivity Curve EconomistRobertGordoninhisbook“TheRiseandFallofAmericanGrowth,”saysthatwecame of age at the flattening of the technology productivity curve and that the drasticchangeactuallyoccurredat the timeofourgrandparentsandgreat-grandparents,whomwemighthaveknown.Hegivestheexamplethatforhundredsofyears,menlivedwithanimalpower,cookedonanopenfire,andhadnoplumbing.HeposesthatthiswasstillsointheAmericaof1870.Ifamanfallsasleepin1870andwakesupin1940;heisinaworldthatistransformed:thehorse is a car, the cooking fire is a kitchen, the outdoor privy is nowmodernplumbing.Thereisatelephone,electric light,airplanes,skyscrapers,andasubway.Andpenicillinisabouttocomeintouse.Oursleeperwouldnotrecognizetheworldof1940.Butifhetakesanothernap through to2019,hewouldunderstand theworld. It ismorerefinedand im-proved,buteminentlyrecognizable;stillcars,airplanes,skyscrapers,andbathrooms.Thechangesareincremental;onlyamicrowaveovenisnewinthekitchen;samesubway,cars,and skyscrapers. Computers and electronics are new, but still recognizable enough to apersonfrom1940—allsourcedfromelectricityandthegasolineengine.Productivityhassloweddowninrecentdecades,andperhapsitismostlypersonalconveniencethathasim-proved.Itis,forexamplemucheasierformetowritethisnow,withallthetoolsliterallyatmyfingertips.

SteveHester,TimeTravel -Wehave expe-riencedsomuch;itisasclosetotimetravelaswecanget.So,apparentlyIamwrong;thesharpcurveof technology came in our grandparents’time and not in the time of our Class of1964.Wewere born at the time that oursleeperfirstawoke.Our“periodofaware-nessspansthesetwoerasinawaythattheclassof2019wouldneverfathom.Perhapsit felt that the historical changes weremoredrastic inourtimebecausewewerelivingthem.


WhenIwasin juniorhighschool,welearnedabouttheAmericanCivilWar,whichwasacenturyearlier.Toallthestudents,itfeltlikeancienthistory,withnorealvisceralconnec-tion to the present. Now, students learn aboutWorldWar IIwith the same last centurylens, with no association totheirpresent. What makes this remarkable is that we areatbothendsofthistimeline,bornduringWWIIandnowreadytoseeitpassinto“ancient”history.Then,therewerestilllivingveteransofthecivilwar,andnow,therearestilllivingveteransofWWII.

Better Brake than Accelerator Whenwewereyoung,wewereexcitedaboutchange.Aswematured,Iforone,subscribedtohistorianWillDurant’sviewthatprogressismoresecurewiththebrakethantheaccel-erator.Changealmostbecameoverwhelmingasitstartedtooverloadouralbumsofexpe-riences.Whatwasillegalandunacceptablebecamethelawofthelandandinvertedtheac-cepted norms, be it marijuana or gender identity. And what was acceptable then, isfrowneduponnow.FromsegregatedfacilitieswhenwewereyoungtohavinganAfrican-Americanpresident.FromwomenbeingsecretariesatMITtoawomanpresidentofMIT;from25womeninourclasstoparityforwomenatMITnow,andwomenareseekingthepresidencyoftheUnitedStates.TheMITsongwaschangedin1984from“Arise!yesonsofMIT In loyal brotherhood,” to “Arise all ye of MIT In loyal fellowship.” All the schoolsarounduswithsinglegendershavevirtuallydisappeared. Irememberoneprofessor lec-turing in 10-250, saying “Gentlemen…” eliciting an “Ahem” from the one female student.WerememberthatinMITdormitories,femaleguestswerepermittedintherooms(unusu-alatthattime)until10PM;andnow,coeddorms.Itrytoputallthisintothebroaderhumanperspective,andperhapsIcan.InmyschoolinBaghdad,childrenwithdisabilities—“challenges”isthegentlerwordnow–weretheob-jectsofridicule,evenbyenlightenedteachers.Ifeelverygratifiedthatwehaveamorecar-ingworld.Thereismorekindnessinlanguageandinhowindividualswithmisfortunesanddifferencesareviewedandtreatedwithdignity.Scienceandcaringhumanintermediariestrytorepairormitigatemanyofthemiseriesandpainsoflife’sconditions.Whenwewereborn,Fascistsweretryingtodisposeofsuchpeople.Respectfortherolesofwomenandminoritiesisanacceptednormofcivilbehavior.Thesewrongsused tobeundertakenopenlywithnoexcusesneeded.Now, theystilloccur,buttheoffendingpartystillhastosubscribetothenewacceptedvocabularyandunderstand-ing.Itisnotallgood.MITbuildingsanddormswereunlocked24hoursaday.Sadly,notsoto-day.Now,wearemoreapprehensiveforourprivacy,security,andidentity.And,excessesincarefulvocabulariesandcommunicationhavediminishedopendialogue.Perhapsitisthemassiveamountofhistoricalandsocialchangesthatswirlaroundinourcountryandourworldthatmakesmedizzy.IknewmygrandfatherwhowasconscriptedintotheOttomanarmyinWorldWarIandlaterranoff tosupplytheBritish insouthernIraq.HeandmyfathergrewupintheshadowofPaxBritannica.Wehavegrownupinthe


protection of Pax Americana. And now, we hear talk of Americana possibly being sur-passed.

Umberto Boccioni, Dynamism of a Cyclist,1913-Weareshownthespeedofacyclistor events locked into one frame, and thevarious movements of the individual andhismechanismareforcedintoasingletwo-dimensional glance. Perhaps our personalhistoriescanappearthisway.The political changes we witnessed areclose to unbelievable. We sat at MITwatching the nightly news reporting thekill numbers in Vietnam. And now Vi-etnam is a vacationdestination. I used toreadbefore coming toAmerica about thebrutality in Communist China, and today

somuchofourphysicallivesismanufacturedinChina.Mostofourparentswerebornbe-foretherereallywasacommunistSovietUnion,anditsdissolutioncamebeforethisyear’sgraduateswereborn. Iusedtobeableto identifycountriesonthemapof theworldandnametheircapitals;now,Iwouldbeluckynottogetafailinggrade.Europehasbeenre-drawn,tosaynothingofpost-colonialAfrica.WegrewupunderthecloudoftheColdWarandremembertheHouseUn-AmericanActivi-tiesCommittee.Andnowtheenemyhasevolvedto insidious terroristswhomwecannotseeorfight,andweliveunderadifferentdread.Iusedtobeabletowalkuptoaplane,andtakemysonintothecockpit;thathasbeenreplacedbyamassivecostinlosttimeforallthepassengers,tosaynothingofallthesecurityexpense.Inour time,MITprovided thepath for first and second-generation students toenter theAmericandream.Nowthedescendantsofthesestudentsareseekingalternatecareerpath,notnecessarilyatMIT,andmoreinternationalstudentshavereplacedtheseoriginalchil-drenofimmigrants.

Closing Thoughts-Change is Good This exercise of jolting thememory is something that couldbedoneby looking at somebooksandmagazines,butthedistinctionisthatwewere literallytheobserversoverthisspanof the time axis. I often see features inperiodicals that lookback at 50, 75, or100yearsago,andIrememberthemoraboutthem.Besidesstirringupbittersweetnostalgia,isthere a point to this trip along the rabbit holes ofmemory? Did theworld change? Arethingsbetterorworse?Canwetell?MypersonalperspectivetellsmethattherewasfearintheBaghdadofmychildhood.TherewasfearinAmericawiththenewsofmegatonnuclearbombsandthedrillsfortheminschool.Thenallthisdissipatedandlifefeltgood.Thenwestartedtoworryaboutterrorists,hijackings,schoolshootings.Moreso,poordistributionof


wealth,polarization,andrenewedracismandanti-Semitism leeching intoourpublicdis-course.WhenweenteredMIT,alookattheglobeshowedfewdemocraciesaroundtheworld,pri-marilytheUSandCanadainthewesternhemisphere,thenationsofWesternEuropeandafewinAsia.Idaredtohopethatitwasgettingbetter.HarvardprofessorStevenPinker,anastuteobserverofthehumancondition,makesascientificandcompellingcasethatitis.Heshows,by thedata, that life spans, safety,peace,health, sustenance, literacy, andyes thenumberofdemocracies, theworldisgettingbetter.Forexample, lifeexpectancy is70-80years,whereasitwas30formostofhumanhistory;childmortalityhasbeenbroughtdownahundredfold; famineno longerdecimatespopulations.Peacewhich, throughouthistoryused to be only an interlude between wars, is now a fortunate state. This progress, hedemonstrates,ishistoricalaswellasrecent.Familiesaredefineddifferently;demographicsaredifferent,andtherulesofbehavioraredifferent.Whatwasacceptableandlegalisnownot necessarily so, and vice-versa. Heroes have become villains, and some villains havebeenrehabilitated.Wehaveseenboththeriseofreligiousfundamentalismandsecularismatthesametime.Wewereborninthetimewhenmanuallaborwasstillpartoftheengineofproduction,andnowhumansareworkingontheirownreplacement.EventhoughIfindithardtobecom-fortablewiththespeedofallthischange—thatmaybemostlyamatterofmygettingolderandpreferring thebrakeover theaccelerator—but I amhappy thatmyhistoricalopti-mismisjustified.

ArthurGanson,MachinewithConcrete,2009-IsawthisinBuilding10,anditwaslaterinthe MIT Museum. The motor turning veryquicklyandyettheoutputshaftisembeddedinconcrete.Perhapsanallegoryforhowfastour time goes and how little we get at theend.

WeiWing-Wu,TimeforReflections


Weareuniqueashistoricalobservers.Our”periodofawareness”isperhapsthewidestifmeasuredbytotalchange.Weallhadourparticularobservationstuckedintothickportfo-liosofmemories,andIwouldliketobelievethatweofMIThavecontributedoursharetotheriseinhumanhappiness.And,Iwishusallthegoodfortunetoexperienceitformanyyearstocome.DavidSheena’64,Ph.D.’69.DavidwasborninBaghdad,Iraq.HeimmigratedtoAmericain1955,asalltheJewishcommunitieslefttheMiddleEast.AfterMIT,heworkedonpupilom-etry and eye movement measurement technology for psychological and brain research.HavingcuthisteethonGeneralRadioequipmentatMITlaboratories,Davidco-foundedIETLabs which became heir to General Radio to design and manufacture calibration andtestinstruments,andwherehestillworks.Heisacolumnistforaweeklynewspaper.HeismarriedtoMarlene,andtheyhavefourchildrenandeightgrandchildren.TheiroldestsonJonathan is having his 25thMIT reunion this year also. Heco-founded a genetics compa-ny.DavidandMarleneareworkinghardtoavoidobsolescence


It Was Different Then—Especially for Women Lita Nelsen Twenty-TwoyoungwomenenteredMITasfreshmenin1960.Theclasssizewaslimited,since therewas nowomen’s dorm on campus, and the very thought of a co-educationaldormitorywas shocking. The extreme selectivity forwomenundergraduates resulted in“AllWomen’sGradePointAverage”exceeding“AllMen’s”formanyyears.

Considering Eliminating Woman’s Admissions - 1956 AfewyearsbeforeweenteredMIT,thefacultyoftheInstituteseriouslyconsideredendingwomen’senrollment,eventhoughMIThadbeenadmittingwomen(inverysmallnumbers)almostsinceitsbeginning(andthefirstfemalegraduate,EllenSwallowRichards,becamean Instructorat the Institute). At the time thateliminatingwomen’sadmissionwaspro-posed(1956),mostoftheIvyuniversitiesalongwithmostotherprivateuniversitiesadmit-tedonlymen,althoughsomeoftheIvieshadsisterschoolandsomeoftheirclasseswerecoed.Fortunately,thewomen’salumnaegroup(nowcalledAMITA)gotwindofthefacultyproposalandfoughtbacksuccessfully.

The Early 1960s McCormick Hall opened in 1963 as a woman’sdorm.Seventeenofthefreshmanwomenwerehousedin120BayStateRoad inBoston, a three-story townhousenowusedasanannexforBetaThetaPifra-ternity. (Twoothersof thewomenwerecommut-ers,andthreeotherswerehousedinaBostoncol-lege’s women’s dormitory.) It was a long, coldwalkacrosstheHarvardbridgeinwinter. CheneyRoom,anendowedroomforwomeninBuilding3,justabovethePresident’soffice,wasarefugefromtheweatherandfromanoverwhelminglymaleen-vironment; a place to sleepwhen labs (or bridgegames)wererunninglate;andaplacetoformlife-longfriendshipswithwomenfromotherclasses.Thosewerethedayswhenwomeninothercolleg-eshad10pmcurfews(alittlelateronweekends),so theeasily-ignoredcurfewsat “120”meant thatMIT womenwere often the only ones left at lateparties. After freshman year, most women livedoff-campus in apartments, or in Bexley Hall (no

It Was Different Then—Especially for Women | 9

curfews)iftherewasroom.McCormickHall(stillstrictlyforwomen)wasfinishedforourjunioryear,andsomeoftheclassmovedin.KatherineDexterMcCormick(1904grad)do-nated the funds for the hall, soon leading to amassive increase inwomen undergradu-ates.McCormickHallhasremainedsinglesextothisday,indeferencetoMrs.McCormick’swishes. Outside forceswere also very different. Itwas illegal inMassachusetts to provide birthcontrolproductstounmarriedpeople, forexample. Ofcourse,menquickly identifiedthedrugstoreswhereawinkwouldgetwhatwasneeded.Andwhenthepillcamealong(Mrs.McCormickwasamajordonortotheRockClinicwhichdidthemajorresearchleadingtothepill),womenpassedaroundinformationastowhichdoctorswouldprescribeitwithoutaskingforamarriagelicense.Within MIT, differences for women were both subtle and blatant. Women’s rest roomswerenotoriouslyscarce(althoughtheywerefurnishedwiththesamewaxypaperthatthemenendured.)“Coedjokes”wererampantandsomeofthefraternitymenwhodatedMITwomenweresubjecttoharassmentbytheirbrothers.Womeninengineeringwererepeat-edlytold“You’llnevergeta job;whyareyoudoingthis?”althoughIfoundthefacultyal-wayssupportive.The outside world was not so kind. Although I had the highest grade point average inCourseXatgraduation,IwasnotelectedtoeitherTauBetaPi(theengineeringhonorsoci-ety),nortoPiLambdaUpsilon(chemistryhonorsociety)becauseneitheradmittedwom-en. Andat the time, lawsagainstdiscrimination in theworkforcedidnotexist, so in jobhunting,Iwastold“Wedon’thirewomeninengineering,”orwasasked“Willyoubeabletotravel? Evenwithaman?”. Where I finally landed, Iwas told “The lastwomanwehireddidn’tworkout,butyouracademicrecordisgood.”Theyalsotoldmethat“WearepayingyouONLY10%underthemalestartingsalaries.”Havingbeenraised inthe40’sand50’s, Ihadbeentaughttobe ladylike,so I justsmiledandsaidthatsuchthingsdidn’tbotherme.Howtimeshavechanged!

Times Have Changed Andtimeshavechanged.WhenmydaughterwenttoMIT,herclasswas 33% women,andshelivedinaco-edfraternity.Ifmygranddaughterweretogo(enteringclassof2020),herclasswillbecloseto,ifnotabove,50%women.Therearemanymorewomen’sbathrooms,mostofthedormitoriesandseveralofthefraternitiesareco-ed.Thehonorsocietieshavereformed,therearemanymorewomenfacultymembers,andtheopportunitiesforwomenatworkhave increasedconsiderably, althoughstill laggingat thehighest levels.May thenexthalfcenturycontinuetheprogress—bothforwomenandminorities—withMIThelp-ingtoleadtheway. LitaNelsen ’64Course10,SMChemicalEngineering ’66,SMSloanFellow’79. Shespenther career first in chemical engineering/medical devices and then spent 30 years in theMITTechnologyLicensingOffice,25asdirector.SheismarriedtoDonNelsen(‘61,Course6)andhastwochildren:KatrinaNelsenSaba(‘91Course9)andDanNelsen.


Coeducation at MIT Robert M. Gray

Abstract MITwasfoundedin1861andadmitteditsfirstwomanasa“specialstudent”in1871,thefirstofaminusculenumberofwomentobeadmittedthroughthefollowingcentury.Inthe1950s,womenmadeup1 to3%of theMITstudentbody, less thanhalf thatof1897. In1955,President JamesKillianaskedChancellor JuliusStrattontoconveneacommitteetostudythestatusofwomenstudentsatMITandmakerecommendationsforthefuture.Overayearlater,thecommitteechairProfessorLeicesterHamiltonwrotetothePresidentrec-ommendingthatMITceaseadmittingwomen—atleastattheundergraduatelevel.Killianrejectedtherecommendationandinsteadmadeacommitmenttoincreasingthenumberofwomenstudentsandimprovingtheirqualityoflife.ThisarticleisthestoryoftheinfamousHamiltoncommittee“report”andtheseachange thatbegan in the1950sand1960sandeventually led towomen constituting roughly half of the undergraduateMITpopulation.HistoricalcontextofwomenatMITisprovidedalongwithcommentsonpersistentprob-lemsforwomeninacademicengineering,especially intheareasofelectricalengineeringandcomputerscience.Introduction:WomenatMITPrologue:The1870sthrough1951TheHamiltonCommittee:1950sTheLeadingEdgeoftheWave:1960sEpilogue:The1970sandBeyond

Introduction: Women at MIT ThisphotoofHarrietFell,’64,fromtheMITMuseumar-chives was published in the March 14, 2014, issueofScienceinareviewbyMariaKlaweofGirlsComingtoTechbyAmySueBix [30].Thephotocaptionreads“Ontheleadingedgeofawave.The25womenwhoenteredMIT’sclassof1964matchedthegraduationrateoftheir874maleclassmates.” Thepivotalnatureof1960inthehistoryofMIThadbeennotedover fourdecadesearlierbyMITProfessorEmilyL.Wickinher“ProposalforanewpolicyforadmissionofwomenundergraduatestudentsatMIT”[18]: “UntiltheInstitutecouldcommititselftoeducatingwomenin significant numbers, and could provide suitable living

conditions,coedswerenotoverly‘successful’....Before1960womenenteredMITattheirownrisk.Iftheysucceeded—fine!Iftheyfailed—well,noonehadex-

Coeducation at MIT | 11

pectedthemtosucceed.In1960theInstitutecommitteditselftotheeducationofwomenaswellasmen...Theclassof1964enteredin1960knowingthatMITbe-lieved in women students. It was the first class in which coeds, as a group,matchedtheproportionofB.S.degreesearnedbytheirmaleclassmates!”EmilyLWick[18]

I firstbecameinterestedinthehistoryofcoeducationatMITin2012whenBobPopadic,thenPresidentoftheMITClassof ’64(andnowClassHistorian),decidedtorenovatetheclassWebpages forour50threunionand includepageson thehistoryonspecific livinggroups,sports,activities,andstudentorganizations.IhadwrittenouroriginalHTMLcrudeWebpagesyearsearlier,sohehadmeelectedaClassOfficerwithatitleofClassWebmas-ter.Wetried to findmembersorparticipants towrite theblurbs,butweoftenendedupwritingpagesongroupswewantedtobedescribed,butforwhichwecouldnotfindvolun-teerauthors.ItookonthepagesontheAssociationforWomenStudents,mostlybecauseIamanamateurhistorianandbecauseIhadbeenactivelyinvolvedindiversityissuesdur-ingmyacademicyears,especiallywithdiversity(orlackthereof)ofwomenfacultyinengi-neering.Inaddition,earlyonIdiscoveredtheimportantroleinthehistoryplayedbyEmilyWick,whowasaneighborinRockport,whereIwaslivingasaseasonaltrialrunforimmi-nentretirementandwhereshewasasailinglegend.Hersailingdayswerelongover,butatthetimeIoccasionallymetEmilyattheSandyBayYachtClubsocialfunctionsandIcrewedfor her niece Laura Hallowell in sailboat races in Emily’s Herreshoff-designed Bull-seyeBeaverII. TwoyearsofresearchontheWeb(especiallythehistoricalWebpagesoftheAssociationofMITAlumae(AMITA)),burrowingintotheMITArchivesandMuseum,andreadinganex-cellentarticlebyAmySueBix [28]andEmilyWick’spapers in thepossessionofEmily’snieceresultedintheClassof’64Webpages[2]. In2017IwasinvitedtoupdatethearticleandgiveapresentationonCoeducationatMITforalectureseriesonTitleIX[3]organizedbyBrandeisProfessorAnitaHill(whowasthenvisitingatMIT)andMITProfessorMurielMedard.Intheprocessofpreparingforthelec-ture,IdiscoveredthatmanyofstoriesIhadreportedintheWebpagesbasedonsecondarysourceswere apocryphal and that the actual history revealed in harder-to- findprimarysourceswasdeeperandricher,andonoccasionstillnotcompletelyknown.Thatresearchresulted inapresentationatMIT inOctober2017 [9].That talkendedwithmy learningmorestoriesfromMITalumnaefromthelate1950sandearly1960sandreceivingencour-agement tocontinuemyamateurhistorian’s interest in the topic. Inparticular, Ibeganacontinuingemaildiscussion(withoccasionalin-personconversations)withSusanL.Kan-nenberg,analumnaofmybrotherPeter’sclassof1961,authorof100YearsofWomenatMIT(1973)[22], and long timemember and activist in theAssociation ofM.I.T. Alumnae(AMITA),anorganizationwhichthroughitsvarious incarnationshasplayedakeyrole inthestorytoldhere. AnotherinvitationledtofurtherresearchandanothertalkinMay2018,thistimeatStan-fordUniversitywiththesupportoftheStanfordViceProvostforFacultyDevelopmentand


Diversity, AMITA, and theMITAlumniAssociation (MITAA) [10]. Over half of the 57 at-tendeesatthetalkwereMITalumnae. Ihavelongintendedtowriteupthematerialinfullproseinsteadofthetelegraphlanguageoflectureslides,andBobPopadic’sideaofabooktellingstoriesbyclassmateswithoriginsduringourMITtimeandimplicationsthroughthepresentseemedanidealexcusefortheexercise.Thisarticle is the resultof thateffortbasedon theClassof ’64Webarticle,mytalks,furtherconversationswithalumnae,andfurtherattemptstodigupstillmissingpiec-esofthestory.TheMITAssociationforWomenStudentsanditsancestorsremainsacom-monthreadinthestory,alongwithAMITAanditsancestors. Thebasicstory isnotnew, it is told insignificantdetailbyAmySueBix in [30].But it isworthwhile tospreadthestoryandtooaddseveraldetailsanddifferingviewsthatwerenotincludedin[30]andherearlierrelatedarticles.Thestorycanbeputintoamoreglobalcontextwiththerelevantstoriesofthestruggleforcoeducationatprivateeliteuniversitiesin the Eastern U.S. and the U.K. In Nancy Weiss Malkiel’s outstanding bookKeep theDamnedWomenOut:TheStruggleforCoeducation(2016)[16].AbasicironyisthatMITse-riouslyconsideredceasingtobecoeducationaladecadebeforethemostfamousIvyLeagueschoolsmovedintheoppositedirection.

Prologue — The 1870s through 1951 1861MITisfoundedinBoston,althoughitdoesnotactuallybeginclassesuntil1865.Wil-liamBartonRogersbecomesPresidentin1862.1865TheLowellInstitutebeginstheLowellLecturesatMITwithagiftof$250,000inor-dertospreadscienceinformationtothepublic[15].Thefreeeveningcoursesareopentoqualifiedcandidates,bothmaleandfemale,overtheageofeighteen.Theclassesareorga-nizedbyMIT and taught byMITProfessors, but the students are not recognized asMITstudentsandarenotallowed toattend regularMITclassesand laboratories.The classesgainastrongreputationforpracticallabworkinchemistryandotherareas,andgiveMITanappearanceofhavingwomenstudents.1867The possibility of admitting women to MIT arises for the first time when severalwomenattendingProfessorCharlesW.Eliot’scourseonchemicalmanipulationaspartoftheLowellFreeLecturesrequesttojoinregulardaytimechemistryclasses.Whileshortex-cerpts of the exchange that follows have appeared in many books, it is insightful toquotethe actual letters fromLife and Letters of William Barton Rogers: Edited by hisWife(1896)[17]todetail theoriginsofcoeducationatMITandRogers’role inbothpro-motingandstallingtheidea.ThelettersmentiontheCommitteeonInstruction,whichwasfoundedin1864toberesponsiblefor“thesupervisionoftheSchoolofIndustrialScience,bothastoitsorganizationanditsbusiness-affairs.”[5]TheSchoolofIndustrialSciencewastheoriginalschoolwithintheInstitute.PresidentRogerswastheChairmanandtheeightothermembersincludedEdwardH.Atkinson—afoundingofficerofMITandmemberoftheCommitteeofFinance—andNathanielH.Thayer, Jr.,amajordonortobothMITandHarvard.[17]


TOEDWARDATKINSON,ESQ.58PINCKNEYSTREET,January30.DEARSIR,—IbelievethatyouareoneoftheBoardofInstructionoftheInstituteofTechnology,andinthatcapacityIwanttoaskafavourofyou.Thetimeofthe“Lowell”classinchemicalmanipulationisdrawingtoaclose,andsomeofthela-diesoftheclass,whoareverymuchinterestedinthesubject,wishtogoonwithit.WillitbepossibleforthemandmetojoinanyclassnowformedintheInstitutesoastocontinueourstudies?Ifso,whatwouldbetheconditionsastotermsandtime?WehearthatthereistobeameetingoftheBoardofInstructionthisweek.Couldyoubringthematterbeforethemandsoverymuchoblige,Yourstruly,A.R.Curtis.

AtkinsonforwardedthelettertoPresidentRogerswiththenote

BOSTON,February1,1867.DEARSIR,Theenclosednotespeaksforitself.Cantherebeanyobjectiontoladiesenteringasspecialstudentsexceptpossiblywantofroominthelaboratory?Yoursverytruly,EDWARD ATKINSON

AseparateappealwasmadetoCommitteememberNathanielThayer,Jr.

ANITAE.TYNGANDREBECCAK.SHEPARDTON.THAYER,ESQ.BOSTON,January30,1867.DEARSIR,—Atourinterviewthiseveningwestatedtoyouthatfourladies,regu-larattendantsofthepresentLowellclassinchemicalmanipulation,wishtocon-tinuethestudyofChemistryintheTechnologicalInstitute.Relyinguponyourkindlypresentingourwishesbeforethemeetingof theCom-mitteeofInstruction,weremain,Verytrulyyours,ANITAE.TYNG.REBECCAK.SHEPARD.

PresidentRogersreplieswiththeauthorizationoftheCommitteeofInstruction:

TON.THAYER,ESQ.1TEMPLEPLACE,BOSTON,February4,1867.DEARSIR,—InreplytothecommunicationofMissesTyngandShepard,pleasesay to them that the Faculty and the Committee of Instruction appreciate theearnestnesswithwhichtheyandtheirassociateladypupilsinthelaboratoryare


disposedtopursuetheirscientificstudiesandwouldgladlyaffordthemsuchop-portunities of systematic instruction as are compatible with the objects andplans of the Institute, but thatwe could not complywith their present requestwithoutseriouslyembarrassingtheorganizationofthelaboratoryandotherde-partmentsoftheschoolasconnectedwiththeregularcoursesnowinprogress.Theplanofevening(includingafternoon)instruction,formingadepartmentdis-tinctfromtheso-calledregularcoursesoftheschool,hasbeenincorporatedintothe general organization of the Institute for the purpose of enabling lady stu-dents,aswellasgentlemen, tohave thebenefitof systematic scientific instruc-tionundertheconditionsbestsuitedtotheirconvenienceandadvantage,andtotheinterestsoftheschoolatlarge.ThisdepartmentoftheInstitute,embracingtheLowellfreeinstructionasapart,will, it ishoped,besoorganizedinanotheryearastomeetthewantsofthela-dieswhomyourcorrespondentsrepresent,andIneedhardlyaddthattheFacul-tyandCommitteewillgladlywelcomethemtotheclassesthusorganized.Iremain,yourstruly,WILLIAMB.ROGERS.

It should be noted here that the second and archaic meaning ofembarrassis given bytheOxfordDictionaryofEnglishas“hamperorimpede(apersonoraction)”or“makediffi-cultorintricate;complicate.”AlthoughRogershaspromotedequaleducationforwomeninhisspeechesandwritings,heisnotyetwillingtoaccepttheconceptfurtherthanallowingqualifiedwomentotaketheeveningLowellLectures.TheissuearisesagainwithaletterfromWilliamP.Atkinson,ProfessorofEnglishLanguageandLiterature,toPresidentRogers:

FROMPROFESSORW.P.ATKINSON.CAMBRIDGE,August18,1867.. . .Applicationhascomefromoneyoungwoman,aratherremarkableteacher,whodesirestoavailherselfoftheInstitute.Iwassorrytohavetoreplythatnoth-ingwasopentohersavetheLowellcourses.Thereisalargeandincreasingclassofyoungwomenwhoareseekingforsomethingmoresystematicinthewayofahighereducation. Ifwecontinueaspecial technical school,ourswillnotbe theplaceforthem;butifweshouldexpandintoamodernuniversity,andIamconfi-dentthereisroomforone,bytakingtheboldstepofopeningourdoorsfreelytobothsexesIbelieveweshoulddistanceallcompetitors.Itisastepsuretobetak-ensomewhere....

Unfortunately,earlierinAugustPresidentRogersfallsillwithpneumoniaandpoorhealthandInstitutematters—includingseekingpermissionfromtheMassachusettsLegislaturetograntdegreesfortheimpendingfirstclasstograduate—leavehimlittletimetopursuetheissueofcoeducation.


1868InOctoberRogerssuffersanattackofhemiplegiaorparalysisononesideofhisbody(left).HishealthrapidlydeterioratesandheisgrantedaleaveofabsenceinDecember.HisfriendJohnDanielRunkle,ProfessorofMathematics, takesoveras interimpresidentandbecomespresidentin1870whenRogersresignsforreasonsofpoorhealth.RunkleservesasPresidentuntil1978,butregularlyconsultsRogersasherecovershishealthanddeferstohimonmajordecisions.Rogersreturnstothepresidencyonatemporarybasisin1878andisagainelectedpresidentin1879andservesthrough1881.ThusitisPresidentRunklewhoreceivesthenextapplicationforMITadmissionfromawoman,thistimenot fromastudentintheLowellInstituteFreeLectures.

1870In June Ellen Henrietta Swallow graduatesfromVassarwith anBachelor ofArts degree in chemis-try.DuringhersearchforemploymentshecontactsMer-rickandGray(J.M.MerrickandRobertS.Gray,AnalyticalChemists and Assayers, 50 Broad Street, Bos-ton),requestingapositionasapprentice.Theyreplythattheyare not in a position to take pupils, but that shemighttrytoentertheInstituteofTechnologyofBoston.Onfirst glance this is a bizarre suggestion to give to awomanata timewhen therearenowomenstudentsatMIT[26],butanadvertisementfromthefirmlistsactingPresidentRunkleasareference, so the firm iswell con-nectedwithMITanddoubtlessawareoftheLowelleven-ingchemistryclasses.Regardless,SwallowwritestoMITasking if women can be admitted, giving as referencestwoofherVassarprofessors:astronomerMariaMitchell

—apersonal friendofMITPresidentRunkle, andProfessorC.A. Farrar, theheadof theDepartmentofNaturalSciencesandMathematics.TheFacultyoftheInstituteofTechnolo-gyformallyreceivesherapplicationon3December1870,Ellen’stwenty-eighthbirthday,butitdecidesto“postponethequestionoftheadmissionoffemalestudentsuntilthenextmeeting.”On10December

thequestionoftheadmissionofMissSwallowwasresumedandaftersomedis-cussion itwasvotedthat theFacultyrecommendtotheCorporationtheadmis-sionofMissSwallowasaspecialstudentinChemistry.[26]

Therewasacatch,however,astheFacultyalso

ResolvedThattheFacultyareoftheopinionthattheadmissionofwomenasspe-cial students is as yet in the nature of an experiment, that each applicationshouldbeactedonuponitsownmerits,andthatnogeneralactionorchangeoftheformerpolicyoftheInstituteisatpresentexpedient.[26]


TheCommitteeon Instructionagreedandon14December1870theRecordsoftheMeet-ingsoftheMITCorporationincludedawidelyquotedstatement:1

Itwasvoted to confirm the recommendationof theCommitteeon theSchoolofIndustrialSciencethatMissEllenH.SwallowbeadmittedasaSpecialStudentinChemistry— itbeingunderstood thatheradmissiondidnot establishaprece-dentforthegeneraladmissionoffemales.

IheardthecurrentPresidentofAMITAreadthisquotationattheannualcelebrationatMITofthebirthdayofEllenSwallowRichardsPresidentRunkleinformedSwallowoftheresult,writing

DearMissSwallow:TheSecretaryoftheInstitute,Dr.Kneeland,willnotifyyouoftheactionofthecorporationinyourcaseatameetingheldthisday.Icongratu-lateyouandeveryearnestwomanupontheresult.CanyoucometoBostonbe-foremanydaysand seeme? Iwill saynow thatyou shallhaveanyandallad-vantagewhich the Institutehas to offerwithout chargeof anykind. I have thepleasureofknowingbothMissMitchellandMr.FarrarofVassar.Hopingsoontohavethepleasureofseeingyou,IamFaithfullyyours,J.D.RUNKLE,PresidentoftheInstitute

Swallowlaterwrotethatwhenshereadthattherewouldbenotuition,

IthoughtitwasoutofthegoodnessofhisheartbecauseIwasapoorgirlwithmywaytomakethatheremittedthefee,butIlearnedlateritwasbecausehecouldsayIwasnotastudent,shouldanyofthetrusteesorstudentsmakeafussaboutmypresence.HadIrealizeduponwhatbasisIwastaken,Iwouldnothavegone.[26]

Inotherwords,unlessshesucceeds,MITcansimplydenyherexistence.1871EllenSwallowisthefirstwomanadmittedtoMITasanexperimentasa“specialstu-dent.”Astheonlymatriculatedwomanstudent,sheislargelyhiddenandisolatedasisherlab.Thefacultyvotestonotincludeherinthelistofstudentsappearingintheannualcata-log,butreconsiderstheactionatthelastminuteandlistsher[15].1873EllenSwallowisthefirstwomangraduatedfromMIT(BachelorofScienceinChemis-try).ShealsosubmitsathesistoVassarwhichresultsinaMasterofArtsdegree.1875-76SwallowmarriesMITProfessorRobertRichards,amemberofMIT’sfirstgraduat-ing class. She raises funds from theWomen’s Educational Association (WEA) of Boston(founded1871) forwomen’s facilities, including a reception roomand a laboratory. Thewomen’s laboratory is opened in an “annex” (occasionally reportedas a “garage”) to the


mainMITbuildinginBostonwiththegoalofaffording“everyfacilityforthestudyofChem-icalAnalysis,ofIndustrialChemistry,ofMineralogy,andofChemistryasrelatedtoVegeta-ble and Animal Physiology.”[4]MIT changes its admissions policy to admit “special stu-dents”for“advancedinstructioninChemistry...withoutdistinctionofsex.”1879Womenaregiventheprivilegeofbeingexaminedforadegreeunderthesamecondi-tionsasmen.1882Theoriginalwomen’slabisscheduledfordemolition.WhenachemicallaboratoryisapprovedforthenewWalkerBuilding,ESRwrites:

Thequestionofspaceinthenewbuildingforthe suitable accommodation of women stu-dents has beenweighing uponmymind forthelasttwoorthreeweeks,andafterconsul-tation with General Walker, Miss Crocker,Miss Abby May, and Miss Florence Gushing,we have made ourselves a self-constitutedcommittee to obtain subscriptions fromwomeninterestedintheeducationofwomentoward a small sum, say eight or ten thou-sand dollars, which may be put into the

handsofthecorporation,inorderthattheymayfeeljustifiedinincludingintheplanssuitabletoiletroomsinconnectionwitheachofthelaboratoriesandare-ceptionroomsomewhereinthebuildingwhichshallbefortheiruseonly.Ifthiscanbedone,theInstitutecanthensaythatitisinaconditiontoreceivewomen.[26],p.148

MIT decides to admit women as regular students (in chemistry only), so that the newchemistry laboratorieswill be forbothmenandwomen,but the funds raisedwithWEAwillgotoawomen’sbathroomandaparlor/receptionroom.Itisunfortunatelynotewor-thy that eighty years later students and staffwill still complain inTheTechof having “towalkamiletofindaladiesroom.”Whentheoldlaboratoriesaretorndown,ESRloosesherdutiesasdirectorofthewomen’schemistrylab.Herreducedworkloaddoesnotlastlongas she is soon appointed as an Instructor, and she is also given the duties of a Dean ofWomen,withouteitherthetitleoraddedcompensation.1884Thewomen’sreceptionroomisrenamedtheMargaretCheneyReadingRoomafterMargaretCheney(1855–1884,’82),oneofESR’sstudents.Itprovidesan“oasis”,“refuge”,“haven”forwomenstudents.


Photo fromMITTechnologyReview(1921),Vol.23,p.545.Theportraiton thewallbehindthecouchisofESR.OveracenturylatertheenduringnatureoftheCheneyRoomandtheMITenvironmentforwomenwas emphasizedwhen EmilyWickwas quoted in the 9/1/2005Technology Re-view:“Everybodycamethere,itwasourplace.TherestofMITwasn’ttoowelcoming.”1890EtaSigmaMu(ΗΣΜ)Societyfounded—thefirstclubforMITwomenstudents.Itbe-gins as a secret select social organization patterned on all-male fraternities, but it soondrops secrecy and actively recruitsmembers, eventually inviting all women students tojoin.ESR is electedanhonorarymember. In1895 thenamewas changed toTheCleofan,with its officers andmembers first published in the1897Technique. Therewas a strongoverlapwiththeYoungWomenattheInstitutelistinsamebook,sotherecruitingseemstohave been successful and a few non-students were included in the club. ThenameCleofanwasapopularnameforwomen’sclubsintheMidWestatthetime.TheCleofanwouldlastintospring1934,withregularFridayafternoonmeetingsandannu-alspringmeetings.ThreeyearslatertheAssociationofWomenStudents(AWS)wouldbe


foundedexplicitlyasarevivaloftheCleofan.Beginningaround1973thenamebeganap-pearingasamoreinclusiveAssociationforWomenStudents,andby1990the“for”domi-natedreportsinTheTech.Ihavenotyetfoundaspecificdatefortheofficialnamechange.1893MITWomenintheMargaretCheneyRoom

TheInstituteCommittee,theundergraduatestudentgoverningbody,isfounded.1897Approximately6.3%ofthe1187MITundergraduatesarewomen,apercentagenotachievedagainuntil1969.[18].


TheTech1/3/1901 1900TheMITWomen’sAssociation (MITWA) is founded “topromotegreater fellowshipamongInstitutewomen,”specificallyforalumnae.ESRfearsthatMITWA“willneverbeasuccess,becausewehavenodormitorylife,nocampus,andhencenocollegespirit”None-thelessESRiselectedasthefirstpresidentofMITWA.


1904KatharineDexter—amemberofCleofan—graduates(Biol-ogy) andmarries StanleyMcCormick— son of CyrusMcCormick.ShewillbecomeamajorsupporterandfundraiserforMITwomen—herendowmentwasvaluedat$51millionin1997,thenthelarg-estfromanindividualdonor.Shealsobecomesasuffragistandthesponsorandthefinancialsupporterofthedevelopmentofthebirthcontrolpill.

1913TheInstituteCommitteebecomestheUndergraduateAssociationwithINSCOMMasitslegislativeandexecutivebranch,withresponsibilityforapprovingstudentactivities.1913–14,MITTechnologyMatronsisfoundedasasocialserviceorganizationforwivesoftheprofessorsandadministrators.In1975thenamechangestotheMITWomen’sLeague.In1922TechnologyDamesisformedforthewivesofMITstudents.In1972thenamewaschangedtoTechnologyCommunityWives.In1986theorganizationopenedtoallwomenoftheMITcommunity,marriedornot.1916MITmovesfromBostontoCambridge,approximately1%ofthestudentsarewomen.TheMargaretCheneyroommoveswithMIT.

1920TheNewMargaretCheneyRoominCam-bridge

1923MITappointsFlorenceStiles(’23,Archi-tecture) to an unofficial post as adviser towomenstudents.ShebecomesLibrarianoftheArthurRotchLibraryofArchitecture in1931,PresidentofMITWAin1935,andofficial“ad-visortowomenstudents”in1939.

19345/5/34TheTechmentionsCleofanactivityforthelasttime.TheonlyMITorganiza-tionspecificallyforwomenstudentsvanishesfromtheMITliteratureanditisthreeyears


before a new organization arises in its place, the MIT Association of Women Students(AWS).

Left,193711/16TheTech

1938AssociationofWomenStudentsfound-ed.ConstitutionapprovedbyINSCOMM(2/11TheTech) 2/15TheTech,AnnouncedintheMITHandbook


ThenewAWSVicePresident FrancesEmery ‘39 is listed inBever (1976) [?] as FrancesGlennEmeryWypler,’39.1945MargaretCompton,wifeofMITPresidentKarlTaylorCompton,workswithMITWA,TechnologyMatrons,andFlorenceStilestoestablishthefirstMITWomen’sDormitoryat120BayStateRoadinBoston—over1.2milesfromtheMITcampus.Itprovides14beds(later20)andissupervisedbyaWomen’sAdvisoryBoard,nottheDeanofStudentsasareallother student livinggroups.TheoriginalAdvisoryBoard is chairedby thewifeof theMITPresidentKarlT.Comptonandhasonefacultywife—Mrs.LeicesterF.(Alma)Hamil-ton—alongwithfouralumnaeandonestudent.FlorenceStyleswasanex-officiomember.Mrs.MargaretAlvordisappointedasHousemotherorDormSupervisor,apositionshewillholduntilherretirementinOctober1957.Unfortunatelywiththenumberofalumnaeonthe Advisory Board will decrease and be replaced by members of the Matrons (facultywives). Stiles states that the dormitory should help improve the esprit de corps of thewomenstudents,andhencethegraduationrate—womenperformedwellinclassincom-parisonwithmen,butonly1in20typicallygraduated.

1946EmilyLippencottWickcomestoMITasaPhDstudentinchemistryfromMountHo-lyoke,whereshereceivedherBA inchemistry in1943andherMAorganicchemistry in1945.EmilyChoosesMITbecauseithasagoodchemistrydepartment,herDadisanalum-


nus,and it isnearRockportonCapeAnn,whereher familyhadspentmanyhappysum-mers.Shelivesparttimeat120BayStateRoad.1948Dorothy(Dotty)LeamanBowebeginsworkasasecretarytoProfessorF.H.Nortoninthe Metallurgy Department. She quickly expands her acquaintances beyond her Depart-menttoincludestudents,faculty,andPresidentCompton.Dottyadvisesstudents,coachesforexampreparation,connectsstudentswithfacultyhavingsimilarinterests,andbecomesfamiliarwiththeproblemsfacingwomenstudentsandbecomesanadvocate.Atthetime,womenstudentswereoftenignoredorharassedbysomefaculty,staff,teachingassistants,andmalestudents,bothinpersonandinprint.

The Hamilton Committee: 1950s 1951E.Francis(Frank)BowditchmovesfromapositionasHeadmasterattheLakeForestAcademy inLakeForest, Illinois, toMITas thenewDeanofStudentsat the invitationofPresidentKillian.BowditchreplacesDeanEverettMooreBaker,whodiedinAugust1950.TheMITdormitoryBakerHousewasnamedafterDeanBaker.On31July1951hesendsamemorandumtoparentsofnewlyadmittedstudents,whichbegins

AsyoursonbecomesamemberoftheM.I.T.communityinSeptemberasamem-beroftheFreshmanClass,Isincerelyhopeyouwillfeelyourselvesalsowelcomedasaveryrealpartofyourson’sexperiencehere.Thisofficeswishestoserveyouandyoursonsineverywaypossible.

Thelettercontinueswiththeassumptionthatallnewstudentsaresonsratherthandaugh-ters,yetBowditchwillhaveacriticalroletoplayintheimminentexpansionofthewom-en’sprogramatMIT.InAugustBowditchwritesKillianthathehastalkedwithDr.Hardyabout“takingcareofwomenstudents.”Dr.HarrietL.HardywasaphysicianwiththeMITOccupationalMedicalService,andBowditchdescribeshowDeanBakerhadtalkedwithher

about workingwith women students, it was his concept that she should serveprimarily asmedical consultant and adviser andnot act in the role of dean ofwomenstudents.Shehasperformedinthiscapacitybuthasnotgonemuchfur-ther, primarily because of a limitation of time. ... I believe we were both inagreementthatitmightbeagoodideatoaskmywife,Anna,toserveunofficiallyasdeanofwomen students, at least theundergraduates, for this yearuntilwecouldbetterfeelthesituationandmakerecommendationsfornextyear.

Thebizarresuggestionofconsideringmarriagetoafacultymemberassufficientqualifica-tionsforanunofficial“deanofwomen”isunfortunatelysomewhattypicaloftheapproachofMITat the timeofdesignating responsibility for thewomen’sprogram tounqualified,unpaid,andeffectivelypowerlessindividuals.Happilythiswouldsoonberectifiedtheap-pointmentofapaidandqualified—butstilllargelypowerless—staffmember,MissRuthL. Bean, as an Assistant Dean of Students with specific responsibilities for the women’sprogram.Killianacceptedtheproposalinareplyon13August1951,inwhichhewenton


to inform Bowditch about the existence of the Advisory Board for theWomen StudentsHouseandnamed themembers, includingMrs.HamiltonasChair, threemembersof theTechnologyMatrons, and twomembersofMITWAalongwith exofficiomembers— thewivesoftheChairmanoftheCorporation,thePresident,andtheDeanofStudents.KillianmentionedtheexistenceofproblemswithregardtothemanagementofthehouseandthatBowditchmighthaveheardsomethingaboutthemfromMrs.Hamilton.EmilyreceivesaPhDinChemistryatMITandbecomesaResearchAssociateatMIT,thenlatergoestoworkatArthurD.Little.1952The seeds of the Hamilton Committee are sown in an often quoted 24 April 1952memorandumfromBowditchtoKillianandStratton,withcopiestoFredFassett,MrsHam-ilton,andafewothers.Itreads

Asyouknow,considerationhasbeengivenlatelytoclosingtheWomen’sDormi-toryandmovingthegirlstothecampus.Atameetingthisweek,attendedbyMr.Snyder,Mr.Kimball,Mr.Fassettandmyself,itwasunanimouslyagreedthatanysuchactionshouldbepostponedforayearandthatweshouldrecommendtoyouthatimmediatestepsbetakentostudycarefullythewholequestionoftheplaceofwomenstudents,particularlyundergraduates,atM.I.T.The presentWomen’s Dormitory is inadequate in size (17 girls) and is too farfromtheInstitute.It istheopinionofmanythattheplace,program,andactivi-tiesofwomenstudentshasnotbeenadequatelyworkedoutandthat,inreality,wefaceoneoftwoalternatives:eliminatewomenstudents,atleastundergradu-ates; or decide we really want women students, plan an adequate set-up, andthendeliberatelygooutandgetmoregoodgirls.Everyoneseemstoinclinetothelatterview.DeanFassettiscurrentlygatheringdataonthehistoryofwomenstudentsattheInstitute,theirnumbers,records,etc.

DeanFassettisAssociateDeanofStudentsFrederickG.Fassett,Jr.,whoisresponsibleforstudentresidenceand later in1956willbecomeDeanofResidence. Iwell rememberhiserudite presence at the Inter Fraternity Councilmeetingswhere hewould oftenprovidequotationsinLatinthatwerelostonme.On21May1952DeanFassettsendsamemoran-dumtoChancellorStrattonreportingonadinnerhostedbyhimandhiswifeJulieforsev-eralresidentsoftheWomen’sDormat120BayStatewhichincludesaconcisestatementoftheproblemsat120BayStateRd:

IthinkthereislittlequestionthattheWomen’sDormitorypresentsafairlyseri-ousproblem.ItappearsclearthatthegirlswholivetherewanttheirdormitorytobetakenintotheregularresidentialsystemoftheInstitute.Thatistosay,theywithitsadministrationandsupervisiontobecenteredintheofficeoftheDeanofStudents. This desire presents possible difficulties in view of the fact that thedormitoryhasbeenandistheprincipalconcernofagroupoffacultyandadmin-istrative ladieswhoconstituteandAdvisoryCouncil.My impression is that it ispossiblethatthezestwithwhichtheAdvisoryCouncilworkedearliermayhave


wornoffabit,thattherelationshipbetweenthecouncilandthedormitorymayperhapshavebecomeroutinized.Asecondbasisofseriouscriticismappears tobetheattitudeofthehousemother,Mrs.Alvord,towardherresponsibilities.Onthis matter the girls spoke with considerable vehemence, although they werecourteousaboutit.Iamoftheimpressionthattheposthascometoberegardedbyitsoccupantassomewhatasinecure.

Dean Fassett also reports that thewomen express the desire that ultimately thewomenshouldhavealargerdormitoryontheCambridgesideoftheriver,suggestingthatitshouldhouseatleast100–200women.InaDecembermemorandumtoAllWomenStudentsatMIT,DeanBowditchannouncestheapprovalof

theappointmentofMissRuthL.BeanasAssistanttotheDeanofStudents.Inthisposition,MissBeanwillhavetwofunctions:1)ToadministertheFreshmanAdvi-soryCounciland2)ToserveasDeanforallwomenstudents.ThuswomenattheInstitutewillbedirectlyrepresentedintheadministrativeorganizationofM.I.T.forthefirsttime.

AlthoughMissBeanwill“serveasDean”andbereferredtoas“DeanRuthBean”ininternalandexternalpublications,infactshewillbeanAssistantDean,amemberofthestaffandnotamemberof the facultyandhenceher impactwillbe limited.At least it isanofficialandpaidposition.AnAssociateDeanwhoisafacultymemberandhasgenuineauthoritywill not be appointed for over a decade, and shewill be an outsiderwithno experiencewithwomenengineeringand sciencemajors.Bean, a graduateof SimmonsCollege,doesbring a strong administrative experience andwill prove to be a strong advocate for thewomen’sprogramduringhertimeatMIT.DeanBowditchconcludeshismemorandumwithalistofissuesneedingattentioninclud-ingthedemandfordormitoriesontheCambridgesideoftheriverandhousingforalargernumberofwomenstudents,athleticprogramsforwomen,bettercommunicationsregard-ingscholarshipsandfinancialaid,andimprovementsintheMargaretCheneyRoom.1953MITWAbegins a surveyof alumnae showing a strong success rate; 93%were em-ployedandactiveintheirspecializedfields[?].1954On6JanuaryDeanBowditchsendsamemorandumtoPresidentKilliantorenewandreinforcehisrequestforastudyofthewomen’sprogramandtheneedtochoosebetweentwoalternatives.Hewrites

IthasbecomeincreasinglyapparentsinceIhavebeenattheInstitutethattherewasneedforacompleteobjectivestudyoftheplaceofwomenstudentsattheIn-stitute.SinceMissBean joined theDean’sOfficeshehashad theopportunity togettoknowagreatmanyofthewomenstudentscurrentlyenrolledandtohaveafirsthandfeelofmanyoftheproblemswhichwefaceinconnectionwithwomenstudents.


TheWomen’s Advisory Board for thewomen’s dormitory is so constituted thatactuallythereisonlyoneactivepersonleftonthecommitteeandsheisslatedtoretireattheendofthisacademicyear.Itthereforeseemsparticularlyappropri-atewetakesomestepsatthepresenttimetomakeascomprehensiveastudyaspossible.MissBeanandIwouldthereforeliketorecommendthatyouappointthefollow-ingadhoccommittee, charge themtomakeastudyof theplaceofwomenstu-dents at the Institute, and to report to you their recommendations for a longrangeprogram.Mrs.L.F.HamiltonMrs.NathanielSageMrs.ElspethRostowMrs.LockhartB.RogersMrs.AlfredR.Wypler,Jr.DeanRuthL.BeanProf.JohnT.Rule,Chairman

Because this committeeplaysa central role inhishistoryand in thedevelopmentof thewomen’sprogramatMIT, itsproposedmembersmerit some introduction.TheproposedChairmanisProfessorJohnT.Rule’21istheHeadoftheSectiononGraphicsandHeadofCourse IX, General Science, General Engineering and ScienceTeaching.Hehad served asChairoftheMITStudent-FacultyCommitteeandasamemberoftheUndergraduatePolicyCommittee. In 1956 hewill replace Bowditch as Dean of Students. AlmaHamilton (Mrs.Professor L.F. Hamilton) had long served on the Women’s Advisory Committee of theWomen’sDormitory.Mrs.Nathaniel Sage isDorothyBlair Sage, thewife ofMITGeologyProfessorNathanielMcLeanSageJr.Mrs.AlfredR.Wypler,Jr.neFrancesGlenEmeryisanMITalumnainarchitecture,classof1939(CourseIV).Asmentionedearlier,shewaselect-edVicePresidentofAWSin1934.HerhusbandworkedforLibertyMutual InsuranceCo.and was not associated with MIT. She was active in AMITA leadership and would havemadeanexcellentmemberofthecommittee.Mrs.ElspethRostowisanMITAssistantPro-fessorofHistory (in1952 shebecame the firstwomanprofessor atMIT) aswell asMrsProfessorW.W.Rostow.Sheistheonlywomanfacultymemberproposed,butsheisnotanMITalumna.Mrs.LockhartB.Rogers is thewifeofMITChemistryProfessorLockhartB.Rogers.DeanRuth L. Bean is theAssistantDean of StudentAffairs, but neither a facultymembernoralumnaofMIT.Theproposedcommitteeconsistsmostlyoffacultywives(Hamilton,Sage,Rostow,Rogers),ofwhomoneisalsoanAssistantProfessorinhumanitiesandanotherhasexperiencewiththeWomen’sAdvisory Committee and theTechnologyMatrons.None of these proposedcommitteemembersisclearlyqualifiedtohavetheeducation,training,andexperiencetomakeusefulcontributionstoacommitteechargedtostudyallaspectsoftheplaceofwom-enatMIT.Onlyonemember,Wypler,isanMITalumna.DeanBeanisclearlyexperienced,butsheisonlyastaffpersonwithoutthecloutofafacultymemberandsheisnotanMITalumna.ProfessorRuleiswellqualifiedandaninfluentialfigureatMIT.In1956hewillre-


placeBowditch asDeanof Students. Strangely, however, hewill notbe appointed to thecommittee.TheMemorandum goes on, recommending that the committee be kept small and listingseveral names that could be added as possible consultants to the committee. Five ofthecandidates listedare facultywives (including thewivesof thePresidentandChairofthe Corporation,who is an ardent supporter of thewomen’s program) alongwith threedeans,includingBowditch.On9MarchPresidentKilliansendsaconfidentialmemotoPietroBelluschi,theDeanoftheMITSchoolofArchitectureandPlanning,suggestingthathis longrangecampusplanninginclude consideration formeeting the housing need for women students with an entiredormitory adjacent to thePresident’sHouse, possibly including otherwomen’s activitiesincluding the TechnologyMatrons and TechnologyDames alongwith the EmmaRogers,Alice Maclaurin, and Margaret Cheney rooms. The memo is copied to Provost Stratton,DeanBowditch,andDeanFassett.PresidentKillianreactstoBowditch’smemo,writingtoProvostStrattonon18March:

FrankBowditchsometimeagoproposedtheappointmentofanadhoccommit-teetomakeastudyoftheplaceofwomenstudentsattheInstituteandtomakerecommendationsforalong-rangeprogram.Iencloseamemorandumwhichhewrotetomeaboutthis.I have talked with him subsequently with the thought that we could best ap-proachthisproblemthroughdiscussionsinagroupwhollywithintheInstitute,and I ventured the suggestion that you might be willing to bring together agroupofrepresentativeofficersandfacultymemberstodiscussthisproblemandto provide a background for us to reach some administrative conclusions. TheappointmentofacommitteeincludingalumnaeandwivesseemedtometoposedifficultiesforitwouldbeacommitteenottoanswermanyquestionsaboutwhattheInstitutecanandcannotdo....

Killian’s recommendation against faculty wives seems reasonable, the proscriptionagainstalumnae is not — they are the ones most intimately aware of the fundamentalproblems.1955InJanuaryChancellorStrattonappointsacommittee:

ProfessorLeicesterF.Hamilton’14(Chair)AssistantDeanofStudentsRuthL.BeanSuzanne Z. Deutsch, TechnologyMatron’s representative onWomen’s AdvisoryBoard(Mrs.ProfessorMartinDeutsch)AssistantProfessor ofHistoryElspethDaviesRostow (Barnard ’38,MARadcliff’39,Mrs.ProfessorW.W.Rostow)AssociateProf.KennethR.Wadleigh’43


ProfessorHamilton,theChair,hasnoapparentqualificationsforthecommitteeotherthanhe is a facultymember and hiswife has volunteered for years for theMatrons and as amemberoftheWomen’sAdvisoryCommittee.ThecommitteeincludesDeanBeanandPro-fessorRostowasrecommendedbyBowditch.Deutch’ssolequalificationseemstobethatsheisafacultywifeandmemberoftheWomen’sAdvisoryBoardfortheWomen’sdormi-tory,mostofwhomarefacultywives.Stratton’sinvitationletterstoMrs.Deutch,ProfessorRostow, andDeanBean states thatHamilton had requested that each be invited to be amember.Wadleigh isa facultymemberandyears laterwillbecomeDeanofStudents.Asrecommended by Killian, there are no alumnae members. In hindsight, the committeeseemsillconstitutedtoaccomplishitsassignedgoals.Aswillbeseen, it failsratherspec-tacularlytodoso.Butitislikelynottheirfault,thereisnorecordthatthecommitteeeveractuallymet.InAprilKatherineHazen ’28,thePresidentofMITWAsubmitstheresultsofthealumnaesurveybegun in1953 toProvost Stratton.Over70%of the livingwomengraduates and30%ofthespecialstudentsupto1952hadresponded.ThenVicePresidentandProvostStrattonrespondstoHazen:

Thesurveyofformerwomenstudentscomesatamostappropriatetime,anditwillindeedproveofvalue.As I am sure youareaware, the Institute recognizes theneedof anewassess-mentoftheplaceofwomenstudentsinthisacademiccommunity,andwishestomakesurethat it ismeetingitsobligations.Thishas ledtotheestablishmentafewmonthsagoofProfessorHamilton’s study committee, and your surveywillclearlybeofgreatassistance.StrattontoHazen,4/14/1955

ThenextdayStrattonsentacopyofthereporttoHamilton,butunfortunatelysub-sequentevidencesuggeststhattheHamiltoncommitteeneversawtheextensiveMITWAsurveynordidHamiltonevermentionitoritsconclusionsinhislater“report.”

WomenstudentsFor some time this officehas felt theneedofan extensive studyof theplaceofwomenstudentsattheInstituteandforacloserintegrationofwomenstudentsintothewholeeducationalprogramforundergraduates.ThespecialcommitteeappointedbytheprovostandchairedbyProfessorLeicesterF.Hamiltonisnowatwork,and its recommendations should contribute immeasurably to thegen-eralwelfareofwomenstudents. from1955President’sReport

UnfortunatelyPresidentKillian’shopesproveoverlyoptimistic.1956JohnRulereplacesBowditchasDeanofStudents.Strongsentimentsagainstadmit-tingwomenundergraduatescontinuetobeexpressedinpublications,classrooms,rumors,letters, andmeeetings. Common arguments are the heavy attrition and poor graduation


rateofwomenstudentsand that “women’seducation shouldbe left to ‘specialists in thefield’suchasWellesleyandMountHolyoke”andRadcliffeandSmith,...TheHarvardCrimsonchimesin:

Coeds,EvenFewpeopleareaware thatM.I.T. isacoeducational institution. Indeed, toMostHarvard students, the idea of a feminine mind concerning itself with electro-chemicalengineeringorminingandmetallurgyseemssomewhatrevolting. fromMarch2,1956HarvardCrimson

6/21/1956MargaretAlvord, theHousemotherof 120BayStateRd,writes toHamilton,arguing that thewomen studentswould receive “amore roundededucationundermorenormalconditionsinanyofanumberofgoodcolleges...Theniftheystillareseriousaboutit, theycouldcometoM.I.T.asgraduatestudents.”Alvord thenasserts that “. . . if,asDr.Killianassertsinhisannualreport,wearecommittedtoproduceasmanyactivescientistsaspossibleandtomaintainthestandardsofexcellenceexpectedofus,thenthereislittleintherecordsofthegirlswhohavelivedinthedormitoryinthepasttenyearstojustifytheircontinuanceintheundergraduateschool.”Yearslatersheexplainsina1970lettertoEmilycommentingonEmily’s1970report[18]onwomenstudentsatMIT:

WhileIwasstillat120orderscamearoundIsupposefromKillian,forustotakeastandonshouldweorshouldwenotcontinuetohavegirls—andIfoundmy-selfindistinguishedcompany—ElspethRostow,DrHerbertHarrisandIoppos-ingundergraduatecoeds.WedrewsuchimmaturelulusnowandthenthatIfelta girl could get her undergrad work or at least 1st or 2 years just as well atWellesleyorHolyoke.

ItshouldbenotedforcontextthatcomplaintsweremadetoDeanBowditchregardingAl-vord’slackofsupportforandinterestinresidentsoftheBayStateRdwomen’sdormitory.SeealsoDeanFassett’smemorandumof1952toChancellorStratton.ItisnotablethatAl-vord years after the Hamilton Committee counts Elspeth Rostow among those who op-posedtheadmissionofwomenasundergraduates,yetshewasappointedtotheHamiltonCommitteetohelpproducearecommendation.ShealsomentionsDrHerbertHarris.Her-bertI.Harris,MD,MITmedicaldirectorandpsychiatristwrotethemostextremenegativeletterintheArchivesontheissueofadmittingwomenasundergraduates.Inhis7/31/56lettertoHamiltonhewrote:

. . .Thebusinessofraisinga familytakes fromfiveto fourteenyearsatamini-mum.During this time, had amale student had her place, he could have beencontributing profitably in his professional capacity. At this time,when there issuchashortageofengineers,onewondersifwearejustifiedintakingpositionsaway frommale students for female . . .With somuchconflictatanemotionallevel,itbecomesplainthattheirintellectualefficiencymustalmostinevitablybe-come impaired . . . I think that the presence ofwomen students in the studentbody has a definite leavening effect and their presence is almost universal-lywelcomed,Ibelieve,bythefacultyandthestudentbody.Myconcernisfortheir


ownwelfare,however,andnotforthepleasureandornamentationtheycancon-tributetoMIT.

Harris’letterstrikesmeaspoisonous,condescending,arrogant,andmisogynous.Alvord’s“distinguishedcompany”seemsanythingbut.ArgumentsagainstcontinuingcoeducationarecounteredbyreferraltotheMITWAalum-nae survey of 53–55 [1] and by AWS and otherswith statistics of successful careers bywomen MIT graduates in research, teaching, medicine, law, business, and government.Manyobservethatthegraduationandattritionrateswouldimproveiftheresourceswereprovidedtoimprovetheacademicandpersonalenvironmentforwomenstudents.Butthe-sepointsarenotmentionedinthearchivedfilesrelatingtotheHamiltoncommittee,onlytheinvited,negativecommentsdirectlytoHamiltonareincluded,andonesuspectsthattheso-calledreportignoresthem.On18September1956TheTechannouncesthatduringthesummerJohnT.Rule,Professorof Engineering Graphics andMIT Class of 1921, wasmade Dean of Students andMr. E.FrancisBowditchhasbeenappointedasaspecialadvisortoPresidentKillian.PresidentKillianeventuallygetsimpatientwiththelackofanyapparentactionandprodsStrattontoprodtheCommittee.StrattonwritestoHamilton

There isnowaverystrong feelingexpressedby thePresidentandby JackRulethatwemustcometogripswiththeproblemofwomenstudents,andarriveatsomeearlydecisions. . .Eventhoughyourreportmaybestillincomplete,mayInothavewhateverisready...IshouldparticularlyliketohaveanexpressionoftheviewsoftheseveralmembersofyourCommitteeonwhatcoursetheInstituteshouldfollow.Itisnotallnecessarythattheseshouldbeunanimous.10/17/56

Hamilton submits a confidential memo to the President, which becomes known astheHamiltonReport.No copiesof thismemoareknown toexist andmuchof theunder-standingofthe“report”anditsimpactfollowstheexcellent(butnoteasilyavailable)arti-clebyEvelynFoxKeller(1981)[27]:

...Thecommittee’sdeliberationscontinueduntiltheearlyfallof56,culminatinginareportrecommendingthatM.I.T.ceaseacceptingwomenstudentsasunder-graduates.Nocopyof the final report isavailable,but someof thecorrespond-ence affecting the final recommendation is. ...In retrospect, it appears that theHamiltonReportmarkedacrisis in therelationsbetweenM.I.T.and itswomenstudents.Thereportitselfproducedavociferousreaction.Manyweredisturbedby itsconclusions;evenmoreweredisturbedbythepicture itportrayed. . .Thechoiceswereclear:eithertodiscontinuetheadmittanceofwomenundergradu-atesortostrivetoimprovetheircircumstances.TheRecordshowsthatthefor-meralternativewasunequivocallyrejected,andgradually,effortswerebeguntoeffectthelatter.


Byatleastoneaccount,thereactionwassoacutethatallcopiesofthereportwereorderedburned. Onewondersifsufficientcopiesexistedtoproducea“vociferousreaction,”whathappenedtothemall?Thestorycontinues.Keller’sstorywasbasedonthe informationavailabletoherat thetime,butmoredetailsbecame available in 1986when the files onwomen studentswere transferred from thePresident’sOffice to therecentlycreatedMITArchivesandanotherstoryemerged.Therewas no formal committee report, Hamilton providedhis ownstatistics andhis own opin-ionsarguing thatwomen undergraduates have no place atMIT. Subsequent correspond-encebetween Stratton and committeemembers suggests that theywereunaware of thecontentsofHamilton’s confidentialmemo—supposedly representing the committeede-liberations.Icouldfindnoevidencethatthereeverwereanymeetingsordeliberationsofthecommittee.TheserevelationscanbefoundinMITArchivesAC132,Box18,WomenStu-dentsFolder innotesbyLorettaH.Mannix(LHM),Stratton’shighlyregardedAdministra-tiveAssistant:


Ihavebeenunable togetadefinitiveanswer fromthearchivesas towhetherornot the“restrictedfile”exists.Killian’sreactiontoHamilton’smemorandumisswift,writingtoStrattonon10/22/56:

1957On4FebruaryProvostStrattonfinishesafourpagedraftofanewpolicyonunder-graduatewomen thathasbeenapprovedby thePresident and theAcademicCouncil. [?]FollowingabriefhistoryofwomenatMITheraisesthreemajorquestions:

first,whetherinviewoftheverylargedisparityinnumbersitispossibletopro-vide a small group of women undergraduates with a sound environment forstudy inan institutionprimarilydesigned formen;second,whether itwilleverbeeconomicallyfeasibletoprovidewomenstudentswithfacilitiesforextracur-ricular activities comparable to those enjoyed by themen; and third, whethermeanscanbefoundforproperhousingofallundergraduatewomen.

ShortlythereafterStrattonanswersthesequestions:


After a great deal of thought and discussion a decision has nowbeenmade tocontinue to admit a small number of undergraduates, and to seek to improvetheirresidentialenvironmentandtobettertheiropportunitiesfordevelopmentintheirprofessionalfields.

The policy admits that improvementwill be slow and in the near future the number ofwomenwillnotbelarge.Theremainderofthepolicyjustifiesthepolicybasedonthetradi-tionsof the Instituteand itsduty tomake its resourcesavailable toall “withqualitiesof

character and intellect equal to the task.” Shortterm housing is described and the supervision ofwomen’s dormitorieswill become the responsibil-ity of the Dean of Residence. In the short term,BexleyHallwillprovidehousingforwomenunder-graduatesinadditionto120BayStateRoad.Strat-ton summarizes the policy at an informal tea forresident women students 4/24/57. A goal is an-nounced of eventually providing a new residenceon campus capable of housing all women under-graduatestudentsandsomegraduatestudents. TheTecharticle4/26/57 On5FebruaryStrattoncirculatesadraftstatementofthe policy to Dean Bean and Professor Elspeth Ros-tow, members of the Hamilton Committee, Prof. B.Alden“Bat”Thresher‘20—thedirectorofAdmis-si-ons at MIT from 1936 until his retirement in 1961,DeanFassett,andProfessorHamilton.Inhis5Febru-ary letters to Rostow and Thresher Stratton attrib-utes the arguments and statistics in opposition toadmittingundergraduatewomentoProfessorHamil-tonhimself,nottoHamilton’scommittee.BexleyHall is locatedat46-52MassachusettsAve-nueinCambridge.ItwaspurchasedbyMITin1939andconvertedtoanundergraduatedormitory.The33 beds in Bexley allotted to upper class under-graduate and graduate women students togetherwith the 18-20 beds for first year students from1958 onward constrained the number of womenadmittedasundergraduatestoMIT.Women students faced restrictions called “parie-tals” on hours and guests in their living quarters,which governed visitors and required signing inandout.Theofficialreasonfortheserequirementswasthemollificationofconcernedparents.


MargaretAlvordwritesDeanRuthBeanon27FebruaryannouncingherintentiontoretireinNovemberandrequestsBeantobeginsearchingforasuccessor.EmilyWickreturnstoMITasaResearchAssociate.

4OctoberSputnikislaunched;theshortageofengineersisnotedinthepress. 1958February25TheTech:“CoedsFightExpulsion From INSCOMM, Seek StatusasaGroup”INSCOMM removes AWS representationclaiming that “the number of coeds atMITissosmallastoinvalidateanyclaimof representation” An adjacent article“Tech Coeds: Play A Special Role” con-cludeswithLast spring, Chancellor Stratton said that,‘Womenareheretostay,anditisourhopetomake them feelmoreapart of theMIT

community.’ Tomany, itwould seem that the latest Institute Committee actionlackstheringofhospitality.

1959EmilyWickisappointedAssistantProfessorintheDepartmentofNutritionandFoodScienceatMIT.20womenresideinthe120BayStateWomen’sDorm.MITreleasesdocumentTheWomanatMIT[33]arguingtheneedforadditionalhousingforwomenstudents. JuliusStrattonbecomesMITPresident.1960The class of 1964 arrives, along with a fewtransfers from other schools, including JudithSelvidge ’62, the author ofI Didn’t Know They HadGirls atMIT(2014), a fascinating book providing asage viewpoint of a world-traveled young womantransferringtoMITasaJuniorfromtheUniversityofGeneva.EmilyistheonlywomanfacultymemberatMITout-side of Humanities. Emily’s formal responsibilitiesforMITwomenlayinthefuture,butbydefaultsheis


arolemodelandisactivelytalkingwithwomenstudentsabouttheInstituteandcareers.LeadersofMITWAconvincetheirfellowalumnaoftheneedandKatharineDexterMcCor-mick’04pledges$1.5Mforawomen’sdormitory.

[thedormitoryis]anunprecedentedopportunitytoadvancetheprofessionalde-velopmentofourwomenstudents.Womenhavemadesubstantialcontributionsto scientific and technical progress in the past . . . Women’s potential forachievement in these fields represents one of the great latent resources of thecountry. fromthe1960President’sReport

1961KennethR.WadleighbecomesDeanofStudentsinJuly.ThetitlechangestoDeanofStudentAffairsin1962.1962Sailingand fencingareapprovedaswomen’sclubsports,butwomenhadvery lowpriorityinusingMITathleticfacilities.1963StanleyMcCormickHallopens,attractingnationalpublicity.ManypeoplebelievethatMcCormickHall isnamedafterKatharine,buteven todaynobuildingatMIT isnamed inherhonor.

Left:Dedicationof StanleyMcCormickHall Right:Mrs.McCormick’s reminiscent remarksbeingapplauded.Fromleft:Mrs.McCormick,Dr.Killian,PresidentStratton,Mrs.Killian,Mrs.Stratton,MargaretMcVicar’64,Mrs.Compton

The first tower ofMcCormickHall houses about 125women,significantlyincreasingthenumberofwomenadmitted.120BayStateRoadandBexley cease tobewomen’s residences. Undergraduate women are re-quired to live inMcCormick orwith parents or closerelatives. DeanWadleighhiresRadcliffeAssociateDeanJacque-lynMattfeld asAssociateDean of StudentAffairs, re-sponsibleforthewomen’sprogram.Forthefirsttime,


a facultymemberrather than a staffmember is responsible forwomen students, whichnownumberabout248.TheMITCatalogmentions“up front” thatMIT isacoeducationalschool,eventhoughithasbeenacceptingwomensince1871,albeitinsmallnumbers.EmilybecomesthefirsttenuredfemaleprofessoratMITwhensheispromotedtotenuredAssociateProfessor.

Left: Emily in her office, Right: Talking with stu-dentsinMcCormickHall

1964EmilydecidestolearnmoreaboutotheraspectsofMITandsignsupfortheCommit-teeonStudentEnvironment,whereshemeetsDeanWadleigh.

DottyBoweisappointedsecretarytoDeanMattfeldwhenProfNortonretiresandshemovesintotheDean’soffice. TheAWS, headedbyMargaretMacVicar ’65 (BS’64), sponsors a national symposium “AmericanWomen in Science and Engineering” with CarolGustafsen Van Aken ’65 as chairman. MITWA,faculty members, and Dean Mattfeld providesupport.MITWAbecomestheAssociationofMITAlumnae(AMITA).1965“...from1965whenitwasanearthshatter-ingfirstoccasiontohavefiftywomenenrolledin

thefirstyearclass”(EmilyWick,TechTalk,3/28/1973)


The Academic Council again takes up question of women’s future at the institute, withsomefacultyandadministratorsstillregardingtrainingwomenundergraduatesasariskyventure.Aftermuchargument,theCouncilfinallyendorsesraisingthenumberofwomenundergraduatesto400,raisingthepercentagefrom3%almostto9%(butittakesyearstohappen).Mattfeld leavesMITinthespringforSarahLawrencetobecomeProvostandDeanoftheFaculty,latermovingtoBrownUniversityandthentobePresidentofBarnard.

AfterdiscussionswithDotty,WadleighchoosesEmilyWickasthenewAssoci-ateDeanofStudentswithresponsibili-tiesforwomen’sprograms. EmilyjoinsanothernewAssociateDeanof Student Affairs, future Chancellor,President, and strong supporter of di-versity—PaulGray’54Emily joins Dotty in Room 5-108 withthe intent of making it a Dean’s officewhich welcomes students at any time.The office is said to always be full ofstudents.“Between1963and1972,DottywithEmi-ly Wick were the women’s program atMIT.”[14] Dotty’s“goalwastoknoweverywomanstudent,andsheandEmilyhadanofficewith an open door in the corridor be-tweentheMainLobbyandtheHartNau-ticalarea,anexcellentplacetopopinfora brief talk, especially when comingfromMcCormickonarainyday,anden-

teringthebuildingat55MassAve(withtheanchors).”[14]1966AwomaninterviewedforanarticlereportsthatMITisvery“expensive, itwillcosther$1,700fortuitionand$1,130moreforroomandboardinMcCormick.”1967Womenare finally admitted to theMITAthleticAssociation, butnot to theVarsityClub.Laterintheyearwomen’ssailingandcrewaredesignated“varsityteams”retroactiveto1963,allotherwomen’ssportsconsidered“clubsports.”


Undergraduatewomen are finally permitted to live off campuswithout the requirementthat they livewith family, provided theywere over 21, or secured parental permission.SomewomenwerenotabletoliveinMIThousingbecauseoflackofspace,andsotheirliv-ingoffcampuswasnecessityratherthanchoice.1968McCormickHall East opens.MildredDresselhausmoves toMIT from Lincoln LabswithanappointmentasthefirstwomantenuredFullProfessorfollowingayearasavisit-ingprofessor.“Millie”becomesinvolvedwithwomenstudentsandbeginsdiscussionswithEmilyandDottyonadmissionspolicyandotherissues.EmilyWickispromotedtoFullProfessor.EmilyisthefirstwomanatMITpromotedtoFullProfessorfromwithintheranks.SheisthesecondfemaletenuredFullProfessorafterMil-dredDresselhaus.1969SeniorHousebecomesfirstcoedlivinggroupwith6women.Theresidencerequire-mentsformenandwomenbecomethesame—onlyfreshmenarerequiredtoliveinInsti-tutehouses.Allotherstudentsmayelecttoliveonoroffcampus.[18]ProfessorDanielNyhart,anexpertonfinanceintheMITSloanSchoolofManagement,re-placesWadleighasDeanofStudentAffairs.DeanNyhartdecidesanAssociateDeanfocusedonwomen’saffairsisnolongernecessaryandinformsEmilyandDottyofhisintentiontodissolvetheirofficeandtonotreplaceEmilyandDotty.

Epilogue: The 1970s and Beyond 1970InMarchEmilyWick submitsProposal foranewpolicy foradmissionofwomenun-dergraduate students atMIT[18] arguing that admissions requirements should bemadethesameforwomenasformen—inparticularthatMITshouldnolongerlimitthenumberofundergraduatewomenbythenumberofon-campusbeds.ThereportincludesahistoryofwomenatMITbackedbyextensivestatisticsonperformance,housing,activities,athlet-ics,andcontributions.Twostrikingexamplesaregivenbythefigureshowingenrollmentthetableshowinggraduationandattritiondata.TherecommendationisadoptedbyMITin1971,atatimewhen249womenstudentswerehousedoncampus.In SeptemberWick releases a shorter reportWomenStudentsatM.I.T.includingmany ofthesameideas[19].


Left, Total Enrollment of Woman Students1919-1964. Source MIT President’s Report1963-64

Below, Graduation and Attrition Rates forMenandWoman,MITClasses1960-1969


1971EmilystepsdownasAssociateDean.Room5-108closed.DottyispromotedtoastaffpositionandmovestoFinancialAid.Emilyrecommendsthatsomeonebeappointedtocon-tinueherwork.WadleighwritestoKillian10/20/1971that“Emilyplayedthekeyleader-shiproleinthesuccessfuldevelopmentofastrongidentityandcharacterforundergradu-ateandgraduatewomenatM.I.T.duringhertenureontheadministration.”Emily’s resigning asAssociateDean and the administration’s decision to not replace herresultsinastrongstudentreactionarticulatelyexpressedbyexcerptsfrom12/7/71LetterfromCarol L. Epstein ’72 andPaula F. Stone, ’72, toMIT community. Copies toTheTech,PresidentWeisner,ProvostGray,DeanNyhardt,...

ToMembersoftheInstituteCommunity:Wearewriting this letter inresponse to theretirementofEmilyWick fromtheDeans’Officeand the circumstancesand issues surroundingherdecision.Withthe demise of DeanWick’s office as of January 1,1972, thewomen students ofM.I.T.willloseanintegral,personalrepresentativeinthehigherechelonsoftheInstituteaswellasacongenial,intimatefriendwhoissensitivetotheproblemsthatwe,aswomen,mustcopewithinamale-run,male-orientedenvironment.To our knowledge, after consulting several faculty andmembers of theadmin-istration,nodefinitiveactionisbeingtakentoreplaceDeanWick.Theneedsandpositionofwomenat the Institutehaveapparently failed togenerateaseriouscommitment. We are concerned that unofficial policies will remain the same;that they will perhaps be re-examined and discussed, but that nothingwill bedone;thattheurgencyforourfullrecognitionasmembersoftheM.I.T.communi-tywillbeignored,andtheentirewhite-washed,appeased,andsilenced.A standard argument used against the establishment of a separate office forwomenatM.I.T.isthatwomenandmenareequal,thereforethereisnoneedforsuch an office.We argue thatwe are indeed equal, but thatwe have not beengrantedequality;althoughweareintellectuallyequal,therearepartsoftheIn-stituteinwhichwe(andourfriends)haveexperiencedpersonalharassmentanddiscrimination....Asof January1,1972, theofficeofDeanofWomenStudentswillbeempty,andwillde factohave been abolished . . .Wewould also like to set up an InstituteCommitteeonWomen’sAffairsatM.I.T.asaninvestigatorybodytolookintoare-asofconcerntowomen,especiallyinresponsetoinputfromthecommunity....

Thereferenceto“personalharassmentanddiscrimination”resonateswithcurrenteventsandSexualHarassmentofWomen:Climate,Culture,andConsequencesinAcademicSciences,Engineering,andMedicine,therecentlypublishedConsensusStudyRe-portbytheNationalAcademiesofScience,Engineering,andMedicine.[35]TheMITadministration reacts to strongoutcry,decides toappointanotherAdHocCom-mittee,thistimeanAdHocCommitteeontheRoleofWomenStudentsatMIT.


Meanwhile, Emily,Mildred Dresselhaus, and Paula Stone organize ameeting forwomenstudentsinJanuarytodiscussissuesofcommoninterest,buttheyforgettoput“students”inthetitleoftheflyeranddrawamuchlargeraudiencethanintended.1972TitleIXoftheEducationAmendmentsActof1972reads:

NopersonintheUnitedStatesshall,onthebasisofsex,beexcludedfrompartici-pationin,bedeniedthebenefitsof,orbesubjectedtodiscriminationunderanyeducationprogramoractivityreceivingFederalfinancialassistance.

ThefirstmeetingcalledandchairedbyDresselhausandStonedrawsover100women(andtwomen).ThemeetingincludeswomenfromallaspectsofMITlifeandraisesawarenessoftheneedsandfrustrationsofwomenatMIT.ThegrouptakesasanametheWomen’sFo-rumand begins regular meetings. Part of this group is appointed as the official Ad HocCommitteeontheRoleofWomenStudentsatMIT.ThecommitteeproducesareportontheRoleofwomenstudentsatMITbytheendofspring[25], converging at a speed almost incredible forAcademia. Its key conclusions and rec-ommendationsareindicatedbyafewexcerpts:

“A discriminatory attitude against women is so institutionalized in Americanuniversitiesastobeoutoftheawarenessofmanyofthosecontributingtoit.De-cisionsmay indeed bemade with no deliberate effort to exclude women— atleastat times—butpolicymustbe judgedbyoutcome,notbypronouncement.Andherewefindinadequatenumbersofwomenatall levels,mostsignificantlysoatseniorlevels.” Recommendations:•activerecruitmentofwomen•publicityaboutwomenatMIT•alumnaeEducationalCouncilorsinterviewingapplicants•departmentawarenesstoadmitmorewomen•asystemofwomenadvisors•morewomengraduatestudents•EmilyWick’spositionshouldbefilled

DeanNyharthiresAnneE.EllisonasanAssistantDeanofStudentAffairsinresponsetoarecommendationoftheAdHocCommittee,butthepositionisonlyastaffappointmentra-therthanthepreviouspositionofAssociateDeanheldbyEmily.Ellisonstillholdsthepostin1974–5,whenshewritesintheannualPresident’sReport:

Women’sProgramIwasamemberoftheCommitteeonEducationalPolicy(C.E.P.)subgrouponwomenstudents,whichmetsecondterm.Therewasanincreas-ingnumberofrequestsfromwomenstudentstoreviewthereportoftheAdHocCommitteeontheRoleofWomenStudentsatM.I.T.ofspring,1972,toseehowextensivelytherecommendationshadbeenfollowed,andtoexaminesomeareasindepththatrequiredmoreworkorwerenotexaminedintheoriginalreport.


The advisability of a new ad hoc committee was considered; however, it waslearnedthatProfessorLisaSteineroftheDepartmentofBiologyhadbeenaskedto chaira four-person subgroupof theC.E.P. to review thepositionofwomenstudentsatM. I.T.Thatsubgroup,enlargedto includewomenstudents,myself,andothers,metseveraltimesinthespringtoidentifyissuesandwillrecommendwhetheranadhoccommitteeisneeded.

Inotherwords,notmuchhashappenedsincethe1972reportexceptconsiderationofyetanotheradhoccommittee.Onthebrightside,thestudentsontheAdHocCommitteewinaKarlTaylorComptonPrize.

AwardpicturesEmily’sBullseyeBeaverII.EmilyWickreceivesaBronzeBeaverAwardfromtheMITAlumniAssociation,citedasan“advocateandmodelforagen-erationofwomenstudentsatMITfromahandfultoanabidingpresence.” 1973Emily leavesMITtobecomeDeanoftheFacultyatherundergraduatealmama-ter,Mt.HolyokeCollege.The Ad Hoc Committee Compton Prize isusedtofundawomen’sintercollegiatesail-

ingtrophyinEmily’sname.Aplaqueis“Presentedinappreciationforhereffortsonbehalfofwomenstudents”toEmilyatMITinJune1973byPaulaStoneonbehalfoftheAWS.Note:EmilybecomesthefirstfemaleCommodoreoftheSandyBayYachtClubinRockport,Massachusetts,in1988.MaryRoweisappointedasspecialassistanttothepresidentandchancellorforwomenandwork.InA Century of Women Students at M.I.T.(1973) ([20], Emily describes the accomplish-mentsandprogressduringhertimeasAssociateDeanofStudents.Whilenotingthepro-gressofrecentyears,sheemphasizesseveralremainingtasks:

First,theremustbemorewomenfacultyatbothjuniorandseniorlevels.Womenstudentsneed toobserveand to communicatewithwomenwhohavebeensuc-cessfulintheirfieldofstudy....Suchrole-modelsarenecessaryifwomenaretobeencouragedtoseekcareers.... Second,theremustbemorewomenstudents.M.I.T.—asaleadinguniversityinoursociety—hasaresponsibilitytoeducatethosepeoplewhosetalentscanbestbemetbytheInstitute’sresources....”


1978–1983EmilyservesasatermmemberoftheMITCorporation.2014WomenatMITfromMITwebsitehttp://web.mit.edu/fnl/volume/264/numbers.html

Notethelargediscrepancyfromundergraduatestofaculty!Amajorproblemingrowingthenumber ofwomen students in engineering is the small number ofwomen faculty of engi-neering.Toofewwomenfaculty,rolemodels,counselors,advisors!

Parting Thoughts: The Bottleneck Facing Women in Academic Engineering Muchofmyacademiccareerafter1980wasdevotedtotheissueemphasizedbyEmilyinher1973article regarding theneed formorewomen facultyasrolemodels.Granted thegreaterproblemisthelackofdiversityinmanyprofessions,includingengineeringacadem-ia.TherecentNationalAcademiesreport[35]providesextensiveevidenceoftheproblemscausedbyandthedamagedonebythisfailure,especiallyinthecaseofwomen.MyinterestbeganwithmyfirstexperiencesupervisingawomanPhDstudentinelectricalengineeringatStanfordbeginningaround1980,and increasedasover thenextdecadeandahalfmyresearchgroupgrew from0%womentoabouthalf. In2002severalofmystudentssuc-cessfullynominatedme foraPresidentialAward forExcellence inScience,Medicine,andEngineeringMentoring(PAESMEM),whichbroughtwith itaGrant fromtheNationalSci-enceFoundationwhichwasexplicitlyconstrainedfundworkintheareaoftheawardtitle.Thisledtotwoworkshopsin2004and2007organizedbymystudents, formerstudents,andmeonmentoringforacademiccareers,whichinturnresultedintwocoeditedbooks[36,6]basedonthepresentationsanddiscussionsattheworkshops.Theworkshopsand


booksemphasized facultydiversityatall levels. In lateryears Igaveseveral talkson thesubjecttobothtinyandlargeaudiences, includingtalksasadistinguishedlectureroftheIEEESignalProcessingSociety(2006–2007),atconferences,andatfacultymeetings.IclosethisarticleonthehistoryofcoeducationatMITwithafewglobalobservationsonthesta-tistics ofwomen in electrical engineering and computer science gathered duringmy re-searchonthetopic.Thedataproveddifficulttoobtain,andevenwhenIretiredtherewerefewreliablereportsavailable.Thefirsttableisfrom2002,anditwasusedformypresenta-tionattheworkshopassociatedwiththePAESMEMawardceremonyandatthetwowork-shopsthatresultedfromtheaward.Percentage of Women in a few EE/ECE/EECS Faculties in 2002 University of Delaware 0% UC Berkeley 11% UCSD 2% Penn State 11% USC 4% Stanford 11% Cal Tech 5% Cornell 13% UT Austin 5% University of Washington 20% Princeton 7% Duke 30% University of Michigan 7% MITwasnot includedbecause Ididnothavereliablenumbersat the time.Thenumberscamefromtrustedcolleagues,whohadaccesstointernaldata.Theintentwastocountonlygenuineregularfacultyappointmentsandnotvisitingandnon-tenure-trackappointments,which often inflated the claims of percentages on universitywebsites. Two points standout.Thefirstisthatmanyofthenumbersareabysmallylow.Manyexcuseswereofferedatthetime,whichusuallyboileddowntothecandidatesbeingunavailableortheinstitutionhadtriedhardbutfailedtoenticeminoritycandidates.Thenumbersalsopointedoutthattherewereexceptions,majorresearchuniversitieswhodidsignificantlybetter,usuallybyacombinationofactiverecruitingandinstitutionalrequirementsforfairandopensearch-es.TheUniversityofWashingtonwashighonthelist,largelybecauseoftheeffortsofDen-iseDentonMIT ’82duringhertimeasDeanandtherulesforsearchcommitteesthatshecompiled end enforced.Therewerenoquotas for appointments, but theirwere require-mentsforsearchcommitteestodemonstratediversityintheshortlistscompiledforinter-viewsandvisitsorexplainwhy.Thelitanyoflameexcusescommonatthetimeforrecom-mendingonlyclonesofthemalefacultywerenotacceptableandcouldresultinthefailureofthesearchrecommendationstoproceed.Dentonwrotethebook(actually,amanual)onfairandopensearches,whichiswellsummarizedby

It’sasearchcommittee,notanenvelope-openingcommittee. DeniceDenton

YearslaterIupdatedthenumbers.AgainIusedinsiderinformationItrustedtogetregularfacultynumberswithoutamplificationbynon-tenure-trackpositionsandsoft-moneyvisit-inghires.By this time therehadbeena thoroughstudyofengineering facultybygender[NelsonandBrammer(2010)[34]]forthetop50researchuniversitieswithabreakdownbyfields,sotheaveragewasknowntobeslightlybelow10%womeninEECS.Thesignifi-cant riseofCalTech (perhapsmadeeasierby the smallnumberof individuals involved)


wasremarkable,andshowedtheinfluenceofadedicateduniversityPresidentpromotingactivesearchesratherthansimplylipservice.MITdidrelativelywell,whichreflectsboththeinstitutionalpolicyandthefactthatitdrawsonitsowngraduates,anditspercentageofwomengraduateshasbeensteadily increasing. IoftenusedthistabletoremindStanfordthatinspiteofitsconstantclaimsofsuperiority,onthismeasureitwasclearlybelowaver-age. The addition of a single woman late in the year (increasing total faculty to42.5)pushedthemaboveaverage(8.6%showninthetablebelowbecame10.5%),whichisareminderofhowsmallsomeofthenumbersareandthelargeimpactofafewappoint-ments.2010 Data Institution % Women Total Faculty CalTech 19.2% 13 Duke 18.5 27 University of Washington 17.5 40 UCLA 13.0 46 U Wisconsin 13.0 38.5 RPI 12.8 39 MIT 12.0% 151 Georgia Tech 11.4 114 Texas A&M 11.1 72 Princeton 10.9 27.5 Purdue 10.8 83 Rice 10.0 20 U Michigan 9.8 71 UC Berkley 9.8 40.5 Top 50 Average (2007) 9.7% Cornell 8.8 34 Stanford 8.6 41.5 Carnegie-Mellon 8.2 49 U Illinois 8.2 85 Northwestern 7.8 51 NC State 7.4 54 U Maryland 6.8 62 UT Austin 5.0 68 USC 4.9 61 USCD 3.8 52 Therehavebeenandthereremainseriousproblemsofpipelineandpool,butthenumbersofwomenPh.D.’s havebeen steadily increasing,while thepercentages ofwomen facultyhave not reflected those increases. Worse, the number of women Deans, Provosts, andPresidentsremainsminuscule.Itisnotablethatevensmallincreasescanresultinasignifi-cant percentage increasewhen thenumbers are small, and that percentage increase canhaveanimpactwithmorerolemodels,morediverseexperience,andmoreeffectivefaculty,whichinturnwilldrawmorestudents.WhileMIThasachievedbalanceintheoverallstu-


dentbody, it isnot thereyet inengineeringand inseveralspecificengineering fields, in-cludingelectricalengineeringandcomputerscience.Arethingsanybetternow?Idon’tknow,Iretiredin2013,butforafinaltalkatStanfordin2017InoticedthatthepublishedStanfordstaticswere:

StanfordSchoolofEngineeringComparedto:UCSD5/52=9.6%↑Caltech3/19=15.8%↓UWashington17%↓ StanfordDepartmentofElectricalEngineering(actuallyit’s5/51=9.8%↓)


Somyown former institution seemsprettymuchstuckat around10%,although theyatleastnowhavewomenasDeanofEngineeringandProvost.Facultychangeseemstocomemuchmoreslowlythanstudentbodychange.Sohowisprogresstobemadeindiversityinfacultyatalllevels,includingtheuppereche-lons?Muchhasbeensaidandwrittenonthetopicduringthismillennium,butitisworthmentioningafewrecurringthemesthathavebeeneffectivelydevelopedbyafewinstitu-tions:

• Activefacultyrecruitingacrossawidespectrum.Inparticular,fairandopenandactivesearches.Abasicprincipleofoptimizationteachesthatthericherthepooldiscoveredinasearch,thebetterthefinalcandidates.

• Leadership must deal with residual and often unconscious bias, which oftenmeanseducatingsearchcommittees(whotoooftenseenoprobleminreproduc-ingthem-selves).

TheschoolswiththebestrecordshadactivistPresidentsandProvosts!

Creating a respectful, productive, and fulfilling environment. (Another leader-shipchallenge.)Lipserviceisnotenough.

Acknowledgements ThematerialdrawsheavilyfromthepapersofEmilyL.Wickinthepossessionofherniece,Laura Hallowell (Wellesley ’64),The Technique,The Tech,Technology Review,The MITHandbook,andtheMITMuseumandMITArchives, thearticlesandbookofAmySueBix,thebiographyofWilliamBartonRogersbyhiswife,thebiographyofEllenSwallowRich-ards by Caroline L. Hunt, and the old Web pages of the Association of MIT Alumnae(AMITA)beginningathttp://alumweb.mit.edu/groups/amita.old/esr/swallow.htmlExtensivediscussionswithSusanKannenberg,MIT’61,havebeeninvaluableregardingthe“Hamilton Report” and the environment for women students at MIT in the 1950s–60s.Manyofthecommentshereinhavebeenimprovedby(orreplacedby)hersuggestions.Thanks toclassmateEmmaRoot ’64 foremail conversations in theearlieststagesof thisproject.MostofthephotosarecourtesyoftheMITMuseumandTechnique,andmanyofthedocu-mentsquotedorreproducedarefromtheMITArchives.SpecialthankstoLauraHallowell,toDeniseWernikoff, formerProjectArchivistat theMITMuseum,andto formerClassof1964PresidentandTechniquePhotoEditorandEditor,BobPopadic.

References [1] The M.I.T. Coed — Then and Now, Registration Committee, M.I.T. Women’s Asso-

ciation, MIT Archives MC65. Published in The Technology Review, Vol. 58, No. 2, December 1955. http://alumweb.mit.edu/groups/amita.old/history/coed1955.pdf

[2] http://1964.alumclass.mit.edu/s/1314/2015/club-class-


main.aspx?sid=1314&gid=55&pgid=11879 [3] http://www.rle.mit.edu/anita-hill/ [4] Massachusetts Institute of Technology Twelfth Annual Catalogue of the Officers

and Students, with a Statement of the Courses of Instruction, 1876–1877. [5] Scope and Plan of the School of Industrial Science of the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology, Committee on Instruction of the Institute, Printed by John Wilson and Son, Boston, May 30, 1864. https://libraries.mit.edu/archives/mithistory/pdf/scope-plan.pdf

[6] Robert M. Gray, Sheila Hemami, Eve Riskin, Rabab Ward, Suzanne Brainard, Pamela Cos- man, Norman Fortenberry, Janet Rutledge, Telle Whitney, Eds., Mentoring for Engineering Academia II: Proceedings of a Workshop at the Banff International Research Station, Grayphics Press, Santa Barbara, 2007. Cop-ies may be downloaded at http://birs07.stanford.edu/

[7] Phillip N. Alexander, A Widening Sphere: Evolving Cultures at MIT, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2011.

[8] A. J. Angulo, William Barton Rogers and the Idea of MIT, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.

[9] Richard Gardner, A Women’s Dormitory for M.I.T., Bachelor in Archetecture The-sis, Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology, May 23,1955

[10] Slides: https://ee.stanford.edu/ ̃gray/TitleIX.pdf, video: https://vimeo.com/240171269

[11] https://ee.stanford.edu/ ̃gray/Stanford5-3-18.pdf [12] “The Cheney Room: MIT’s hidden gem,” Maggie Lloyd, The Tech, December 10,

2010, http://tech.mit.edu/V130/N60/cheney.html [13] Ednah Dow Littlehale Cheney, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ednah Dow Littlehale Cheney [14] Dotty Bowe and Her Legacy, alumweb.mit.edu/upload/AM/DottyBoweFinalAug2011

43411.pdf, MIT, August 2011, Sharon Cooper, Editor/Compiler AMITA. [15] Dottie Bowe Biography, Sarah Simon,

Ed., http://mitwomen.pbworks.com/w/page/21599475/Dottie%20Bowe%20Biography

[16] Robert Clarke, Ellen Swallow: The Woman who Founded Ecology, Follett Publish-ing Company, Chicago, 1973.

[17] Keep the Damned Women Out: The Struggle for Coeducation, Nancy Weiss Malkiel, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2016.

[18] Life and Letters of William Barton Rogers, Emma Rogers with the assistance of William T. Sedgwick, In Two Volumes, Riverside Press, Cambridge, 1896. Digit-ized by Internet Archive and available from the Hathi Trust: Volume I https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t8qb9wc7f;view=1up;seq=9, Vol- ume II https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t4nk3735f;view=1up;seq=7. See in particular Chapter Xof Volume II: “Establishment of the School of Industrial Science of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1865–1868, section titled “Women apply for Admission to the Institute.”

[19] “Proposal for a new policy for admission of women undergraduate students at MIT,” Emily L. Wick, March 1970, Laura Hallowell Collection and MIT Archives. https://ee.stanford.edu/ ̃gray/Wick 70 Proposal.pdf


[20] Emily L. Wick, The Women Students at M.I.T., September 1970, Laura Hallowell Collection. Available at http:ee.stanford.edu/ ̃gray/Wick9-70.pdf

[21] A Century of Women Students at M.I.T., Emily Wick, June 3, 1973. [22] “Women’s role at MIT cited” Sandy Yulke The Tech, V 92, No 6, Friday Feb 25,

1972, http://tech.mit.edu/V92/PDF/V92-N6.pdf [23] 100 Years of Women at MIT; Preliminary Report of a Survey of Former M.I.T.

Women Students, by Susan L. Kannenberg, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 1973. [24] “125 Years Ago,” http://alumweb.mit.edu/groups/amita.old/esr/swallow.html [25] “The Post War Years,” Celebrating 125 Years of Women at MIT: 1873-

1998, http://alumweb.mit.edu/groups/amita.old/esr/postwar.html [26] “The Ad Hoc Committee on the Role of Women students at MIT,” MIT Archives.

Sent to Dean J. Daniel Nyhart from Lynn Mahony for the Ad Hoc Committee on the Role of Women at MIT, 28 February 28,1972. See also http://alumweb.mit.edu/groups/amita.old/esr/adhoc.html

[27] Caroline L. Hunt, The Life of Ellen H. Richards, Whitcomb & Barrows, Boston, 1921.

[28] “New faces in science and technology: A study of women at MIT,” Evelyn Fox Kel-ler, 1981.

[29], The Women of M.I.T., 1871 to 1941: Who They Were, What they Achieved, Mari-lynn A. Bever, Bachelor of Science Thesis, MIT, June 1976. MIT Archives.

[30] “Feminism where Men Predominate: The History of Women’s Science and Engi-neering Education at MIT,” Amy Sue Bix, Women’s Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, No. 1–2, pp. 24–46,Spring - Summer 2000

[31] Bix, Amy, ”Supporting Females in a Male Field: Philanthropy for Women’s Engi-neering Education” (2005). History Publications. 13. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/history pubs/13

[32] Girls Coming to Tech, Amy Sue Bix, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2013. [33] I Didn’t Know They Had Girls at MIT, Judith Selvidge, Galois Press,

2014, www.MITDiary.com. [34] Stratton, J.A., “A statement of Policy on Women Students, 24 January 1957, re-

vised Febru- ary 1957, MIT Archives, AC134, Box 116, Women’s Folder. [35] “The woman at MIT,” 1959. [34] Donna J. Nelson and Christopher N. Brammer, A National Analysis of Minorities in

Science and Engineering Faculties at Research Universities: Second edition, Jan-uary 2010.

[36] Sexual Harassment of Women: Climate, Culture, and Consequences in Academic Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Consensus Study Report, National Acade-mies of Siences, Engineering, and Medicine, Paula A. Johnson, Sheila E. Widnall, and Frazier F. Benya, Eds., National Academies Press.

[37] Eve Riskin, Mari Ostendorf, Pamela Cosman, Michelle Effros, Jia Li, Sheila Hemami, and Robert M. Gray, Editors, Mentoring for Academic Careers in Engi-neering: Proceedings of the PAESMEM/Stanford School of Engineering Workshop, Grayphics Publishing, Santa Barbara, 2005. Copies may be downloaded at http://paesmem.stanford.edu/


RobertM.GrayarrivedatMITin1960andreceivedhisBSandMSinEEatMITin1966andthePhDfromtheUniversityofSouthernCaliforniain1969.HeisaStanfordProfessorEmeritus and lives in Rockport, Massachusetts, where he hikes, sails, and practices andteachestaichiwhenheisnothangingoutintheMITArchives.

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Business

Left, Cell phone application for depositing checks, checkingbalances, transferring funds and making payments. Todaychecksafterbeingreceived,existlargelyasimages.Paymentmethods abound, people shop on line, video conferencinghas replaced somebusiness travel, and customer service isoftenavoiceresponseunitoranartificialintelligencebot.BigDataisking.ForsomeGeorgeOrwell’s“1984”,lookslikea primer on the loss of privacy - except perhaps the loss ismoretobusinessthangovernment.Below,Cashwasking.Paper checksweren’t farbehindandhuman interaction dominated how people shopped, wereservedbyfinancialinstitutionsandconductedbusiness.ThisIBM 3890 check sorter introduced in 1973 could process24006”checksperminute.

54 | Business

How Technology Has Changed The Law Ronald Lee Gilman

The steady advance in technology since our class enteredMITinthefallof1960hashadagreatimpactonthepracticeoflawandtheartofjudging.Thisimpacthasmanifestedit-selfintwoprimaryways:(1)byincreasingproductivity,and(2)byraisingnewtechnology-relatedlegalissues.

Increased Productivity WhenIbeganmylawpracticewithasmalllawfirminMem-phis,Tennesseein1967aftergraduationfromHarvardLawSchool, the IBM Selectric typewriter was the technologicalmarveloftheday.IntroducedbyIBMinJulyof1961,theSe-lectric substituted a “type ball” for the old “basket” of indi-vidual type bars that swung up to strike the ribbon on thetraditionaltypewriterofold.Copiesweremadebyinserting

carbonpaperbetweenmultiplesheetsofregularpaper. Therewasnocomputerizedwordprocessingbecausedesktopcomputersdidnotyetexist(theywere first introduced in themid-1970s).Norwasthereaplain-papercopieronthepremises,eventhoughXeroxintroduceditsfirstcommercialmodelin1959. Themostinefficientlegalprocess,however,wastheold-fashionedmethodoffindingcasesonpoint.Inalegalsystembasedonprecedent,theresearchrequired(1)findingrelevantcasesbymanuallyreviewingtreatisesonspecifictopicsand/orsearchingthroughmassivelegalencyclopedias,andthen(2)laboriouslycheckingthemonthlysupplementstoaseriesofbookscalled“Shepard’sCitations”tofindanysubsequentcasesthatcitedthecasesini-tiallyfoundbytheresearcher. Allof thishaschanged in theworldof today.Withdesktop (or laptop)wordprocessing,plain-paper copying, scanning, computerized legal research, email, and the internet, thespeedoflegalresearchandcommunicationhasgoneintohyperdriveascomparedtothenon-digitizedworldofyesteryear. Legal research, for example, no longer requires the use of the roughly 2,000 volumes ofcase law and statutes in my chambers law library.The books are now solely forshow.Withonlineaccesstothelatestupdateofthesematerials,thereissimplynoneedformeormylawclerksto“gotothebooks.”Moreover,thecumulativecostsavingsofnothav-ingtomaintainfullystockedindividuallawlibrariesforhundredsoffederaljudgesacrossthecountryissubstantial.Inmyfour-statecircuitalone(whichisoneof12geographiccir-cuitsinthecountry),overonemilliondollarsperyearisbeingsavedbyeliminatingpaperpublications(yourtaxdollars!).

How Technology Has Changed The Law | 55

Thepervasiveuseofemailhashadanequallydramaticeffectonproductivitywithregardto communication between judges.As an appellate judge, I sit on three-judge panels tohearcases.Theotherpanelmembersaretypicallybasedindifferentcitieswithinmycir-cuit and beyond.Althoughwe periodically assemble at a designated courthouse to hearoralargumentsandthenconferamongourselves,thevastmajorityofourtimeisspentinour individual chambers preparing for the cases beforehand andwriting opinions after-wards.Wenowcommunicateby instantaneous email as opposed toold-fashioned “snailmail,”whichgreatlyacceleratesthedecision-makingprocess. Now ifonly thisclearadvance in legalproductivitycouldbematchedwithacomparableadvance in every lawyer’s advocacy and every judge’s decision-making abil-ity!Unfortunately,thepaceofhumanevolutionpalesinthefaceofthetechnologicalrevo-lution.

New Technology-Related Legal Issues Theothermajoreffectofnewtechnologyonthedevelopmentofthelawisreflectedinthetypeofcasescomingbeforethecourts.Yes,therearestillplentyofdrugbusts,bankrob-beries,employment-discriminationclaims,anddeportationproceedings.Butwhoin1960couldhaveimaginedlawsuitsarisingoutofelectronichacking,GPStracking,orFacebookdatamining?Infact,awholehostofnewtermshaveemergedintheEnglishlexicon,including“phishing”(a scambywhich an internet user is duped into revealing confidential information) and“malware”(malicioussoftwaredesignedtodisrupt,damage,orgainunauthorizedaccesstoauser’scomputer).Thentherearetheregulatoryissuesandsocialconflictsrelatedtothenew-fangleddevelopmentof3Dprinting(plasticguns,anyone?),cryptocurrencies,drones,facialrecognitionsoftware,automated license-platereaders(howabout60 licenseplatespersecond?),Podcameras(policeobservationdevices),socialmedia,andgeneralpurposeprogrammablerobots.Allofthiswillkeeplawyers, judges,andourlegislatorsquitebusyinthecomingyearsastheygrapplewithhowtofittheinevitableconflictscausedbythisnew technology into traditional conceptsof constitutional law,patentandcopyright law,criminallaw,andthecivillawoftortsandcontracts.Inmyownexperienceasajudge,IwasinvolvedinacasewherethedrugdealerobjectedtothepolicesecretlyinstallingaGPStrackeronhisvehiclewithoutasearchwarrant(theU.S.Supreme Court has declared this practice a no-no!).I was on the panel in another casewhereattorneysand journalists challenged theTerrorist SurveillanceProgramsetupbythe National Security Agency to conduct warrantless intercepts of telephone and emailcommunications that itbelievedwere connected toalQaeda (overmydissent, thepanelmajority dismissed the claimon thebasis that theplaintiffs lacked “standing to sue” be-causetheyhadnoproofthattheythemselvesweretargeted).Thesearejusttwoexamplesofhowmoderntechnologyhasraisedpublicpolicyissuesthatdidnotexistjustafewdec-adesago.

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Hopefully,arationallegalframeworktoaccommodatetheserecentdevelopmentswillhaveemergedbythetimetheClassof1964holdsits75thReunionin2039!RonGilman'64,HarvardLaw'67,hasbeenajudgeontheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheSixthCircuitsincehewasnominatedbyPresidentBillClintonandconfirmedbytheSenatein1997.

Technology Comes to Shopping | 57

Technology Comes to Shopping Conrad Grundlehner

Prologue It's2019andababyboomerissearchingfortheperfectweddinggiftforherniece.Usinghersmartphone,shesearchesforsuggestionsastowhatthatmightbe.Oncehavingmadeherselection,sheorderstheitemwithhercreditcard,specifiesthatitistobegift-wrappedwithapersonalizedmessageenclosedandsenttothebride-to-be'saddresswithexpediteddelivery,andreceivesanemailconfirmationwithatrackingnumberfortheshipment. Itwasn'talwaysthiseasy.ShoppingforconsumergoodswhenwewentofftoMITin1960wasquitedifferent.Peoplewenttostores,pickedoutwhattheywanted,oftenwithhelpfulclerks,paidfortheirpur-chaseswithcashandthencarriedthemhome.Specialorderswereavailable,butwere'spe-cial'.Creditpurchasesweregenerallyunavailableandfewmerchantsacceptedchecks,es-pecially those drawn on out of town banks. Some department stores and high-endmer-chantsallowedtheirgoodcustomerstobuyoncredit.Butcreditavailabilitywastiedtoaspecific, local store and only granted if the customer's name and payment record weregood.Themerchantsineachcityexchangedcreditinformationamongthemselvesthroughthelocalretailmerchants’associations.Theykeptinformationonconsumerswhichsome-timesincludedsubjectivejudgmentsonaperson’scharacterandassociations.Behindtheefficientshoppingof2019wasanewconstructwhichbroughttogethermanyelements.First,vendorsoperatingnationwideneededthemeanstoreachtheirprospectivecustomers.Next,ithadtobeeasyforthecustomerstoplaceorders.Then,thoseordershadtobedeliveredtoanywhereintheUS.Andfinally,therehadtobearisk-freewaytopayforthe transaction.This last capability –payment–was thearea inwhich Imadeamodestcontribution.

The Winds of Change TheMerchants.SamWaltonlookedatmainstreetUSAandsawnotanidyllicpictureofsmall-town life, but shopswith narrow selections selling overpriced goodswith unevenservice.TheWal-Martstoreshestartedbroughtaboutaradicalchangeinmerchandising.He locatedhisstoresfaroutsideof towncenterswithampleparking.Heworkeddirectlywithmanufacturers–manyforeign,especiallyChinesetostockhisstoreswithahugevari-etyofgoodsatappealingprices.Hewassooncopiedbyother 'bigbox'merchantssellingconsumer electronics, office supplies, athletic equipment and a host of other goods notgenerallyavailableinsmall-townAmerica.ThesocietalchangescatalyzedbytheFirstWorldWarandtheincreaseofspendingpowercatalyzedbytheSecondWorldWarcreatedgreaterdemandforgoods.Thisdemandcreat-edarelatedincreaseinthedemand,use,andpopularityofmail-ordercatalogs.Inadditiontomail-order catalogs retail brick-and-mortar shopswere becomingmore common and

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someof the first shoppingmalls inNorthAmericawerebuilt. Later, the internet tied to-getherallthreewaysofshopping. TheGolden-EraofMailOrder.The1980'swereacataloggoldenera.CompaniessuchasSears,J.Crew,Lands’End,Talbots,andL.LBeanwereallbankingincashwiththesuccessoftheirretailcatalogbusiness.Asretailstoresbeganpoppingupwithmorefervorandtheshoppingexperienceinthesestoresbecamebetter,buyingthroughmail-ordercatalogsbe-camemoreofa complimentaryactivity.Thisdidnotmean that thepowerofmail-ordercatalogsdiminished.In the1990's theretail landscapebegan tochange.Thecatalogbusinessesslowly transi-tionedawayfromacatalogheavybusinessmodel.Searspublisheditslastgeneralcatalogin1993.However,theypublishedseasonalcatalogsandcontinuetodosotoday.Youmightthink this change in landscapewasdue toadecrease inmail-order sales.Not true. Salescouldn’tbehigher.From1990 to1996mail-ordersalesgrewata rapidrate—?9.9%peryear.Toputitincontextthiswasabout2timetheaveragegrowthofin-storesales.The Future of Catalogs. There is a common misconception that mail-order has beenphased out givenwhat appears to be a high cost and poor return on investment.Manycompaniespulledtheircatalogsafterthe2007GreatRecessiontosavemoney,onlytono-ticeadramaticfallinsalesindependentofthedecreaseingeneralconsumptionatthetime.Butsomecreatedextremelysuccessfulbusinessexclusivelyaroundmail-orders,essentiallyleveraginga channel thateveryonehadabandonedbecause itwas “uncool”.Undeniably,thecataloghasnowbecomeahighlyundervalueddistributionchannelandisheretostay.Why?Takeamomenttoconsiderthedataonconversionandcost.AnalysisdonebytheDirectMarketingAssociationondirectmail(i.e.catalogsandflyers)havea1.1to1.4%responserate in 2012, considerably higher than response rates to email (0.03%), banner ads(0.04%),orpaidsearch(0.22%).Thisdifferenceissignificant.In2013theDirectMailAs-sociationfoundthat65%ofconsumersofallageshaveamadeapurchaseasaresultofdi-rectmail.Costperconversionischeaper.Withcatalogsyouneedtospend$47.61U.S.toland anorder. Youhave to spend $53.85 for email and $99.47 for paid search. Further-more,directmailisuncluttered.Directmailisfreefromthenoiseanduncomfortablecom-petitionforattention,especiallywhencomparedtothebombardmentofemailanddigitaladsuserscurrentlyexperienceonline.Thecataloghasaprofoundhistoryandholdsavaluableplaceinourhistory.However,itseffectivenessextendsbeyonditsnarrativeandmakesitapotenttoolforthefutureofmar-keting.PackageDelivery.Thesmallpackagedeliverybusinesswaswellestablishedearlyon.Bylaw,thePostOfficeDepartmentcouldnotcarryparcelsweighingmorethanfourpoundsatthebeginningofthe20thcentury.Privateexpresscompanies,whichhadbeguntoflourishin themid-1800s,delivered largepackages.Theestablishmentof rural freedeliveryhadprovidedaheadytasteoflifeforruralAmericans.Soonthedemandincreasedforthedeliv-


eryofpackagescontainingfood,drygoods,drugs,andothercommoditiesnoteasilyavaila-bletofarmers.WhenCongressconsideredenactingalawtoallowParcelPostservice,expresscompaniesandcountrymerchants fought longandhardagainst it.Ruralresidents,whorepresented54percentof thecountry’spopulation in1910,wereequallyemphatic inwantingParcelPost. In 1912, Parcel Post was established by an act of Congress. The ability to deliverpackagesinsuredthesuccessofcatalogsalesfirmsSears,Roebuck&Co.andMontgomeryWard.UnitedParcelServicebeganin1907asanalternativetoParcelPost.ThesetwosharedthesmallparceldeliverybusinessuntiltheestablishmentofFederalExpressin1971.FederalExpress' focuswasondeliverybyair; it later acquiredagrounddelivery company it re-namedFedExGround.Toll-FreeCalling.In1967AT&Tbeganoffering1-800toll-freeservice.Priortothat,mer-chants who wanted their customers to be able to contact them without paying long-distancechargeswereofferedEnterprisenumbers.Thesewere, ineffect,collectcallsandhadtobeplacedthroughanoperator.1-800offeredaneasierwaytocontactamerchant.Itevenoffered800directoryservice(1-800-555-1212).

Credit Reports The1960sandsubsequentdecadessawthegrowthofcreditreportingcompanies.Equifax,inparticular,grewbyacquiring thecredit reportingoperationof themerchant’sassocia-tionsintheSoutheastAtlanticregionoftheUS.TransUnionandTRWalsogrewthroughexpansion, Trans Union by concentrating on services to merchants in the Midwest andTRW by servicing the financial industry. In the process credit records were automated.Thesethreeorganizations,intheirearlydayswerenotalwayscarefulabouttheaccuracyofthedatatheykeptonindividuals.Asaresultofseveralhigh-profilelawsuitsandgrowingpublic awareness, in 1970 theUS congresspassed theFair CreditReportingAct (FCRA).TheActprotectedconsumers fromthewillfulornegligent inclusionof inaccuratedata inconsumercreditreports.Thethreecreditreportingcompaniesreceivedmagnetictapescontaining'tradelines', i.e.the payment history of each of their customerswho hadmortgages, car loans, personalloansfromafinancialinstitutionorrevolvingcreditfromamerchant.Theythenhadtoag-gregatethetradelinesfromeachcreditgrantortoagivenconsumer.Thiswasnotassim-pleasitmayseem;manynamesaresimilarandalltofrequentlytradelineswereassignedtothewrongconsumer.Therewasoneelement incredit reportswhichwasnoteasilyavailable to thecreditbu-reausandthatwaslegaldata.Legaldataconsistedoftaxliens,defaultjudgmentsandbank-ruptcies. The onlyway to get this informationwas from the court record rooms in eachcounty,andfromthefederalbankruptcycourtsineachstate.

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Thelocalcreditbureauswouldhireworkersonacontractbasistovisiteachcourthouseandmanuallycopythedetailsofeachkindoflegalrecord.Theywouldbepaidonapieceratebasis.Afterreturningthesheetstothelocalbureauthebureau'sstaffwouldaccessthecompany'smainframeremotelybyterminalandpullupthatindividual'screditrecord.Thedetailsofthelegalrecordwouldthenbeaddedtothecreditfileforthatindividual.Thereweretwoseriousproblemswiththisactivity.First,asmanynamesaresimilar thematchingprocesswasuptotheindividualoperator,whohadtomakejudgmentsresultingintypeIortypeIIerrors.Second,enteringlegaldatawasalowpriorityactivityfortheof-ficestaffresultinginhugebacklogsoflegaldatawaitingtobeentered.Thecredit reporting companieswerevery interested in receiving legaldataonmagnetictapesothatitcouldbeprocessedinamannersimilartothetapestheywerereceivingfromthe credit granters. The matching algorithms would be similar and under their control.And,theycouldmonitortheflowoflegaldatamoreeasilythanifitcamefromthelocalbu-reaus.Banks.Withmore knowledge about the creditworthiness of their customer, banks be-camemoresecureaboutissuingcreditcards.TheycouldnowobservetheFederalReserverulethatrequiredthemto'knowyourcustomer.'Therestillwasa'chicken-and-egg'prob-leminthatmerchantsdidnotwanttoacceptacardthatwasnotwidelyusedandconsum-ersdidnotwanttocarryacardthatfewmerchantsaccepted.TheBankofAmericabrokethe logjambymailingout60,000 credit cards to their customers inFresno,California in1958.Buttherewasadownsidetocreditcardsinitially.Banksmassmailedthemindiscriminate-lytobankcustomerswhowerethoughttobegoodcreditrisks.Theyweremailedofftoun-employables, drunks, narcotics addicts and to compulsive debtors. Thesemassmailingswereknownas"drops"inbankingterminology,andwereoutlawedin1970duetothefi-nancial chaos theycaused.However,by the time the lawcame intoeffect, approximately100millioncreditcardshadbeendroppedintotheU.S.population.After1970,onlycreditcardapplicationscouldbesentinunsolicitedinmassmailings.

Enter the Personal Computers and My Activities SincegraduatingfromMIT,Itriedavarietyofactivitiesofanentrepreneurialnature,mostofwhichwerenotsuccessful.ButalongthewayI learnedtoprograminCobol,BasicandFortranaswellaspickingupalotofpracticalbusinessinformation.MypartnerandIwerelooking for a data-based business to enter andwe learned that TRWwas unhappywiththeir legalrecordsvendor.Wemadeaproposalandwere invitedtomakeatest tape.AtthispointIbecameinvolved.IBMhadintroducedthepersonalcomputerin1980.Buyerswereintrigued,butlittlesoft-warewasavailable.IsawthatbysupplyingadataentryprogramthatwouldrunonthePC,I coulduse the installedbaseof themachines toallowahome-baseddataentryactivity.Manyhomemakerswithaccess toaPCwere interested inworkingpart timeathomeon


theirownschedule.Ipaidthemapieceratethatwouldallowaprofittome,asthecreditbureauspaidmebypiecerate.Iwasthusassuredofaprofitregardlessofvolume.SinceIworkedfrommyhousemyoverheadexpenseswereminimal.Igraduallyincreasedtheso-phisticationofthedataentryprogramtorejecterroneousdata(badaddresses,impossiblejudgmentamounts,wrongstatusdates,etc.)

The first portable computer used to collectcredit data: an NEC PC8201a. This allowed adata collectors to enter data directly at thecourtrecordroomsforcreditreports.IthenmovedmydataentryprogramtoaNECPC8201a,anotebook-sizedcomputerwithanLCDdisplayof80charactersby8 lines.This

allowed data collectors to enter data directly at the court record rooms, eliminating thekeying fromhandwritten forms.Byeliminating thekeyingcharge I further increased theprofitmargin.IthenmovedmydataentryprogramtoaNECPC8201a,anotebook-sizedcomputerwithanLCDdisplayof80charactersby8lines.Thisalloweddatacollectorstoenterdatadirect-lyatthecourtrecordrooms,eliminatingthekeyingfromhandwrittenforms.Byeliminat-ingthekeyingchargeIfurtherincreasedtheprofitmargin.Aboutthistime(mid1980s)IwasapproachedbythecreditbureauoperationofTransUn-ion,aChicago-basedbureauwhichservedcustomers in theMidwest.Theywantedtoex-pandintothemid-Atlanticstatesandneedafullseven-yearbacklogoflegaldatafromVir-giniaandNorthCarolina.Thevolumewashuge.Ihadabigrecruitmentjobaheadofmeaswellasgettingpermissiontogetthedatafromthecourtrecordrooms.Allthedatawaspublic,sotherewasnowaytheclerkscouldexcludeme,exceptbyarguingthat thepresenceofmycollectorswoulddisrupt theiroperation.One localcreditbureausuedtobeletin;thejudgedeniedthementry.Obviously,Ihadtowintheclerksover.Myapproachwasstraightforward. I told themthat Ineedednotacaseor twobutsevenyearsbackdata.Usuallymyrequestwasmetwithbug-eyedincredulity.AftertheygotovertheirshockIaskedcasuallyiftheyknewofanyonewhowouldbeinterestedinenteringda-ta forme.After thinking it over itwould usually comedown to they had a relativewhoneeded tomake someextramoney.My 'outlandish' requestmeant that cousinwouldbesittingquietlyinacornerkeyingdataintoaportablecomputer.Everyonewashappy.Myoperationproducedsomeinterestingstories.AcollectorinaVirginiacourthadtogotoanauxiliarystorageroomtogetoldrecords.Theroomwas inadingy, ill-litbasementofoneofthecitybuildingsfilledwithallsortsofoddstuff.Whileopeningdrawersinanoldfilecabinet,shecameacrossevidencefromanpastmurdertrial–glossiesofagruesomecorpse,vialsofblood,etc.Justthenthestrangemanwhosejobitwastocarryrecordsbe-

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tweenthecourthouseandthestorageroomsuddenlyappeared.Whensherecountedthisstory,Iwasexpectinghertoquit,butinsteadshesaid“IwassoscaredIwentbacktomycarandgotmygun!”InacaseinMaryland,Irentedacopiermachinetophotocopyrecordsfromacourthouseandaskedthefirmmanagerifheknewofanyonewhowantedpart-timework.HesaidhisteenagesonwasinterestedandsoIhiredhim.Thiskidcouldonlybedescribedasacallowyouth. A fewweeks later I returned to see how thingswere going. The boy said tomeaboutthethirty-somemarriedwomenintherecordroom,“Doyouknowwhatthewomentalkaboutallday?”Hegotaneducationalongwithajob.

The Internet Theinternethasmadeadifferenceinthepaymentprocess.Creditcardscanbevalidatedonlineduringthecheckoutprocessleadingtoaseamlessshoppingexperience.TheinternethasmadepossiblepurelyinternetbasedpaymentsystemssuchasPayPalandApplePay.IthasalsomadecharitabledonationsmoreeasythroughsuchsitesasGoFundMe.Theinter-netfurtherlettothegrowthofonlinemerchants–Amazonbeingthefirstbutthen'brickandmortar'retailersaddingonlineofferingsoftheirown.Theinternetdidnotreplacecat-alogsales;therearemorecatalogsbeingproducednowthaneverbefore.Truthis,thetwomedia complement each other. Furthermore, one sees print media (newspapers, maga-zines)advertisingwebsites.

Final Comments Allthesechanges–themalls,catalogandinternetshoppingledtothedeathofthedown-townmainstreetmerchants.Inmylegaldatacollectionbusiness,Iwouldoccasionallyvisitsomesmalltownthatitseemedthattimeforgot.Therewouldbeindividuallyownedstoresanddiners,notchains.ThefirsttimeIexperiencedthisIthoughtIhadgonethroughsometimewarpandwastransportedbacktoasmalltownliketheoneIgrewupinsomeseventyyearsago.In the55years sincewegraduatedeachofushas, in someway, contributed to thevastchangesthathaveoccurredinourlives.Itiseasytoseetheprogress;itislesseasytoseewhatwehavelost.Conrad Grundlehner '64,M.A. in Applied Economics from the University of Pennsylva-nia,istheretiredpresidentandownerofConradGrundlehner,Inc.afirmengagedinlegalrecordscollectionandsale.Aftergraduateschoolheconductedworkmeasurementstudiesfor theDepartmentof theArmyatFrankfordArsenal.Thenhewastheco-developerofatradingmodelutilizingmutual funds.After severalpositionswith theconsulting firmsofHayAssociatesandStrategicPlanningAssociates,hefoundedhiscurrentfirm.Heismar-riedtotheformerMariettaGuidon,aretirednephrologist.

Checks are Going Away and Have Been for a Long Time | 63

Checks are Going Away and Have Been for a Long Time Bob Popadic Banking 1960’s Style

Technique 1964 Business Staff in front of Bursar’s Office – Trying to cash a check afterhours?

Banking at the MIT Bursar’s Office Thebusinessstaffofthe1964Technique,theMITYearbook,ispicturedabovevisitingtheBursarsOffice–probablycouldn’tdothattoday.AsEditorinChiefIwasintroducedtohighfinance, being one of the folks who could sign checks that required two signa-tures.Believing systems shouldbe checked, apun intended,wewrote somechecksandsignedthemDonaldDuckandMickeyMouse.Interestinglythebankhappilypaidthem. Iwouldlearnlaterthatwhileitmighthavebeenneglect,itwasmorelikelyaconscioustradeoff of thepotential cost of a loss versus the certain cost of checking signatureson every

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small check.If youmadeapurchaseat a store, yes thebricks andmortarkind, youpaidwith cash, a check, or charged it to a store-specific credit account.If youordered some-thingbymailyoulikelymailedacheckaspayment.Ifyouplacedtheorderbyphoneyoumight have it delivered COD (cash on delivery).If the shipperwas not local to you thepackage camebyUSPS (United States Postal Service) orRailwayExpress.UPS,DHL andFEDEXwereall inthefuture.IcanremembertheexcitementofgettingapostcardsayingthesetofdishesIorderedformyparentsandpaidforwithapostalmoneyorderhadar-rivedbyRailwayExpressandtocomepickitup.

Cash Was King and You Didn’t Get it from an ATM Inmypersonal lifeasastudentIreturnedtotheworldofcash,nocheckingaccount, theBursar’sOfficewaswhereI’dcashchecks.Thesewerethedayswhen$10,000billswerestillincirculation–ifinflationapplied,avalueofover$81,000in2018dollars.Theyweretakenoutofcirculationalongwith$5,000and$1,000billsstartingin1969.If youmadeapurchaseat a store, yes thebricksandmortarkind, youpaidwith cash, acheck,orchargedittoastorespecificcreditaccount.Ifyouorderedsomethingbymailyoulikelymailedacheckaspayment.Ifyouplacedtheorderbyphoneyoumighthaveitdeliv-eredCOD(cashondelivery).IftheshipperwasnotlocaltoyouthepackagecamebyUSPS(UnitedStatesPostalService)orRailwayExpress.UPS,DHLandFEDEXwereallinthefu-ture.IcanremembertheexcitementofgettingapostcardsayingthesetofdishesIorderedformyparentsandpaidforwithapostalmoneyorderhadarrivedbyRailwayExpressandtocomepickitup.Times moved a bit slower them.No online ordering because there was no online; andthereforenoneedforsuitableonlinepaymentmechanisms.Sincefortheconsumeritwasa largely cash based world, how do you get cash from bank tellers that keep bankershours?Withdifficulty,sincebankershourswere35hoursaweek9-5andbranchesclosedevenearlier.Bankersneeded to get to the country club toplay golf, didn’t they?Checksneedtogettotheprocessingcenter.Partlythebankaccessproblemwasaddressedbypay-ingpeopleincashandbusinessesoftencashingchecksforemployees.If cash is king, why not dispense it from a machine? – No need to change banker’shours. Enter theATM (automated tellermachine, not asynchronous transmissionmeth-od).ThefirstATMintheUSwasinstalledbyChemicalBankin1969.In1970,therewere151ATMsintheUS.Thenumbergrewoverthedecadesdispensingcashandreinforcing“Cash isKing.” By2009 therewere425,010ATMs, dispensing cash andoccasionally ac-ceptingdeposits,butcashwasnolongerking.ThosemagneticstripedATMcardsdidnotbecometruedebitcardssuitableforstorepurchaseoruseonlineuntilthe1990saspointofsalenetworksbecameavailable.By2013about30%ofconsumerpurchasetransactionsweremadebydebitcards,morethancash.GeneralPurposeCreditCardsdidnotexistin1960.Therewerestoreandgascards(notnecessarilyplastic),which identifiedyou toa specificmerchant.Therewerespecialpur-posecreditcards likeDiner’sCard(started1950).BankofAmericastartedofferingare-


gionalgeneral-purposecardin1958;andstartedlicensingotherbanksin1966–remem-berCaptainAmericard,theirmarketingmascot?By2013about22%ofconsumerpurchasetransactionsweremadewithcreditcards.Thesharehavingdeclinedfrom28%in2000astheuseofdebitcardsgrew.

TheMICR lineat thebottomof the checkas ithasbeen since the1960s:Preprintedbankroutingnumber,customeraccountnumber,andchecknumber;andamountofcheckencod-edbybankoffirstdeposit. In1960,ifcashwereking,Checkswerenotfarbehindanddecidedlythedominantformofnon-cashpaymentandbusinesspaymentmechanism.In1960about13billioncheckswerewritten.As a student, I didn’t have a checking account,whichprobablywas thenormatthat time.While we were at Tech, check processing was still shifting frommanual pro-cessing machines to computers.MICR (magnetic ink character recognition) encodedcheckswere introduced in1959.These are the characters, then andnow,printed at thebottomofthecheckwhichidentify:thepayingbank,thecustomer’saccountnumber,checkamount, sometimes the check number.The first three are applied by the check printer,whilethecheckamountisadded(encoded)bythefirstbankreceivingthepapercheck.TheMICR character set has 14 characters, ten numeric plus control characters.The funnycharactersprintedinmagneticinkwerereadbymagneticsensors,whichproducedadif-ferentwaveformforeachcharacter.Hightechin1959.By2013theoncedominantcheckwasonly8%ofconsumertransactions,downfrom53%in2000.Checkswrittenbybusinessesandconsumerspeakedat49.5billionin1995.Theuseofchecksstartedtodeclineasapercentageoftransactionslongbeforethat.Checksarestillaround,howeverhavingsurvived-althoughinmuchsmallernumbers-theonslaughtofcreditcards,debitcards,ACH(automatedclearinghouse,abanknetworkforexchangingdebitsandcredits tocustomeraccounts) items,checkconversions,on lineshopping,andother indignities.Todaythere isevenaRDC(remotedepositcapture)appfordepositingcheckswithinmanyonlinebankingcellphoneapps.Besidestheeverpresentmarchoftechnology,theslowdemise,butnotdeathofcheckshasbeenaidedbychangesinthestructureandconcentrationofthebankingindustry.In1960therewerenobankswithanationalpresence.The“national”intheirnameindicatedtheyheld a Federal not a state charter.Bank branches of both federally and state charteredbankswerelimitedbystatelawsto:thestate(e.g.NewJersey),thecountyorotherinstategeography(e.g.Massachusetts),orasinglelocation(aunitbank,e.g.Illinois).Whowouldhavebelievedin1960thatamajorUSbank(BankofAmerica)wouldbeheadquarteredinNorthCarolina?Therestof thisessayexploresthe journeyofchecksastheyKeepGoingAway,butarenotyetgone.

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An Accidental Banker AfterMITIwentuptherivertoHarvardfortwoyearsofgradschoolandthenonactivedu-tywith theNavy.Iwas stationedat thegovernmentcontractingoffice inNewportNewsVirginia.We were the pilot for development for a program to determine percentage ofcompletionofashipandconsequentlythepaymenttothecontractor.Navalconstructionwas in transition.Traditionally you ordered a ship at prices thatwere almost quoted indollarspertonandcamebacktopickitupwhendone.Abitofanexaggeration,butNavalshipconstructionwasbecomingmoreliketheaircraftindustrywithweaponssystemsandotherchangesbeingmadeduringconstruction.Asaconsequencetherewasdesignwork,materialsordered,andconstructiondonethatwasnolongerneededandmighthavetoberemoved.Neitherthegovernmentnorthecontractorwerehappywiththedeterminedper-centageofcompletionandthepaymentderivedfromit.Iwasthelocalday-to-dayliaisonperson.Itwas1968andmyactiveduty timewasending,and Iwasn’t interested in the jobofferfromtheprojectcontractor(legalinthosedays),soaskedtheHBSalumniofficetosetupsomeappointmentsfrommeonatriptoBoston.HadonewithStateStreetBank,notsurewhyIwantedtotalktoabank,butitwastoolatetocancel.TurnedoutGeorgeRockwellconvincedmetojointhebankintheDataProcessingDivision,whichheheaded.Iwasre-sponsible for all admin except human resources and the management sciences depart-ment.Partoftheorientationfornewofficerswastospendtimeonallshiftsinalldepart-ments.Thatincludedaeveningwatchingchecksbeingprocessed.Backinthosedays,pa-perchecksstayedpaperthroughouttheirlife–fromdeposittoreturntowriter.Overtheyears, thatwas to changedramatically, as paper checks:wereno longer returned to thewriter,weretransformedintoACHitems,andconvertedinimagesbycustomers.Checksreceivedbytellersweretransportedtotheoperationscenter,mostlybytruck.Theamountwasencoded,keyentered,andprintedinMICRfontinmagnetic ink,thencheckswere sortedbasedon if theywere “onus,” drawnon thebankof firstdeposit doing theprocessing,orneeded tobe shippedsomeplaceelse.Someplaceelse couldbe: the localFederalReserveBankforeitherdeliverytolocalbanksormovementtootherFedsviatheFed’sprivateairnetwork;a localclearinghousewherecouriers fromdifferentbanksex-changedbagsofchecks;oracorrespondentbank(oftenbyair)forfurthersortingandde-liverytotheirlocalcorrespondentbanks.AtStateStreet,atthetimeweprocessedchecksanddidaccountprocessingformanyNewEnglandbanks.


The IBM3890checksorterwas introduced in1973andcouldprocess24006”checksperminute.ThisisalatermodelthantheoneIwasintroducedtoin1968. OnenightIwasintroducedtothechecksorters,whichmicrofilmedthechecks;puttheminpocketsbydestination;andupdatedtherecordsassociatedwiththepockets,includingcap-turingdataforpostingtoourcustomers’accounts.ThesortersweredrivenbyIBM1401computers,with16to32,000wordofmemory(enoughtoholdacompanylogotoday).Onememorable event was having the bottom of the sorter opened to show shreddedchecks.The percentagewas not insignificant, but later decreasedwith improvements intechnology.Todaymost checks never see a sorter -more about that laterwhenwe talkaboutremotedepositcapture.The“onuschecks”whichwerereceivedbytellersorsenttousbyotherbankswerestored,sortedbyaccountnumberandthenpairedwithprintedstatementstobemailedtotheac-countholder. Itwasquite a trick toget the rightpileof checks in theenvelopewith therightstatement.

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The 1970s Whileworkingatthebankinthe1970sIwasfirsttoldchecksaregoingaway,aneventre-peatedmanytimesoverthenextdecades.Thenumberofcheckswrittenwerestillincreas-ing,butcreditcardswereincreasingtheirshareofnon-cashpayments.Checksareindeedgoingaway,butataglacialspeed,asnewtechnologyhaskeptthemalive.

Clearing Houses, Networks and Devices Change Theseedsofchangeplantedinthe1960sstartedtomatureandnewseedswereplantedinthe1970s.Duringthedecadetherewasan increase inclearinghouses,networksandde-viceswheretransactionscouldbeinitiated.ClearingHousesareneededwhenasystemextendsoutsidetheboundariesofasingleen-tityandsettlementisneeded.AmericanExpresswasanexampleofasingleentitysystemwhereoneproviderhasbothallmerchantsandallcardholders.Checkclearinghousesareneed toenablemultiplebanks towork together, sinceonlya fractionof thechecksbankcustomersdeposittotheiraccountsaredrawnonothercustomersoftheirbank.ThefirstAutomated Clearing House for electronic itemswas formed in 1972, and by 1977 therewere32servingbanks,thriftsandcompanies.Thevolumecontinuestogrow.NetworksProprietary electronic networks already existed for ATMs.Multi party net-worksenablingclearingandsettlementcanincludedeliveryofchecksandotherfinancialdocumentsbyfoot,truckandplane;butusuallyinthebankingworlditmeanssomethingelectronic.ThegranddaddyisFedWire,whichgoesbackto1918anditsleasedlinetele-graphnetwork.SharednetworksemergedforATMs,creditcardsanddebitcards.DevicesThenumberofATMsreached20,000by1980.Telephonehadbeenusedforcreditcard authorizations in the 1960s.Non-voice authorization terminals emerged in the1970s.EarlyPOS(pointofsale)terminalsdesignedtoreplacesubmissionofpapercreditcardslipsemerged,butbytheendofthedecadethenumberofPOStransactionswasstillnotsignificant.AttheendofthedecadesomehomebankofferingswerestartingtoemergeusingcableTVandcomputers.Thestagewassetforexpansioninthedecadestocome.Duringthe1970screditcardusageincreaseddramaticallywithgeneral-purposecardsre-placingdedicatedmerchantcardsformany.ATMsproliferateddispensingcashandaccept-ing deposits in envelopes.Telephone bill paying was introduced in 1973.In 1975, theFederal government startedofferingDirectDeposit (anACHservice).Theseofferings re-ducedtheneedtovisitabranchanduseateller.Duringthisperiodcardsdisplacedcashandchecksformanypurchases.Atthesametime,manyemployersandbenefitprovidersswitchedfromcheckstotheuseofDirectDeposit,whichcreatedACH(automatedclearinghouse)items.In1980,checksdominatednon-cashpaymentswith34.0billioncheckswritten,comparedto1.3billioncreditcardtransactionsand239millionACHitems.


The 1980s and 1990s The1980s and1990sweredecadeswhere consumer adoptionof payments instrumentsthatemergedinthe1970sincreased.Thefigurebelowshowsfortheperiodfrom1989to2013,thepercentageofconsumerswhohadvariouspaymentinstruments.In1989about85%ofconsumershadcheckingaccountsand70%creditcards.By1999thereweremod-estincreasesinthepercentageofconsumerswithcheckingaccountsandcreditcards.Ontheotherhandtherewasadramaticincreaseinthenumberofconsumerswithdebitcards(over30%).Lookingahead,by2009accesstodebitcardswouldovertakecreditcards.Andanumberofnewwaystomakepaymentswouldemerge.Consumer Adoption of Payment Instruments, 1989–2013

Sourceof graph: ConsumerPaymentsResearchCenter.Source: 2008–2013 Surveyof Con-sumerPaymentChoice(SCPC);1989–2013SurveyofConsumerFinances(SCF).BANP–BankAccountNumber Payments,OBBP –OnlineBankingBill Payments. Vertical shading showsrecessions. By2000withstrongconsumeradoptionofdebitcards,debittransactionvolumewaswellonitswaytochallengingboththatofchecksandcreditcards.

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Consumer Initiated - Non-Cash Transaction Volume - 2000 Number Percent (Billions)Checks 28.3 53%ACH 2.2 4Offline Debit 5.3 10Online Debit 3.0 6Credit Card 15.0 28

Changes in Check Processing Up until the early 2000s couriers rushing tomeet operational deadlines was the norm.Checkswerepickedup frombranchesandATMsanddelivered to theoperations center,wheretheywereprocessedtomeetdeadlinesforpresentmenttotheFedandotherinstitu-tions. During the day customer accounts were updated.The cycle repeated itself everybusinessday.Overtheyears,checkprocessingchangedinanumberofsmallways.Imagingwasaddedtotheencodingmachines,so that insteadof theoperatorkeying theamounthaving to lookdownintoamechanismthattransportedtheindividualchecks,theoperatorsawthecheckenlargedona screenand from thatkeyentered theamount.Next camepowerencoding,whereOCR(opticalcharacterrecognition)wasusedtoencodetheamounts.Evenwithasignificantpercentageofchecksunabletobeprocessedautomatically,banksexperiencedprocessingsavings.Thefirstchangetothe“lives”ofpapercheckscameinthe1970swhensomefinancialinsti-tutions started offering “check safekeeping”,where rather than returning the checks thecustomer received a listing of the checks paid.Safe keepingmeant that if you needed acopyof thecheck, thebankwouldprovideone.Asaresultbanksoffering itexperiencedsignificantprocessingandpostagesavings.Not all customers appreciated the lack of returned checks.Banks respondedwith imagestatements,which includedcopiesof the frontsofchecks(andalsobacks forcommercialaccounts).Papercheckswerestillbeingmovedaboutuntiltheyreachedthecheckwriter’sbank.By2002businesseswereallowedtoconvertaretailcustomer'schecktoanACHitematthepointofpurchase(POP),andconvertchecks toACH itemsat lockboxes(ARC), subject tosome restrictions. These checks traveled nomore and the customer did not receive thecheckoracheckimagewiththeirmonthlystatement,onlyanitemlistedonthestatement,whichwhenconversionwasfirstintroducedoftenlackedachecknumber.ACHitemsaresubjecttotheirownsetofregulations,whicharenotthesameasthoseforchecks.


Forsometime,theFedhadbeenlookingatmovingimagesofchecksratherthanthechecksthemselves.While Iwas atArthurDLittlewe lookedat anumberof alternatives for theFed.Oneoftheissueshinderingreplacingcheckswithimagesinthecollectionprocesswaswhether an imagewasanegotiable instrument, subject to the rules and regulations thatapply tochecks.This issuedidnotarisewith imagestatements since the imageswereofchecksalreadypaid.Anotherissuewashowtomigratemanybanksandprocessorsfromthecurrentpaperenvironmenttotheelectronic.

2000s Poised for a New Set of Changes Phone,catalogueandInternetshoppingwasbeginningtoimpactinpersonshopping.Overtimethenumberofestablishmentsacceptingonlycashhaddeclined.ThePostOfficeandfastfoodchainswerenowacceptingdebitandcreditcards.Cardswerebeingacceptedatmobileandtemporarysaleslocations.Of29.5billionelectronicpaymentsin2000,5.3bil-lionwereofflinedebits,predominantlysignaturebased;and3.0billionwereonlinedebits.ATMcashwithdrawaltransactionshaddeclined.Loweredcommunicationsandterminaldevicecostweredrivingincreasedtrafficonexist-ingnetworkinfrastructures.In2001,totalACHtransactionsreached8.0billion,up16.2%from 2000, largely the result of business-to-business transactions. Poised to grow fromsmallnumberswereonetimeACHtransactions:Pointofpurchasecheckconversion(POP),accountreceivableconversion(ARC)atlockboxes,aswellaswebandphoneinitiatedones.The total number of checkswritten increased from 32 billion in 1979 to 49.6 billion in2000,butchecksshareofnon-cashpaymentsdeclinedfrom85%to60%.

Check Image Capture – Paper Becomes Electronic The Fed proposed the Check Truncation Act in 2001, which the Fed Vice Chair said“wouldremoveexistinglegalbarrierstotheuseofnewtechnologyincheckprocessingandholdsthepromiseofamoreefficientcheckcollectionsystem.”TheActdiedintheaftermathof911.In2003theCheck21Actwasproposedandpassedtakingeffectin2004.TheActprovidedfor:theequivalencyofimagestophysicalchecks;thecreationfromimagedata of substitute checks for presentment to banksnot yet ready to receive images; andprovidedforcheckimageguaranteesfrombankstootherbankslaterintheprocessing,in-cludingthepaying(checkwriter’s)bank.UnlikechecksconvertedtoACHitems,checkim-agesweresubjecttothesamecheckregulationsaspaperchecks.

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Exampleofasubstitutecheck–frontofcheck. Thestagewasnowsetforpapercheckstoceasetoexistatthefirstpointsomeonecouldconvert it into an image.And over time the list of ways someone could do thatgrew.Conversionofpapercheckstoimagesbeganatchecksortersatprocessingcenters,inpartbecausemanysorterswerealready imagingcheckselectronically for imagestate-ments.TheFedeliminateditsprivateairlinethatmovedpaperchecksbetweentheirpro-cessingcenters.Imagingreducedthetime it took forcheckstobecollected,andthusre-ducedfloat(valuefromthetimeacheckwaswrittenuntilithitthecustomer’saccountforpayment).Ifyoucouldconvertapaperchecktoanimageataprocessingcenter,whynotelsewhere?EvenbeforetheCheck21ActpassedZionsBanksubsidiaryNetDepositwasworkingwiththebank’scustomerstopilotcapturecheckimagesatbusinesslocations.Thehardwarein-volvedwasfairlyexpensive.Itwasadedicatedcheckscanner,attachedtoaPC,capableofimagingbothsideofacheckwhilemaintainingphysicalcontrolofthecheck.Thisassuredthatimagesoffrontandbackofthecheckwerekepttogether,andthussatisfyingthelegaldefinitionofacheck.

Medium speed check scannerusedtocreatefrontandbackim-agesofchecks. WithpassageoftheCheck21Actonly businesseswith substantialvolume could justify the equip-ment expense.At the same timebanks were looking to placingscanners in branch back rooms,

that could send images to theprocessingcenterand thus savemoneybyeliminating the


costlycourierroutesthatweredesignedtomeetprocessingcenterdeadlines.Asdemandfordedicatedcheckscannersincreased,newlowercostmodelswereintroduced.Thisen-abledplacingscannersattellerstationsandallowingbusinesseswithlowercheckvolumestodeposit checks from their offices.Thebenefits tobusinesseswere the ability tomakedepositslaterinthedayandavoidthecostofpersonnelgoingtothebank.In Juneof2005,BankofAmerica launchedapilotcheck imagecaptureprograminChar-lotteusingATMs;androlledtheprogramoutnationallyin2006.TheATMshaddedicatedcheckscannersbuiltin.Offeringtheserviceprovidedbenefitstoboththebankanditscus-tomers.PreviouslydepositsweremadeatATMswithchecksorcashplacedinenvelopesthatwere picked up, usually daily, and transported to the processing centerwhere theywereopenedby twopeople to confirm thedeposit amount,particularlycash, enteredbythe customer.Customers feltmore comfortablewith imaging thanwith paper envelopesbecausetheycouldconfirmthattheamountreadfromthecheckimagematchedwhattheyhad entered.Banks no longer had to stick to strict daily schedules to pick up depositedchecksfortransporttotheoperationscentertomeetprocessingdeadlines.ATMservicingcouldbemoreflexiblebasedonwhentheATMswerelikelytorunoutofcash.In2003my company,LighthouseConsultingGroup,developeda conceptualdesign for acheckdepositappliance,much likeapostagemeter, thatcould imagechecksanddepositthemwithouttheneedforaPC.In2005,wefiledapatentapplicationtitledUbiquitousIm-agingDeviceBasedCheckImageCapture,whichdescribedhowalreadyownedcommonlyavailablesinglesidedimagingdevices,suchasfaxmachinesandflatbedscanners,couldbeused for check imagecapture.Webelieveourpatentsapply toubiquitousdevicesnot inexistenceat the timeofourpatent filing,suchascellphones.Cellphoneswouldbecomethedominantmethodforconsumerstodepositchecksremotely.USAA(UnitedServicesAutomobileAssociation)startedofferingaflatbedscannersolutionin2006totheiractiveandretiredmilitarymembers.Itwasanaturalchoiceforanorgani-zationthathadfewbranchesandservedmembersallovertheworld.Earliertheyhadpio-neeredhavingdepositsdroppedoffatconveniencestoresfromwheretheywereovernightshippedtotheprocessingcenter.USAAalsobecamealeaderintheuseofcellphonesforRDC(remotedepositcapture), thenewnameforremotecheck imaging.They introducedmakingdepositsfrommembercellphonesin2009usingsoftwaretheydevelopedorjoint-lydevelopedwithMitekTechnologies.KeytotheUSAARDCofferingwastheiPhone.TheiPhoneintroducedmillionsofpeopletoapps,madetouchscreeninterfacesthenorm,andhadthemostattractivedesignofanymo-bilereleasedtothatdate.By2008theywerecapableofcapturingandtransmittingcheckimages.In2010ChasebegantoofferRDCandtherushwasonforbankstoofferthiscapa-bilitytotheirindividualandsmallbusinesscustomers.

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BankofAmerica’scurrentremotedepositcaptureapplicationshownherereadytotakeanimageofthefrontofacheck.Aseparatesteptakesanimageofthebackofthecheck.Theseparatelytransmittedimagesarepairedatbank’ssitetoformacompletecheck.TodaynearlyeverybankofferstheirconsumerandsmallbusinesscustomersacellphonebasedRDCsolution.Millionsofbankcustomersusetheircellphonestodepositbillionsofchecksperyear.

2010s Checks Continue Decline

Trends inNon-CashPayments,byNumber2000-17Source: the2018FederalReservePay-mentsStudyThegraphaboveshowsthatby2005debitcardstransactionnumbershadovertakencreditcardsandby2007theyexceededchecks.Withthebottomof therecessionpast in2009,creditanddebitcardvolumegrew,whilechecktransactionscontinuedtodecline.


Summary Inthe1960scheckshadverylittlecompetitionfornon-cashpaymentsandstayedinpaperform throughout their life.Checks were transported by foot, truck and plane, from thewriter’shand,throughthebankingsystem,tobereturnedtothewriterinitsoriginalpaperformcoveredwithendorsementsacquired in its travels.The firstprocessingchangewasthe elimination of returning paper checks by “safekeeping,” by some banks.The biggerchangecamewhenmanybanksimplementedimagestatements.Creditcardsandthendebitcardsnibbledawayandthenconsumedthecheckasapaymentvehicle.ACHitemsreplacedsomechecksusedfor:directdeposit,consumerpaymentsforreoccurringbills;andforbusinesstobusinesstransactions.Thedeclineofcheckswasfur-ther helped by the growth of online shopping, where checks could not be accept-ed.However, the data on the bottom of the check could be used to create an ACHitem.PapercheckscouldbeconvertedtoACHitemsatpointofsaleoratlockboxes.Soapaymentthatstartedoutasapapercheckwouldbesomethingelsebythetimeitreachedthecustomerscheckingaccount.Todaypaperchecksareconvertedtoanimagebythefirstpersonwhocan,includingtheconsumerusingherorhiscellphone.Paper checks are still printed, but hardly any are returned in paper form to the originalwriter.Ifirstheard,about45orsoyearsago,that“checksaregoingaway“andindeedtheyare…going.Sometimeinthefutureallthatwillremainofchecksisthenametheygavetoanaccounttype–CheckingAccount;andchildrenwillasktheirpatentswheredidthatfun-nynamecomefrom.BobPopadic’64Course6,HarvardMBA,spenthiscareerinthefinancialservicesindustryasabankexecutiveandconsultant,includingVPComputerServices,GeneralManager/EVPLeasing,VPCorporatePlanning,andConsultingPracticeLeader. .

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Science and Technology

Left,GordonBrown,headofMIT’sElectrical Engineering Depart-ment uses a take home lab kit –oftenreferredtoastoothpicken-gineering. The kit contained dis-crete components – transistors,resistors,capacitorsetc.–nointe-grated circuits which while wereavailable,butquiteexpensive. Bottom,AppleWatch.Inthe1950sand60sDickTracy,acomicbookdetective used a watch to com-municate.TheAppleWatchmakesit real and reflects the massiveshrinkinginsizeofcomputersandincreaseinprocessingspeed.Hardtobelieve,todayyoucanac-cidently throw out your laptopwithapileofmagazines.

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MoonshotDavidSaul

Introduction Moonshot.Theword evokes not only traveling to Earth’s neighboring satellite, but alsohas evolved into a dictionary definition of “an extremely ambitious and innovative pro-ject”.ComparisonstotheMoonshotforseeminglyintractableprojectshavebecomepartofour culture.People say “If we could fly to the Moon, why can’t we (insert big projectname)?”Forthisessay,IwillattempttodrawparallelsbetweenmyownpersonalcareerandMIT’scontributionstotheUSspaceprogram.MIT’sinvolvementwithNASAandthespaceprogramgoesbacktotheearlydaysofavia-tionandisinextricablylinkedtothesuccessoftheMoonlanding.IbelievethatdescribingtheMoon landingasa “mission” is importantbecause ithighlightshowhavingadifficultgoal,whichmanyconsiderimpossible,canleadtoagloriousresult.Weshouldnotunder-estimatethetremendousproblemsinpropulsion,navigationandlifesupportthathadtobesolved.Asalumni,weshouldbejustifiablyproudoftherolethatMITplayedinthesuccessofmankind’sfirstMoonshot.OnewouldhavetogobacktotheManhattanProject,whereMITwasalsoinstrumental,tofindahistoricalanalogyofsuchproportion.TheApollo11missionthatlandedmenontheMoonandreturnedthemtoEarthcelebratesits fiftieth anniversary in 2019.We all probably rememberwherewewere in July 1969when that occurred.Mywife, Susan, and I were inches away from our black-and-whiteWestinghousetelevisionforthatfirst“smallstep”and“giantleap”.Inthisessay,IhighlighthowtheApolloprogramcouldnothavesucceededwithoutMIT’scontribution.Inthepro-

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cess, Iwill alsodocumentmypersonalhistory leadingup tomy involvement in thepro-grambefore,duringandafterMIT.Idon’tintendthistobeascholarlydocument,butIwillprovidepopularculturereferencestobooksandmovies,whereappropriate,ifyouwouldliketobranchoutfromwhatIhavewritten.

My Early Interests IfirstbecameinterestedinAstronomyandtheplanetswhilestillinelementaryschool.Wehadanout-of-date encyclopedia at homewhere I couldnot get enoughof reading aboutthem,MarsandtheMooninparticular.Fortunately,planetaryinformationwasnotchang-ingverymuchinthe1950s.WestillconsideredPlutoasaplanet.InJuniorHighSchool,IdiscoveredScienceFictionliterature,abehaviorIsuspectIsharewithmanyofyou,myfel-lowclassmates.ItwasaclassicageforScienceFictionwithauthors likeRobertHeinlein,Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke and Ray Bradbury as well as a number of others whobridgedacrosstohardscience,likeWillyLey.IbecameamultipletimesaweekvisitortoourlocalpubliclibraryinBrooklyn,NewYork,whereItookadirectpathtotheScienceFic-tionshelves.WhenIcouldafforditfrommyallowance,IwouldbuyacopyofPopularSci-ence magazine and devour their imaginative articles about space stations orbiting theEarthorinterplanetarytravel.IreadeverythingIcouldaboutthenascentrocketprogramunderWernerVonBraunintheWhiteSandsProvingGroundandthetechnologythathadbeentransferredfromGermany.

Oneoftheclassictoyswhenweweregrowingupwasanin-expensive metallic gyroscope.You would wind a piece ofstring around it and pull to start the gyroscope spin-ning.The gyroscope would maintain its orientation, whentilted,basedontheprinciplethatangularmomentumchang-esinthedirectionoftorque.Whowouldhavethoughtatthetime that a children’s toywouldbe the scientific basis thatmadeinterplanetarynavigationpossible?IwasacceptedintoStuyvesantHighSchoolinNewYorkCity,butattendedforonlyoneweekbeforemyFather’sbusiness

relocatedtoSt.ThomasintheVirginIslands.Itwasquiteacultureshocktomoveintoanisolated environment without television and a library sorely lacking in Science Fictionbooks.I trulybelieve that ledme to focusonstudyingandcreating theacademic recordthathelpedmegetadmittedtoMIT.

My Path to MIT The launchof Sputnik inOctober, 1957, solidifiedmy commitment to studyaeronauticalengineering.HowtheRussianscouldhaveleapfroggedUSAtechnologywasashocktome,aswellastotheUSGovernment.ItclearlyhelpedprovidefocusandfundingforthefirstUSsatellitesandayearlatertotheestablishmentofProjectMercury.Thenamesofthosefirst“astronauts”,Shepard,Glenn,Grissom,etal,arewellknown.TomWolfe’sbook,TheRightStuff,isanexcellentnon-fictionnovelfrom1979aboutthemandwasadaptedasamoviein1983.Later,whileatMIT,wehadnewerastronautsinourclassesandIcouldstillseesome


of theirmaverick characteristics that had been captured inTheRight Stuff.In 2001, theMITNewsOfficepublishedafulllistofthethirty-oneastronautswhohadbeeneducatedatthe Institute, including the second human to set foot on the Moon, Buzz Aldrin.http://news.mit.edu/2001/commnasalist-0606.Mycollegesearchwasnarrowlyfocusedonschoolswithleadingtechnologyprograms.MITtoppedthelist.IstillhadfamilyinNewYorkCityandtheywantedmesomewherecloser,butmymindwasset.WhenIreceivedmyMITacceptanceIcouldnotwaittoreply.Ihadnotvisitedanycollegesbeforeapplyingduetomydistantlocation.ThefirsttimeIsawMITwasin1960frommytaxitravelingfromBackBaytrainstationtoBakerHouse.Notsur-prisingly,thetaxidriverhadtroublefindingBakerHouse’srearentrance,knowingonlyitsMemorial Drive address.Future generations, confident in their GPS devices, don’t havethatproblem.AtMIT,forthefirsttime,IwaswithotherswhoenjoyedthesameinterestsIdidandwhoreveledinbeingscienceandengineeringgeeks.ThatisnottosaythatthepaceoflearningatMITwasnotashock.Thephrase“drinkingfromafirehose”becamereality.ButIknewIwasattherightplace.

At MIT After freshman year, I selected Course 16, renamed Aeronautics and Astronautics fromAeronauticalEngineering,asmymajor.Thedepartmentwastransitioningfromanalogtodigitaltechnology,providingmyfirstexposuretocomputers.Ididnotrealizeatthetimehowdigitaltechnologywouldcometodominatenotjustmystudiesbutcreateanindustryandrevolutionizetheworld’seconomy.Simultaneously,in1961,AlanShepardbecamethefirstMercuryastronauttofly.ManyofusbecamedevoteesoftheBakerHouseTVroomtowatch those launches.In1962, JohnGlennbecame the first astronaut toorbit theEarth,although Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin had accomplished this milestone first, tenmonthsearlier.InMay1961,shortlyafterJohnGlenn’ssingleorbitoftheEarth,PresidentJohnF.KennedyannouncedthemissioninaspeechtoaJointSessionofCongress:“First,Ibelievethatthisnationshouldcommititselftoachievingthegoal,beforethisdecadeisout,oflandingamanonthemoonandreturninghimsafelytotheEarth”.Itissafetosaythatmostofthetechnicalproblemsneededtocompletethisgoalwerestillunsolved.TheApol-loprogramhadbeenbornandMITwouldbecriticaltoitssuccess,particularlytosolvethenavigationproblem.Navigationatthedegreeofaccuracyandprecisionrequiredhadneverbeenattemptedbeforeandhistoricalmethods(compass,sextant,etc.)clearlycouldnotbeused beyond theEarth’s surface.Inertial navigation,whichMITpioneered,was the onlysolution.MyFathercametovisitMITforthefirsttimeduringmysophomoreyear.AsIremember,itwasadaydesignedforparents.AftermyclassesImetupwithmyDadandaskedhimwhathehadthoughtoftheday.HehadbeenimpressedbythefacilitiesinBuilding33andthevariouspresentationsbythefaculty.Buthedidcommentonacrazymanwearingabowtie who had talked about flying a man to the Moon.It had been our department head,Charles StarkDraper,who everyone referred to as “DocDraper”.ClearlymyFatherwas

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reflectingthecommonbeliefsofhisgeneration,bornshortlyaftertheWrightBrothersfirstflight, that interplanetary travelwas science fiction.ManyMIT faculty, staff and studentscontributed to the Moonshot, but Doc Draper is the single most important individu-al.WithouthisvisionandleadershipMIT’sroleinprovidingthenavigationsystemswouldnothavehappened.DocDraperwasapilothimselfwhopioneeredinertialnavigationwithairplanes.Irememberseeingagrainyblackandwhitefilmofanearlyinstrumentlandingusinghisinertialnavigationequipmentwherethecockpithadacanvascoverdrawnoveritto block out the pilot’s view.In 2016 MIT did a short video tribute to Doc Draperat:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=do2vBKe20GQ.

Technology Developed for the Moon Landing With the Gemini program, NASA started to build the capabilities necessary to sustain aMoonmission.Weneededtodiscovertheeffectsofprolongedweightlessnessonthehu-manbodyandwhetherastronautscouldworkoutsideinspace,leadingtothefirst“spacewalks”.MercuryandGeminiwerebothbasedonmilitaryrockets,whereasamoonmissionwould require a propulsion vehicle far more powerful than anything ever built be-fore.WhileIwasagraduatestudentatMIT,theAerodepartmentarrangedatriptoCapeCanaveralforoneofourclasses.WeflewdownonamilitaryflightfromHanscomAFBandweretakenonatourofthefacility.WegottoseethebuildingwhichhousedtheSaturnVrocketthatwouldeventuallyliftApollooffintospaceandwereawedbyitssheersize.Thatnight,wegottowitnessarocketlaunchfromthecontrolroom.Eventhoughwewerein-doors,IstillrememberitasoneoftheloudestsoundsIhaveeverheard.

In 1961, MIT Aero alumnus, Professor and then NASADeputyAdministrator,Robert Seamans, awarded toMITthecontracttodesigntheApolloguidance,navigationandcontrol system.This included theApolloGuidanceCom-puter.By today’s standards, the Apollo Guidance Com-puterwasprimitive.Itwasa16-bitwordcomputer thatlimited itsprecisionto lessthanthatof the24-bitscien-tific computers then in use.But memory constraintswere its biggest handicap.The original design had only4K words of core rope memory, a variation on morecommonmagnetic corememory.As NASA continued toaddfunctionsforthecomputertoperformmemoryeven-

tuallygrewto36K,still tinybymodernstandards.RaytheonwaschosentomanufacturetheApolloGuidanceComputerbasedontheirpriorPolarismissileexperience.Thatefforthadbeenmuch lesscomplexand leftRaytheonwithabigchallengetomeet.Thereweretwo computers on board, one each in the Command Module (CM) and Lunar Module(LM).The user interface keypad and displaywereminimal due to size andweight con-straints.Ihad theopportunity toworkononeof theground-basedguidanceprojectsatMIT’s In-strumentation Lab duringmy senior year.Instrumentation Lab has since been renamedDraperLabsinhonorofDocDraperandcontinuesasamajorgovernmentcontractor.


Biennially since1989, theUSNationalAcademyofEngineeringawards one of the world’s preeminent awards for engineeringachievement, open to all engineering disciplines, theCharlesStarkDraper Prize. Ithonors an engineer whose accomplish-menthassignificantlyimpactedsocietybyimprovingthequalityoflife,providingtheabilitytolivefreelyandcomfortably,and/orpermitting the access to information.The recipient receives a$500,000 cashawardand is oneof threeprizes that constitutethe“NobelPrizesofEngineering”.In2007itwasawardedtoSir

TimBerners-Lee,nowatMIT,forinventingtheWorldWideWeb,whichishavingitsthirti-ethanniversarythisyear.IamsurethatMITcontributedtomannedspaceflightinmanyotherdisciplinesinwhichIdidnotparticipate.These includematerialsscience,humanbiologyandthemanagementsciencesofrunningamassive,distributeddevelopmenteffort.

After Graduation MyfirstjobafterMITwasatIBMinCambridge,justtwoRedLinestopsaway.ThatIBMofficesupportedUSFed-eralgovernmentcustomersandmyfirstassignmentwasatMITREinBedford.Soonafterthatproject,IwasbackinCambridgeworkingwiththeNASACenterinTechnol-ogySquare.AspartoftheIBMsupportteam,myexperi-enceatMIT’sInstrumentationLabhadwellpreparedmeformysmallcontribution,programmingaportionoftheApollo ground controller computer.I even got to gobacktotheirCambridgeParkwaylocationwherepeopleweresurprisedtoseemereturn.Ambitious projects show their truemettle in how theyrespond to setbacks.For the Moon mission, the tragicApollo1 fire in1967was thebiggest test.Theways inwhichNASArespondedandcorrectedthefaultsthathad

ledtotheaccidentweretrulyremarkable.DesignchangestomoveawayfromapureOxy-gen environment that had accelerated the firewere accompanied by process changes inmanufacturingandqualitycontrol.ThatApollo7wasabletovalidate“manrating”in1968wasproofofthechangespositiveeffect.TheambitiousaccelerationoftheprogramwouldresultinariskybutaweinspiringresultwhenApollo8flewbeforeyear-end1968.

Apollo NASAshowedtheyweretrulybackoncoursewhenApollo8circumnavigatedtheMoonatChristmastime1968.Apollo8wasthefirstmannedspacecrafttoleaveEarth’sgravitation-al fieldandorbit theMoon.Thephotographs thatastronautsBorman,LovellandAnders

Moonshot| 83

tookchangedourperceptionoftheEarth.WhentheyreadfromGenesisonChristmasEveitwasimpossiblenottobemovedemotionally.

Apollo8andEarthriseThesuccessfulMoonlandinginJuly1969hasbeenwelldocumentedincludingaNeilArm-strongfocusedmovielastyear,FirstMan,availablefromAmazon.Itdidagoodjobofhigh-lighting just how risky the venture was and that astronauts still needed “the rightstuff”.The actor portraying Neil Armstrong, Ryan Gosling,managed to capture the con-cernsandconflictsgoingthroughArmstrong’smindwithaminimumofdialog.

My personal favorite recollection of Apollo 11 is Michael Collins’book,CarryingtheFire,releasedin1974.CollinswastheCommandModule pilot who orbited the Moon while Armstrong and Aldrinlanded.Collinsisaskilledwriter,andhemanagestoconveywhatitwasliketoflytotheMoonandyetnotbeabletolandandwalkonit.Hewasalso the firstpersontowonderhowitwould feel ifhiscompanionshadnotbeenable to return to theCommandModuleandhehadtoreturnalonetoEarth,leavingthembehind.


Exhibitions In2019, twomajormuseumexhibitionswillopen tocelebrate the fiftiethanniversaryofApollo11.TheNationalGallery inWashingtonwillbe showingBytheLightoftheSilveryMoon:ACenturyofLunarPhotographsfromthe1850stoApollo11fromJulyuntilnextJan-uary.https://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2019/century-of-lunar-photographs-1850s-apollo-11.htmlTheMetropolitanMuseuminNewYorkCitywillexhibitApollo’sMuse:TheMoonintheAgeofPhotographybetweenJulyandSeptember.https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2019/apollos-muse-moon-photographyIcannotrecommendhighlyenoughthefilm,Apollo11,releasedinMarch2019.Itcontainsmuchhighdefinitionmaterialwithviewsneverbeforeseeninpublic.TheApolloGuidanceComputermemoryoverflowduring the landingbroughtbackmemories.Themoviepar-ticularlycelebrateseveryonewhocontributedtotheMoonlanding.https://www.imdb.com/title/tt8760684/

A documentary,In the Shadowof theMoon,does an excellent job of capturing the entirescope of theApollo program, from1968 through 1972.It is available onAmazonPrimeVideoorDVD,aswellasinabookedition.OnJuly8thPBSispremieringathreepartdocu-mentaryonthemoonlandingandtheworldin1969,ChasingtheMoon,alongwithacom-panionbook.Informationontheseriesisavailableat#ChasingTheMoonPBS. Theaccident thatnearlydoomedApollo13 iswell documented in thedocudramaof thesamename.Oneof the film’s stars, TomHanks, has shownhis continued interest in thespace programwith his excellent twelve episode HBOminiseries,From the Earth to the

Moonshot| 85

Moon,whichisavailableonDVDfromAmazon.

After Apollo 11 Thefinallunarmission,Apollo17,wasin1972andwasthelastofthesixsuccessfulMoon-shots.Bythistimepublicinterestinandsupportforlunarexplorationhaddeclined.NASAshifteditsemphasistotheSpaceShuttleandconcentratedeffortsonexperimentsinEarthorbit.WhenwouldwereturntoourMoon?In2017,NASAannounced itsnewMoonmission.“Wearegoing to theMoon,”NASAAd-ministratorJimBridenstinetoldanindustryconferenceinMay2018.“Todososustainably,wearegoingtoexpandpartnershipswithindustry,todeliverpayloadstothesurfaceoftheMoon.Beginningwithmissionsbeyondlow-Earthorbit,theUnitedStateswillleadthere-turn of humans to theMoon for long-term exploration and utilization.”If history is anyguide,itseemsimpossiblethatMITwillnothavearoleinthislatestMoonshot.ThesmartphonethatweallcommonlycarrytodayhasordersofmagnitudecapabilityandafarbetteruserinterfacethantheApolloGuidanceComputer.ManyofthoseadvancesinhardwareandsoftwaretechnologyareproductsofMITresearchandcompaniesstartedbyMITentrepreneurs.Tofurtherreinforcehowfarwehavecomeinfiftyyears,Verizon’slat-estadvertisingfor5Gtechnologybeginswiththephrase“50yearsago,engineershelpedusreachthemoonwithtechnologylessadvancedthantheaveragesmartphone”.AsIwritethisessay,anewbookaboutApollo11byJamesDonovanentitledShootfortheMoonhas justbeenpublished.In itspublicity is thefollowingquotefromApollo11Com-mand Module Pilot Michael Collins: “This is the best book on Apollo that I haveread.Extensivelyresearchedandmeticulouslyaccurate,itsuccessfullytracesnotonlythetechnicalhighlightsoftheprogrambutalsothecontributionsoftheextraordinarypeoplewhomadeitpossible”.

Concluding Remarks Inconclusion,Iwouldliketoendonapersonalnote.Astheyearspass,Ithinkmoreandmore about our grandchildren and the world we should be leaving to them.There aremany lessons fromhistoryabout injustice, intoleranceandbigotry thatwewant themtodisavow.TheMoonshotisalessonincooperationandhumilitythatwewantthemtoemu-late.Itisestimatedthat400,000peopleworkedincollaborationontheApolloproject,in-cluding NASA, contractors and universities, like MIT.I was struck by a recent columninTheNewYorkTimeswrittenbyBretStephensentitledHowNeilArmstrongStayedHum-ble.Stephenswrote the article after hewatched the currentApollo11film twice and re-flected on the character of the contributors to the mission.One quote from the articlestayedwithme:“And there lies thegreatestmarvelof theApolloprogram:Notsomuchthesizeof theendeavor,or themachines thatwerebuilt toaccomplish it,butrather thequalityofself-effacementamongthemenmostassociatedwithitssuccess.”Hereareseveralbooks,fordifferentagegroups,aboutthemoonlandingexploitsthatwecansharewithourgrandchildrentohelpthemunderstanditshistoricalimportance.


DavidSaul'64,hisfirstjobaftergraduatingfromMITin1965waswithIBM’sFederalSys-tems office in Cambridge, as earlier described. His firstmanagement positionwaswithIBM’sCambridgeScientificCenter,whereheoversawadvancedtechnologycomputerpro-jects in virtualization, multiprocessing and networking.In 1981, his group developedIBM’sfirstsoftwareproductthatallowedtheIBMPersonalComputertocommunicateovertelephone lines tomainframes.In1993,he joinedState Street andappliedhis computerskills to financialservices.Today,he isStateStreet’sChiefScientist,wherehefocusesonapplyinginnovationtotheirbusiness.

The Journey of an Aeronomer| 87

The Journey of an Aeronomer John Meriwether

Beginning an Aeronomy Career MyjourneyasanAeronomer(aspecialistinthephysicsandchemistryoftheupperatmos-phere)beganinWinchester,KY,oneearly5thofOctober1957,asIgotreadytodelivermymorning roundof theLouisvilleCourier Journal.When I rolledmypapers fordelivery, IsawthemajorheadlinewasonthesurprisingSovietlaunchofSputnik.Thewordaerono-mywascoined in themid-50s to refer to thephysicsandchemistryof theupperatmos-phere,which started as a newdiscipline as an outgrowthof the SpaceAge.Now that somuchtimehaspassed,Ithoughtmyclassmatesmightfindinterestingadescriptionofmycareerwitha focusupon theSpaceAge,wheresomuchprogressanddevelopmenthavetakenplaceduringourlives,whatwiththeApollo11journeytotheMoonin1969,thede-velopmentoftheInternationalSpaceStationinthe90sandlater,andallthespaceprobessentout to explore theplanets, inner andouter.I starteddoingaeronomy researchas aUniversity of Maryland (UMD) graduate student in the late 60s, just ten years after thelaunchofExplorerIbyVanAllenthatledtothediscoveryoftheplasmabeltsinouterspace–thesearenowknownastheVanAllenbelts.Thisinterdisciplinaryareabecamethepri-marythrustofwhatIdidoverthenextfivedecadessinceIstartedin1967doingresearchaspartofmydissertationintheUMDchemicalphysicsprogram.Threeotherthreadsalso ledmetomyaeronomycareer.Afewweeksafterthe launchofSputnikwhenIsetoutonceagaintodelivermypapers,Isawthewholenorthernskywaslitupwitharedcolor.Ittookmeawhiletofigureoutthatthismustbetheauroraborealis,whichwasanexceptionaleventbecauseitwastakingplacesofarsouth.WhileridingmybikethatmorningIsuddenlyrememberedreadingabouttheauroraintheNorsefairytalesthat Ihadreada fewyearsearlierduring the fourthand fifthgrades.Thesecond threadcame later in1960,whenmy familyhadmoved toLouisville.My fatherand I stopped inCherokeePark toobserve the trackof theEcho I satellite thatwas litupveryvividlybysunlightreflectionfromthesatellite’ssilveryskinasthespacecraftpassedoverhead.Andofcourse,mydeep interest inscience fictionat the timemeant thatspacephysicswouldindeedhaveastrongattractionforme.

Educating an Aeronomer Stillthough,Ihadnoparticularambitionthentodoaeronomyresearch.Mypathwaytobe-cominganaeronomerwasfirststartedbystudyingchemistryatMIT.Itellthestoryoflik-ingverymuchtohearaboutatomicorbitalsinthe5.01chemistryclasstaughtbyProf.W.R.Thorson,aquantumchemistry theorist,whohadnohesitationto talkaboutatomicormolecularphysicstofirstyearstudents.Hewasfrustratingforme,though,withmyhearingimpairment(severelydeafinbothearsandeventually,manyyearslater,Iwastreatedwitha cochlear implant) tohavehimwalkbackand forthwhile lecturing. Seeinghis face justhalfofthetimefrustratedmylipreadingefforts.Still,allthistalkaboutquantummechan-icssoundedrathercooltome.AsImovedthroughthecurriculumoftheCourseVmajor,myinterestinphysicalchemistryandthenchemicalphysicsgrewstrongerandstronger.It


wasclearorganicchemistry,thoughinteresting,wasnotacareerpathIcouldgetexcitedabout–toomanycooksandeachonehavingconsiderabletalent.InmyjunioryearIratherenjoyedProf.IsadurAmdur’sphysicalchemistryclass,perhapsbecausehisvoicewasonethatIcouldhearquiteclearly,enablingmetoovercomemyhearinghandicap.ItwasalsoatthistimethatItookthe5.70statisticalthermodynamicclassfromProf.Oppenheim, inwhichIcametoenjoylisteningtothemathematicalintricaciesofinvestigatingtheimplica-tionsthatmightunfoldgivenastartingpointofarepresentativemodeloftheproblemathand.IfoundProf.Oppenheimwasapatientlecturerwhotookgreatpainstomakehislec-turescrystalclear. Ihaveneverseenanyonesincewithhisability towalk into theclass-room,pickupapieceof chalk,andwriteoutwithout reference toanynoteshis lectureswithgreatclarityandilluminatingcommentary. Itwasthenthat Iknewmycareerdirec-tionwastowardphysics.Forgradschool Iwent to theUniversityofMarylandbecause ithadagraduatechemicalphysicsprogram,andIwasexcitedtobeatacampusneartheNationalCapital.IhadnotbeensurewhetheralargeuniversitysuchasUMDwouldsuitme,soduringtheMIT1964springbreak,ItookabusridedowntoWashingtonandstayedovernightatahoteloutsideofUnionStation.IthentookatrainouttoCollegeParkandwalkedovertotheUMDcam-pusandfoundmywaytotheInstituteofMolecularPhysics,asmallbuildingspeciallyde-signed tobe ruggedandstableasagreat foundation forhigh resolutionmolecular spec-troscopy.(ForthissamereasonitwasahomeforoneofProf.JoeWeber’sbargravitationalwavedetectors;Dr.Weberwasmyprofessorinquantummechanics.Irememberhimespe-ciallybecauseheoftentreatedhisclassstudentswithstoriesinvolvingtheleadingfiguresofphysicssuchasHeisenberg,Schroedinger,andDirac.)

ANASArocketlaunchatPokerFlats,AKintoaurora.(Uni-versityofAlaskaatFairbanks).I found the facultyandstaff thereat this Institute tobecollegialandkeentohavemecometoUMD,whichIdid.IwassatisfiedthatUMDwouldbeagoodhomeformetoundertake the studies in both chemistry and physics asprescribed by the terms of their chemical physics pro-gram. What I later discovered was that the rigors of aMITeducationinchemistryhadleftmewiththeequiva-lentofafive-yearcurriculum.Thus,Iwaswellpreparedtostartoffmygraduateprogramwithjustprimarilyclas-ses inphysics.Unknowingly, Iwasdoing theright thingby getting a sound education in the fundamentals ofphysicsandchemistrysincethisprovedtobegreatprep-aration for studying aeronomy and space physics lateron.It isquitestrangetothinkofthoseyearsincontrast

totodayasaeronomywassuchayoungscience.Thereweresomanyquestionstoinvesti-gateandstudy.Itissodifferentnowadayswithyoungresearchershavingtofacemasteringsixdecadesofliteraturetostudy.


WhatprovedtobeevenmoreofamotivatingfactorwastheexperienceofgoingwithmyadvisortotheChurchillRocketRangelocatedjustofftheHudsonBayinFebruary1967todoadissertationprojectofobservingthenitrogenmolecularemissionspectroscopyintheblueandredspectralregionswithafastfilterwheelphotometer.Whatwefoundasaresultof thatexpeditionwas that theaurorabecameredderas itbecamebrighter.Tomewhatwasevenmoreexcitingbeganwithanarrivalinmid-afternoonafteralongjetflightuptoFt.ChurchillfromWinnipeg.TravelingbyjetwasformeatthattimeaverynewexperiencethatprovedtobethefirstofmanyflightsIwouldmaketogoofftosomeopticalobservato-ry for the sakeofmy research. Shortly afterour arrival andafter the evening twilight, abrightauroralgreenarcdevelopedoverheadandpersisteduntilaftermidnightwhenitbe-cameevenbrighterwithgreatauroralfoldsanddraperiesalloverthesky.Justaftermid-night,arocketwaslaunched,andthetrailstreakedupwardtowardtheaurora.Ifoundthattobesoexciting,Iwashookedonaeronomyresearchfromthatpointforward.Thephotoonthepriorpageillustratesanexampleoftheexperienceoflaunchingsucharocketintoavividauroradisplay.AcolleagueofmineatClemsonUniversityhashadaverysuccessfulcareerflyingrocketswithastreakofatleast100rocketlaunchesthatwerealldeemedtobesuccessful.Doingrocketscienceis indeedaspecialexperienceinaeronomybut itwasnotacareerpaththatIeversoughtout.

Photographofabariumioncloudrelease(pinkish-reddishcol-or)developing striationsalong themagnetic field lineasa re-sultof theF-layer ionosphericelectric field.Alsoshown in thevicinityoftheBa+cloudisaneutralBa/Srcloud.Driftsoftheseclouds are measured using photographs obtained simultane-ously from two camera stations. Also shown is a TMA (tri-methyl-aluminum) cloud illustrating themultiple turns of theneutral wind vector between 90 and 140 km. (NASA attribu-tion)

ButSputnikandtheauroraborealiswerenottheonlyimpactsonmycareerchoice--goodluckputmeintherightplaceattherighttime.Towardtheendofmygraduatestudiesmyadvisor urgedme to attend an international space physics conference to be held at theStateDepartmentindowntownDC.ThereIheardatalkabouttheuseofbariumchemicalreleasestotrackupperatmospherewinds(altitudesabove200km)andplasmadrifts.Thewaytheexperimentworkedisthatsunlightionizesthebariumtoformionsthatwilldriftinresponsetoanyimposedelectricfield.Theseionswillfluoresceinthepresenceofsun-lighttoformglowingreddish-pinkclouds.Theremainingbarium(andalsostrontium)thatisnotionizedwouldformaneutralbarium/strontiumcloudthatispurple-bluishincolor.The photo above illustrates a barium ion cloud developing striated structures, the bari-um/strontiumneutralcloud,andatrimethylaluminumtrailallreleasedinthesameflight.Theideaisthattheupperatmosphereplasmadriftandtheneutralwindataltitudesabove225kmcouldbemeasuredbyphotographing themotionsof theBa+ ion cloud (reddishglow)and theneutralBa/Sr cloud,as thesecloudsdriftedagainst thebackgroundof the“fixed”stars.Triangulation fromtwoormorecamerastationswouldestablishsuccessive


positionsoftheseclouds,andtheionandneutralvelocitiescouldbedeterminedfromthesetracks.LaterthatweekIwenttoacookoutat theGoddardSpaceFlightCenter.Bysheerchancethepersoninfrontofme,TomSkillman,inthelineforbarbecuedsteakswasanengineerassociatedwiththeGoddardresearchgroupthatdidthatbariumreleasework.Afterthatconversation with me in which he learned of my strong interest in the experiment, hetalkedtohisboss,Dr. JimHeppner(thepersonthatgave the talk I foundsokeen),and IwasinvitedtogoinforavisitwithhimattheGoddardSpaceFlightCenterforaninterviewthatledtoaNationalResearchCouncil(NRC)postdoctoralfellowship.Asitturnedout,JimwasoneofthescientistsassociatedwiththeNavalResearchLaboratorygroupthatsoughttolaunchtheVanguardspacecraft.Iheardfromhimhisstoryofhowheandhiscolleagueshadworkedfeverishlytolaunchthissatelliteonlytobefacedwithdisasteronthelaunchpad.

Travels as an Aeronomer Thisbeginningtookmetomanyplacesaroundtheworld.Partof theworkthat Idid forJimasaFellowwastomakeatriptoBarterIsland,Alaska,tohelpmanacamerastationtophotograph the luminous barium clouds released from the rockets launched from theNorthSlopeat theBarMainDEWlineradarstation.What theseexperimentsestablishedfor thehigh latitude locationswithin thepolarregionwas that theplasmawasdriven tomoveinthedirectionoftheSun.Moreover,contrarytowhatonewouldhavethought,i.e.,airmovesfromthedaysidetowardthenightacrosstheterminator,theneutralairatthesealtitudes(above200km)withintheauroralregionmovedtowardtheSunintheeveningtwilightandsouthwardduring themorning twilight.Thesewereearlydays inaeronomyresearch, andunderstandingof theunderlyingdynamical forcingphysics cameslowlyasmoreobservationswerecollected.Caughtupwiththeexcitementofbeinginvolvedinthe-se experiments, little did it botherme that the temperature at the camera stationmighthavebeenaslowas-50Candthesurfacewindspeedashighas20knots.IwaswellfittedoutwithArcticgearandbunnybootsandquitehappytobeinvolvedinsuchaproject.


ImagesoftheFabry-Perottwo-dimensionalinterferenceringpatternseenforthelaserandskyobservations.Annular summingofboth ringpatternsaround the ring centerprovidesonedimensional interferogram that canbeused todetermineDoppler shifts andDopplerbroadening.Theincreaseofthefullwidthathalfmaximumfortheskyinterferogramrela-tivetothelaserillustratesthehottemperaturesoftheupperatmosphere,whichmightbeashighas1000K.Whatbecamecleartome,though,duringthatperiodofmypostdoctoralstudieswasthatthere must be a better way of studying the dynamics of the upper atmosphere than tolauncharocketeachtimeyouwantedtoknowwhichwaytheairortheionsat250kmwasmoving.Itturnedoutthattherewasanalternativeground-basedapproachbaseduponus-ing a high-resolution Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) tomeasure theDoppler shift andDopplerbroadeningof theoxygenauroral red lineemissionat630-nm.Theway this in-strumentworksisthatthecircularinterferenceringpatternwillshrinkiftheairalongthelineofsight ismovingawayfromtheFPI.Alternatively, theringswillexpandif theair iscoming toward the FPI. A typical interference ring pattern obtained by a quality digitalcameraisshowninthefigureaboveaswellastheone-dimensionalinterferogramderivedby summing the signals around the ring center.After having read a journal paper pub-lishedbyProf.PaulHays(UniversityofMichigan)thatmadereferencetothisFPIapplica-tionformeasuringupperatmospherewinds,IstoppedbytoseehiminAnnArborinMarch1971onreturningfromaseriesofNASAbariumreleaseexperimentsheldinthenorthernregionoftheHudsonBay.IindicatedtoPaulmyenthusiasticinterestinbecomingapartofhisgroup.ItoldhimIwaskeentomasterthenuancesofthisinstrument’sassembly,datacollectionprocedures,andanalysis.IalsotoldhimthatIthoughtheshouldmovehisFPIinstrumenttoAlaska.LittledidIknowwhatadventuresthisimmersionwithPaul’sgroupwould lead into.He likedmy spirit and background and offeredme a fewweeks later a


postdoctoralpositionwithhimtodoexactly thisprojectofrunningtheFPI inFairbanks,AK.TheFPI instrumentat that timewas inaprimitivestateofdevelopmentandas timewenton, the advancesof technologywould improve theFPI sensitivity for themeasure-mentofwindsbymorethantwoordersofmagnitudeaswellasallowingforittobeauto-matedforunattendedoperationsusingaPCtodirectimagecollections.Asaresultofmyinitiative,Ispentthewintersof1971-1972and1972-1973inFairbanksAlaskaoperatingtheMichiganFPI.Backthen,thisrequiredmetostayupallnighttomovethemirrorperiscopesystemfromonelookangletothenextandtooperatethedatacollec-tionpressurescanningsystemwhichneededat that stageof theFPI instrumentaldevel-opmentmanualintervention.TheMichigantrailerwaslocatedonEsterDomeoverlookingthetownofFairbanks.Eachnightwasanadventuredrivingafour-wheeldrivevehicleupamountaingravelroadtothesite.Sincethattime,withcomputersandremoteoperationca-pabilityviatheinternet,suchdedicationandmanualeffortarenolongernecessary.Atthattime,though,Ihadthesatisfactionofbeingpartofapioneeringeffortgatheringforthefirsttimeextendedhighlatitudeobservationsaboutauroralwinds,datathatwerequitediffer-ent fromprior expectationsbut in agreementwith the results from the chemical releaseexperimentsbutgivingabroaderpictureoftheupperatmospheredynamics.After1973IcontinuedmyjourneyinaeronomyresearchwitharesearchassociatepositionatAreciboObservatory(4years,1975-1979),andthenasaresearchscientist for9years(1979to1988)backattheUniversityofMichigan.AtArecibomyworkwasaimedatde-veloping an airglow observatory so to supplement the Arecibo ionospheric radarmeas-urementsofheightprofilesofplasmaparameters(ionandelectrontemperature,iondrifts,andelectrondensity)withneutralobservationsofairglowemission intensityemittedbyglowing oxygen atoms. Iwas able to persuade acolleague to transfer to Arecibo, a 1 mscanning spectrometer fromKitt PeakObservatory that I put this instrument towork atArecibotoobservenotonlytheoxygenemissionlinesbutalsotheemissionsofhydroxyl(OH) aswell as other atomic andmolecular species.AtMichiganmy chargewas to takeovertheFabry-PerotairglowobservatorythatIhadpreviouslyoperatedinAlaskaanddointerestingscience.Accordingly,IlearnedtosupportmyresearchthroughproposalstotheNationalScienceFoundationandotherfundingagencies.Thebasicthemeofmyworkdur-ing theseyears and later (since1992)hasbeenbasedupon theneed to take theFPI in-strumenttointerestingsitestofurtherthescience.Thisledmeinthefirstfourdecadestonowtostudytheupperatmospheredynamicsforsuchregionsasthegeomagnetichighlat-itudes(ThuleAirBaseandSondrestromAirBaseinGreenland),orthegeomagneticequa-tor(Arequipa,Peru;BahirDar,Ethiopia;andCampinaGrande,Brazil).Mid-latituderegionsprovedtobeofinterestaswellsoIsetupFPIobservatoriesinwesternNorthCarolina,onthecampusofEasternKentuckyUniversity,andhelpedcolleagueswiththeirFPIsatUrba-na, ILandAnnArbor,MI.TheseFPIobservatorieswerepartofanetwork thatwecalledNATION.ItwasastrangefeelingtoinstallaFPIinstrumentatEKUjust20milesawayfromwhereIfirstsawtheredauroraoneFebruarymorning.Talkaboutreturningtoyourroots!

A New Aeronomy Career Direction In1988Ihaddecideditwastimetoshiftdirectionawayfromthefocusonupperatmos-


pheredynamics.SowhenIwasofferedanopportunitytobearesearchphysicistattheAirForceGeophysicsLaboratory located inBedfordMAwhere Iwould leadaRayleigh lidargroup,Ichangeddirections.ApplicationoftheRayleighlidarinstrumentgavemeanoppor-tunitytowidenmyhorizonsingeophysicalresearchbystudyingthedynamicsofthelowerregion of the atmosphere through the application of a high powerNd:YAG(neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet)laser that illuminates the column of air up to a peakheightof100km.Byusingobservationsoftheback-scatteredlight fromeachlaserpulsecombinedwithapplicationofdataanalysesalgorithmstothedatacollectedoveracollec-tionperiodof20minutes,temperatureprofilesfrom30to90kmcouldbemeasuredwithgood accuracy. The dynamics of this middle atmosphere region are interesting becausethere are density fluctuations introduced into the upper atmosphere by gravity waves(GW)launchedbytheconvectivewaveactivityofmeteorologicalweathersystems.ThesewavesarenottobeconfusedwiththegravitationalwavesthatProf.JoeWeber(UMD)triedtoobservewithhisbardetectors.SuchGWfluctuationsarealsoassociatedwiththunder-storms,tsunamis,solareclipsesandalsowithanartificialsourcesuchasanuclearblast.InthecourseoffouryearsIledcampaigneffortsinJanuaryinSondrestromGreenlandandinAlaskaduringthe1991summer.Thislastactivitywasaimedatdetectinghighaltitudeicecloudsat83-84km.Thisregionoftheatmospherebecomesverycoldduetotheupwellingcausedbyaglobalcirculationpattern,andanywatervaporfreezesoutasicecrystalspro-ducingthincloudsthatserveastracersofatmosphericdynamicalactivity.

Teaching Aeronomy By1991Ifoundmyselffeelingdissatisfiedworkinginthemission-orientedenvironmentoftheAirForce laboratory. Imuchpreferredthechallengeofwritingasuccessfulproposal.AlsoImissedthesatisfactionofworkingonaproblemandthenpublishingmyfindingsandconclusions.Fortunately, Iwasgiven theopportunity tobecomea tenure-trackassociateprofessor of physics at ClemsonUniversity,which has a beautiful campus located in thefoothillsoftheBlueRidgeMountainsinthewesternendofSouthCarolina.Itissomewhatironic that Iachievedtenureasaphysicsprofessorgiventhat IstartedoutasacourseVmajor. I certainly enjoyed teaching the variety of physics classes that I did, andwhen Itaughtstatisticalthermodynamics,Iswearthatinpreparingmylecturenotesformyclas-ses,IcouldhearinmyinnerearProf.OppenheimmakingremarkshereandthererelatingtothecontentthatIwaspreparingtoteach.Icametoappreciateverymuchtheamountofworkhedidtoachievesuchpolishforhislectures.AtClemsonUniversity,formyresearch,eventuallyIreturnedtotheapplicationoftheFPIinstrumenttostudyupperatmospheredynamics,especiallywitheffortscollaboratingwithDr.FredBiondi,afellowMITalumnus(Class1944).HeandIjourneyedatleastonceayearto reactivateourFPI instrument locatedatArequipa in the southernpartofPeru.Theseobservationsduringthe90sprovedtobeapioneeringsetofequatorialwindobservationsthatreallyhelpedtoimproveourunderstandingoftheplasmainstabilityphysicsassociat-edwiththeequatorialregionwhereholesandmajorwavestructureswoulddevelopintheF-layerplasmaduetotheactivationoftheRayleigh-Taylorinstability.


Atthistime,Irealizedthetechnologyofdigitalcamerashadimprovedgreatlysointhefirstdecade of the 21stcentury,myClemson students and Iworkedondeveloping the FPI in-strumenttoincorporateagoodqualityCCDcameraforthedetectorinplaceofaphotomul-tiplier.ThisversionoftheFPIdesignincreasedthesensitivityoftheFPIbyafactorof200incomparisonwiththesensitivityoftheinstrumentsIhadusedpreviously.Awholehostofnewresearchquestions came to the forewith this technological innovationof theFPIinstrument.With the help of quite a few Clemson graduate students during the past 15yearsandespeciallywiththehelpofourclassmateDr.PeterSherwoodwhoprovidedin-valuable support regarding thevarious issuesof softwaredevelopmentneeded to imple-mentthenewFPIdesign,Iproceededtoextendmyworkintootherlocationsaroundtheworld including Brazil, Ethiopia and also central Alaska. None of this extension wasplannedasIsimplytookadvantageofopportunitiesastheycamemywaywhethertopro-posenewinstrumentinstallationsorwhethertocollaboratewithcolleaguesinthefield.Aconsequenceof thisactivitywas that Ideferredretirement for tenyears.I justcouldnotbringmyselftowalkawaywhenmyresearchwasbecomingsomuchmoreinterestingduetothehighqualitydatathattheFPIwasnowcapableofcollecting.

Comparing Aeronomy, Then and Now Inclosingoutthisessay,Iwouldliketocommentabouthowthedisciplineofaeronomyhasevolvedoverthesefivedecades.Iseequiteanumberofchanges.

1. Now,therearemanymorescientists inthe field.TheAmericanGeophysicalUnionhasa

fallmeetingeveryyear,normallyinSanFranciscoinmid-December.WhenIfirststartedattendingthesewithmyfirstmeetingin1969,themeetingroomsforallofthevariousdisciplines(geology,glaciology,hydrology,spacephysics,aeronomy…)couldbehousedinonehotel–theJackTarrHotelwhichistheonefeaturedinthemovie“Conversation”byCoppola.Towardtheendof the70s thisvenueexpanded into twoadjacenthotels.Towardtheendofthe90s,theSanFranciscoMosconeCenterbecamethemeetingsite.Andnowfinally, just lastDecember Iand26,000otherscientistsattendedtheannualmeetingheldat theConventionCenter indowntownWashington,DC. I recall thatmyexperience of presentingmy very first paperwent badly. Themeeting chair, amajorfigureinaeronomyresearch,hadindicatedthatanyonerunningovertheallocatedtimefor thepaperpresentationwouldberemovedbodily fromthepodium.Mypaperwasthesecondscheduled foraMondaymorningprogram. Iwasusing lanternslides, thatwereprojectedbyaseparateprojectorthathadnotbeenpositionedatthepropersepa-rationfromthescreen.Thus,myfirstslideoverfilledthescreenatleastfourtimes.ThetimerequiredtorepositiontheprojectorwasonlyseveralminutesbutIwasquiterat-tledbytheresultingtimedelay.NotwantingtofacetheChaireffortstobodilyremovemebyrunningovermytime,Iproceededtogivemytalkataboutthreetimesthenor-mal talkingpace. Ihavegivenpossiblyseveralhundredsoforalpaperssincebut thatmemoryremainsstillvividinmymind.

2. Nowtheoralpresentationatsuchmeetingsismuchmorechallengingtoachievewithoutflaws.Rather thanviewgraphs thatwerecustomary in theearlyyears,nowallpapersaredoneusingPowerPointorKeynote.Whileonecandoagreat jobofpresentingin-


formationwithsuchsoftwarewithconsiderable flairand finesse, italsocan lead intobad papers with toomany graphics or slides that are way too busy for comfortableviewing.Ijudgethatmaybeonly15%ofthepapersIhavelistenedtoatvarioussciencemeetingsnowadaysareofsufficientqualitytodoaproperjobofcommunication.

3. Journalpapersarenowmuchmoredemandingtocompletefromstarttofinish.Thepro-

cess of peer review is truly awonderful feature of today’s science as it ensures thatproper scientificpractice is followed regarding conventionsof scientificwriting style.However, sometimes it can be frustrating to deal with the reviewer comments thatmight come forward.Moreover, I have done perhaps some200 papers inmy career.This productivity would surely not have been possible without word processing tomakeeasiertheprocessofdraftingapaper.Inaddition,theinternethasmadepassingdraftversionsbackandforthamongco-authorssomucheasier.Still,thejournalshavebecomemoredemandingof latewiththe latestwrinkletherequirementthat therawdatabemadeavailableforanyinterestedreader.Itissometimesquiteoneroustogetintoallofthedetailsregardinghowrawdatamightbeprocessed.

Illustratingthespatialdistributionofsatel-litesandspacedebrisobjectsrelativetotheEarthforlowEarthorbits(LEO)andgeosta-tionaryorbits.

4. Now there aremanymore satellitesthatprovideanenormousrangeofdataforaeronomy and space physics studies. Notjust the major observatories funded tostudy aeronomy (theatmospheric Explor-ersC,D, andE),DynamicsExplorer1 andII,TIMEDandUARS)andspacephysicsofthemagnetosphere (LBSPICE and the VanAllen probes) but also CubeSats. The ef-fortsofflyingsatelliteshavebecomegreat-lysimplifiedandmuchcheaperasaresultof using CubeSat technology that allows

miniaturizedsatellitepayloadsconstructedbyacademicteamsofengineersandsci-entiststohitcharideonanyrocketthatcanflyfromCapeCanaveralorVandenberglaunchfacilities.ThatonesatelliteofSputnikoflongagohasnowledtospacebeingfilledwithsatellitesasillustratedbytotheleft.In2017theUNrecordedthatthereare 4,635; of these, about 1,100 remain functioning with about half (538) beingcommunicationsatellites locatedatgeo-stationaryheights.Spacedebris isamajorseriousproblem.Eventually,humanitywillprobablyneed to clearoutall of thesejunkobjects.


5. Now, computers have become so important both experimentally and theoretical-ly.Theadventofmini-computersintheearly80smadeautomaticdatacollectionsomuch easier to achieve. I well remember writing Fortran code for a LSI-11 DECcomputer to manage the FPI data collection at the FPI observatory I installed atSondrestrom,GreenlandorinArequipa,Peru.Moreover,theinternethasmadepos-sible accessing remote geophysical observatories for both downloading data andpassingforwardnewinstructionsfordatacollection.ItisstrangetoaccessviatheinternetaFPIobservatorylocatedinEthiopiaorinArgentinaorinPerutomodifytheobservingcodeortocheckupontheFPIobservingplanortotransferbacktomycomputertheFPIdatacollected.

6. Beyond that, supercomputer operations have now become essential.These very ex-

pensivecomputersarerequiredtodealwiththevastcomplicatedmodelingthatex-ists regarding theanalysisofmanysourcesofmeasurements fromavastarrayofgeophysical sensorsscatteredabout theglobe.Over thepast threedecades, scien-tiststheworldoverhavebeenengagedinwiringuptheEarthwithmanythousandsofsensorssuchastheGPS(GlobalPositioningSatellite),FPIs,incoherentscatterra-dars, coherent radars (SuperDARNs), all-sky imaging systems, digital ionosondes,andtotalelectroncontentmonitors.Inaddition,complexglobalcirculationmodelsdevelopedprimarilyat theNationalCenterofAtmosphericResearch (NCAR)havebeendevelopedwithextensivemodelingcodethatattempttosimulatetheworkingsofthegeospacesystemallthewayfromtheSuntomud,i.e.,thesurfaceoftheEarth.Thebasisforallthismodelingactivityistheaxiomthattheonlywaytobesureyouunderstand thephysicsof a complex system is todevelopmodeling to thedegreenecessarytobecapableofpredictingwhatmighthappenwithsomedegreeofaccu-racyandfidelity.

7. Anothersignificantchangetakingplaceoverthepastfivedecadesishowspacescience

hasbecomequiteclearlyamaturediscipline. Ihastentosaythatthisshouldnotbetakentosuggestthatsuchresearchisnotworththeundertaking.Rather,Isuggestthistosaythataeronomersandspacephysicistshavecometoappreciatethegeo-spacesystemtobeextremelycomplexwithsignificantvariabilityongoingatmulti-pletemporalandspatialscales.Thus,thisfactthatthescopeofthegeospacesystemthatwearetryingtostudyhasbecomesomuchbroaderinscalemeansthatsinglepointmeasurementswhetherfromspaceorthegroundnolongerservetoadvancethescience.Itbecomesreallynecessarytoutilizenetworksthathavethenecessaryspatialcoverageoftheimportantphysicalparametersrelatingtothegeospacephe-nomenonthatonewantstostudy.

8. Iwouldarguealsothattheaeronomyandspacephysicsfieldhasbecomemoremature

asaconsequenceofadvancesinscientificunderstandingtakingplacewiththepassingoftime.Icanofferametaphortodescribethenatureofhowresearchactivityinal-mostanyfieldwouldgo.Isuggestdoingresearchislikemininggold.Asyouarefol-lowingthevein inyourresearchactivity,eventually theveinwillpeterout.Eitherthen,youstopandchange thecourseofyourresearchpathway in thesearchofanewvein.Alternatively,youmakeuseof technologyprogress toenhanceyour re-


search capability so your efforts tomine the gold can continue even if the vein ishardlyevident.Asthecomplexitiesofthegeospacesystembecamemoreapparent,tome it seemsquite clear thatno longerwas it likely fora single researcheroraprofessorjoinedbyastudentortwotomakesignificantbreakthroughs.Nowadays,thecomplexitiesneedtobetackledbyteamsofresearchersthatincludeenoughofarangeof special talents to have in hand thenecessarymeans ofmakingprogress.ThistrendisalsotrueinregardtomodelingeffortsthatareaimedatincorporatingdiverseelementsacrossthegeospacesystemwhethersolarorgeomagnetictailorthenearEarthenvironment.Aeronomersinawaysimilartotheastronomershaveaccordinglybecomeengagedinextensivecollaborationbyformingteamsinvolvingmanypersons.This collaborative activity of coursehasbeengreatly facilitatedbytheinternetthatmakeitpossiblefornumerousdiscussionstotakeplaceviaemailsorSkypingorattendingconferencesandworkshopsviaavideoconnection.

9. Theissueofspaceweather,atermcoinedinthemid90s,hasnowbecomethemainfo-

cusofallthisworkbecomingmuchmoreimportantinthepasttwodecadestoNSF,toNASA,andtoNOAA.Why?Oneburp fromoursun,amajorsolar flareoracoronalmassejection (CME)event, canpotentially create tremendousdamage toour cur-rent rather fragile technological state that isnowsodependentuponcommunica-tionthroughtheinternet.InaeronomyfrequentreferenceismadetotheCarringtonEvent,whichwasamassivesolarflarein1859thatproducedaCMEaimeddirectlyattheEarth.Theprimitivetechnologyofthosetimescouldtoleratethehighlevelsofcurrent thatdevelopedon telegraph lines.Moreover, therewerenoelectric trans-missionlinesatthattime.Andnospace-basedinternet.Notsotoday.Extremesolarstormswoulddecimateall formsofhightechnology.Theseverespaceweatheref-fectscausedbysuchaneventwouldstartwithanexplosion,or"solarflare"inthemagneticcanopyofasunspot.X-raysandextremeUVradiationwouldreachEarthatthespeedoflight,ionizingtheupperlayersofouratmosphere.Theconsequenceis theequivalenceofanelectromagneticpulseorEMPhavingapotential to causeradio blackouts, especially at high latitudes, and extensive GPS navigation errors.Minutestohours later,energeticparticlesarrive.Movingonlyslightlyslowerthanlight,theseelectronsandprotonscanelectrifysatellitesanddamagetheirelectron-ics.ThencometheCMEcloudsofmagnetizedplasmathatcantakeadayormoretoreachEarth thatwould engulf and squeeze theEarth’s protectivemagnetic shieldandasabyproductcreatingglobalauroraldisplayssuchaswhatIexperiencedthatone Februarymorning in 1958.NASA experts say that a direct hit by an extremeCMEsuchas theCarringtonEvent could causewidespreadpowerblackouts,disa-blingeverythingthatplugsintoawallsocket.

Thedamagetoourcivilizationtodaybytheoccurrenceofsuchaneventwouldbehorrendous.Itwouldrequireyears forrecovery.Shouldsuchaneventhappento-day,givensufficientadvancenoticebyearlywarningsatellitesensors,mitigationoftheseverityoftherelatedspaceweatherispossibletosomedegreebyturningsat-ellitesoff,andperhapsbyactivatingpowergridprotectiondevicesthatareabletoabsorbtheexcessivecurrentsthatwouldotherwiseoccur.


10. A focuson spaceweatherhasotherpractical implications.My efforts inmeasuringtheneutralatmospherewindsandtemperaturesprovetobeusefulbecausethedataIandmycolleagueshavegeneratedhavebeenusedintheformationofanempiricalmodelpredictingupperatmospherewindsbaseduponinputparametersassociatedwiththestateofsolarfluxorgeomagneticactivity.Thesepredictionsarereasonablyaccurateandareuseful for thecalculationof theeffectsofatmosphericdraguponthe orbits of the orbiting satellite objects. Amajor geomagnetic storm caused byspaceweathereventsleadsintomajormodificationsofthesetrajectoriessoapro-cess of re-acquisition of the orbital data using sophisticated radar systems is re-quired.DatafromtheFPI instrumentshelptospeedupthisprocessofnewdeter-minationoforbitalparameters.Beyondthat,myworkhashelpedtoprovideabetterunderstandingoftheforcingoftheupperatmospherewindsthatarisefromplasmadriftswithin the auroral region or by the passage of air from the heateddaytimesidetothenightduetotheday-to-nightpressuregradientorfinally,asaresultofatmospherictidespropagatingupwardfromthetroposphere.

11. InthecourseofthesefivedecadesasIattendedthevariousspacephysicsmeetings(at

least,severalhundreds), Ibecameawareofthe increasingactivity inclimatechangestudies.Inthe70smanywonderedwhatimpacttheincreasingatmosphericcontentofCO2wouldhave.Thisdidnotreallyregisterwithmeasabigissueuntiltheearly90swhenthefirstIPCCreportcameoutindicatingclimatechangewouldeventuallybecomeasevereproblemforfuturegenerations.Inthe80sIalsobecameawareoftheissueoftheozoneholethatwassowellstudiedbymyfriendandcolleague,MITProfessorSusanSolomon.Thesetwoissuescombinedwithspaceweatherillustratehowbasic research in the atmospheric sciences can also relate tomajor concernshumanityneedstoresolveinthecomingyears.Mypartmayhavebeenonlyasmallone,butIfeelsatisfiedtohavebeenpartofacadreofscientiststhathasacommongoalofservingtheinterestsofhumanityinspiteofallthepressuresouttheretode-nytheforceofwhatNatureistryingtotellusregardingclimatechange,ozoneholerecovery,orspaceweather.

12. Finally,acommentregardingtheentryofyoungaeronomersintothedisciplinenowa-

days.Mystoryillustrateshowmuchluckcanplayaroleinregardtohowopportuni-tiesaremadeavailableinlife.SpeakingformyselfIfeelIhadbeenquitefortunatethough,ofcourse, it isdifficult toquantifyhowmuchofadifferencehavingaMITdegreemighthavemade.Nowadays, the fundingagencieshave sought todevelopprogramsdesignedtoattractnewyoungcolleagues,bothwomenandmen,intothedisciplinesofaeronomyandspacephysics.NSFhasatwo-foldagenda.Thefirstgoal,ofcourse,istofundthebestscience.Perhapsnotsomuchappreciatedisthesecondgoal,whichistoachieveabroaderselectionofyoungscientistsandengineersthatareattractedintothediscipline.AeronomyhasastrongattractionasIhavetriedtomakeclear.ThefundingclimateinWashingtonhasbeenquitetightforthepasttwodecades,butinspiteofthisconstraint,ithasbeenpossibletoachievethereinvigor-ationofaeronomyandspacephysicsbysupportingyoungscientistsinavarietyofways. I have spent the past four yearsworking to help the aeronomy communityand the National Science Foundation formulate a path forward in the era of flat


budgets.Insuchcircumstancesoflimitedfundsonecomestoappreciatebettertheideaofafacilitylifecycle.Oncetheoperationsofthefacilityhavelookedatthepri-mary science issuesandcollected thedesiredmeasurements, lookingat theques-tionofwhethercontinuationofoperationscanbejustifiedbytheexpectedcontin-ued science returns is extremely important. Funding is always limited, and onewantstobesuretoachievethebestpossiblereturnforthesciencedollarspent.Thisiswherepeerreviewplaysaveryimportantrolehelpingtoprioritizethewaysthatsciencefundingshouldbeexpended.Asanexample,AreciboObservatoryhasbeenactiveinaeronomyresearchfornearlysixdecades.Whathaskeptitcontinuingtoremain vital is the continual infusion of technology that has improved the instru-mentcapabilitiesthusallowingthecontinuationofcuttingedgeresearch.

ThisopportunityofworkingatNSFalsogavemethechancetobecomeawareoftheclassofyoungerscientistsnowenteringthefieldandhowmuchmorediverseingenderandna-tionality that class hasbecome.I am really impressedwithhow these younger scientistshavesomuchdedication,enthusiasm,tremendousskillsetsandtrainingthattheybringtotheirwork.Allofthisreinforcesthegoalofwantingtobesureto investsciencefundsinareasthathavethegreatestpotentialforpositivescienceoutcomes.IrememberinmysenioryearworkinginAmdur’slaboratoryinaroomthathadawindowthat facedtowardswhatwenowknowtobetheGreenbuilding.AsthatwinterunfoldedwiththeeventsoftheKennedyassassinationandtheJohnsoninauguration,IwatchedtheGreenbuildingbeingconstructedonadaybydaybasis.LittledidIknowthenhowitwouldunfold that thedisciplineof aeronomy representedby thatbuildingwouldbemy careerniche.Ithascertainlybeenagreatexperienceandonethatisnotcompletelyfinished.Inclosing,aeronomy isadisciplinewithan internationalcommunity,andso,asaconse-quenceofthisreachandmytravelsabroad,Ifindmyselfsomewhatmorefamiliarandac-quaintedwithcolleaguesonaglobalscopethanIamwithmyClemsonneighbors.Icontin-uetoenjoymyworkandhopethatImaycontinuetomakecontributionstotheliterature.Rightnow,thoughIamat lastretiredasJuly2018, IhavereturnedtoFPIresearch. IamlookingagainattheverticalwinddataassociatedwithAlaskanFPImeasurements,resultsIhadneverreallylookedatcloselybefore.Thehighqualityofthemorerecentdataascom-paredwiththeresultsoftheearlydayshasrevealedanevenmoredynamicalenvironmentthanonecouldhavehardly imagined. Ihopethat Imightspendsometimeagain inFair-banksduringtheJanuarytoAprilperiodof2020butperhapsmoresoasasciencetouristhopingtoseeagainanexcitingrocketlaunchortwogoingintothemidstofaurora.

Rocket Science is Hard Iclosewithonemorestoryaboutarocketlaunchthathelpsillustratetheconductofrocketscience.InAugust2017ItraveledtotheSouthPacifictotheislandofRoi-NamurnearKwa-jaleinwhereIhadaFPIinstrumentrunningtohelpsupportaNASArocketexperimentthatwasdesignedtostudythedevelopmentoftheRayleigh-Taylorplasmainstabilitythatread-ilyoccuratequatoriallocationswherethegeomagneticfieldlinesliehorizontal.Mymeas-urementsofthewindsandtemperaturesupplementtheground-basedionosphericALTAIR


radarobservationsoftheF-regionplasmaparameters.Theprocessforthisinstabilitybe-haviorisnotverywellunderstood,andtherocketexperimentwasdesignedtogetdefini-tivedatathatcouldbecomparedwithmodelingreconstructionoftheeventstudied.

Two rockets mounted on launch rails onthelaunchpadatRoi-NamurinSeptember,2017.Thefiringanglewassettobe94de-greeselevationwestwardtowardthePacif-ic Ocean with nominal apogee heights at400km. Two NASA rockets pictured to the leftwere to be launched – one carrying twotrimethylaluminum (TMA) canisters fortrailchemicalreleasesontherocketupleganddownlegportionsoftherockettrajec-tory. Watching these TMA trails movewouldproducedataon the speedanddi-rection of the winds as a function ofheight.The other rocket carried an elec-tric field experiment combined with a

plasmadensitymonitor.Duetothevagariesofthesurfacecloudcoverthatwasespeciallyvariable for this equatorial location, after a dozen successive nights of countdowns, wecamedowntothe lastnightof theSeptembercountdownwindow,andthendowntothelasthour,andfinallyat35minutespastmidnight,NASAlaunchedbothrocketswithanin-tervalof7minutes.Theroarofeachrocketwassomethingtobehold,andevenmorespec-tacularwas that surface fog and rain clouds hadmoved inmaking for limited visibility.Thus, I couldonlyseeanorange-reddishblobof lightmovingupward into theskywheneachrocketwaslaunched.Afterbothlaunches,Irememberbikingbacktomydormitoryinpouringrainandaskingmyself,howdidIevergetintothissituation?Unfortunately,bothrockets did not perform as expected – the motor on one burned through its side-wallresultingintumblingoftheinstrumentedpayload.TheTMAcanisterontheotherdidnotdeployfortheupleg.Thus,unfortunately,nousabledatawascollected.Thisillustrateshowpainfulrocketresearchcanbe.Inspiteofallefforts,noteverythingwillgorighteverytime.Iwellrememberthemorningafterwardsatbreakfasttryingtoconsoletheleadscien-tistonthesefailures.IrememberalsohowimpressedIwasthathetookamomenttoaskabouthowdidtheFPIdo.Butofcourse,theraincloudscombinedwithfogmadetheFPIdatabecomeuseless.Thebottomlineofthisstoryisthatrocketscienceishardbutwheneverythingworks,itistrulyathrillingexperience–instantgratification.

Success at Last - 21st Century Aeronomy On5April2019,myClemsoncolleague,Prof.MiguelLarsen,succeededincarryingouttheAZURE(AuroraZoneUpwellingRocketExperiment)innorthernNorwayafterafrustratingperiodofdealingwithadverseweatheractivityofhighwindsandcloudyskies.Thephotoonthenextpageshowsthethreetypes(Baions,neutralBA/Sr,andTMAtrails)ofchemical


releases that were released using mini-rocket canisters that were ejected at separateheights along the up leg and down leg of the rocket trajectory. The two rockets werelaunchednearlysimultaneously(2minuteseparation)towardthenorthwithanazimuthalseparationofabout25degrees.The ideawas toexplore in threedimensions theauroraldynamics involvingtheneutralwindand iondriftdependenceuponaltitude inregardtospeedanddirectionbyobservingthedynamicalbehaviorofmultiplechemicalreleases.

OnthegroundmycolleaguefromtheUniversityofAlaskaoperatedaminiaturizedversionoftheFPIthatwecalledMiniMEbecauseitdidagreatjobofmeasuringtheDopplershiftandDopplerbroadeninginspiteofthesmallsizeoftheinstrument.Gettingthisexperimentoffwasquitediceybecausetheweatherwasnotverycooperative.Finally,afternearlytwoweeksofcountdowns,themeteorologicalconditionsonthegroundwereall favorableforthe first time,and fortunately, theaurorahadbeenquiteactive, just the typeofcomplexgeophysicaldynamicsinvolvingthewindandiondriftsthatwewantedtostudy.This is surely an example of the 21st century aeronomy experiment. I found it quitestrangetobeobservingviatheInternetthisexperimentathomejustafterdinnertimebylooking at images produced by an all sky camera located at the Alomar Observatory inNorway.Thus, inreal time Icouldseeonmy iPhone the launchesof the tworockets fol-lowedbyalongpauseofabout4minutesasthetworocketspassedthroughthelowerat-


mosphere.Thenlo,abouttenchemicalpuffsandtwoTMAtrailsforeachrocketappearedthoughnotall themini-rocketsworked.MorevideodetailsareavailableatthisYouTubewebsite:www.youtube.com/watch?v=YD4ghvmREI8&feature=youtu.be Thissuccessfulexperimentopensaneweraofrocket-basedaeronomyasmanyquestionswill now be possible to address using the results learned from such experiments. I feelquitefortunatetohavebeenapartofsuchprojectsovertheyears.JohnMeriwether '64,DoctorateUniversityofMaryland1970,heldpostdoctoralpositionsattheNASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenterandtheUniversityofMichigan.HemarriedErikainAugust1973;andthenheldaresearchassociatepositionatAreciboObservatoryforfouryears.After8yearsattheSpacePhysicsResearchLaboratoryattheUniversityofMichiganandfouryearsattheAirForceGeophysicsLaboratoryinBedford,MA,in1992hebecameAssociateProfessor of Physics andAstronomyat ClemsonUniversity, SouthCarolina.HewaspromotedtoProfessorandreceivedtenurein1998.HeandErikahaveoneson,Alex-ander, whowent toWilliams College. He isa keen enthusiast of folkmusic sung by thesingersfromourgeneration,JoanBaez,JudyCollins,andPeter,Paul,andMary.Healsohasastronginterestinclassicalmusic.

Half a Century of Medicine| 103

Half a Century of Medicine Robert B. Colvin PerhapsnofieldhaschangedmoresinceweenteredMITin1960thanmedicine.Iwasfor-tunatetohaveacloseviewofthehealthcarerevolutionfromthetrenches,asoneofthe30orsoinourclasstogotomedicalschoolafterMIT.AndwhatachangemedicalschoolwasfromMIT!Insteadofequationsandlogic,wegotendlesslistsof“facts”toremember.Thathas improvedconsiderably.Becauseof thescientificadvancessince1960, teachingmedi-cinenowisalmostliketeachinggeometry,withmechanisms,moleculesandfirstprincipleswhichcanbeusedtoexplaindiseasephenomenaandselecttherapy.So,whathaschangedinmedicinesince1960?Theheadlinenewsiswearelivinglonger.Lifeexpectancyin1960intheUSwas66.6yearsformen,73.1yearsforwomen.In2015thathadincreased8-10yearsto76.9yearsformenand81.6yearsforwomen.Someofthereasonswillbediscussedinthisessay.Firstthebadnews.

New Diseases Newlydiscoveredorganismshaveappearedoverthelast50years.Legionnaires’diseaseiscausedbyabacteriumdiscoveredinPhiladelphia in1976.EbolaviruswasdiscoveredinanepidemicinAfricain1976.Acquiredimmunodeficiencydiseasesyndrome(AIDS,HIV)wasfirstdetectedin1982inSanFrancisco,althoughinretrospectitcouldbetracedtotheCongowhere itwas transmitted tohumans fromchimps in the1920s.HIV, claimedover600,000livesinthelast40yearsintheUSand1.1millionarelivingwiththeinfection.Inthelast20years,effectiveantiretroviraldrugshavebeendevelopedwhichgreatlyreducethe effects of the virus, but do not cure it. Preventive vaccines are yet to be invent-ed.HepatitisCvirus(HCV),wasidentifiedin1989andinfectsabout2.2millionpeopleintheUS.HCVisnowcompletelycurablewithdirectactingantiviraldrugs.Thecatchisthatthedrugsareexpensive, initially$85,000fora12weekcourseof treatment.Fortunately,competitionandfurtherresearchhavebroughtdowncostssubstantially.

Old Diseases Someolddiseaseshavebecomemoreprevalent,especially thoserelatedto lifestyle,suchasobesitywhichnowaffectsabout40%oftheUSpopulation,upfrom13%in1960,withtheattendantincreasedriskoftype2diabetes.Thecostofobesityisestimatedtobeover$150billionperyear.Another“disease”whichhasgreatlyincreasedinthelast20yearsintheUSisopioidaddic-tion, with annual opioid death rates quadrupling since 1999 from 16,849 to 70,237 in2017.TheincreaseisbigenoughtoaffecttheoveralllifeexpectancyintheUSA,whichhasgonedown in the last twoyears for the first time.Whilewidespreadoversellingofpre-scriptionofopioids(e.g.,oxycontin)startedtheepidemicinthelate1990s,recentlymorepotent blackmarket opioids (e.g., fentanyl) havedominated.Massachusetts is among thetop10states,witharatethatpeakedin2016at2,099/year.Sincethen,considerableef-


fortsbyphysiciansandgovernmentleadershavebeguntograduallybringdowntheratesbyabout4%peryear.

Now Some Good News Smokingandlungcancerhavediminishedremarkably.Cigarettesmokingpeakedin1963,with an amazing 4,345 cigarettes per year per adult in the US (down 75% to 1,016 in2016).1964wasagoodyear,notjustforusgraduatingfromMIT,butfortheworld,withthereleaseoftheSurgeonGeneral’sreportonsmokingandhealth.SincethensmokinghasdeclinedintheUSfromabout42%ofthepopulationtoabout18%anditisestimatedthat9millionliveshavebeensaved.Therewasa30-yeardelayinthereductionoflungcancerdeath rates which peaked in 1993 at 59/100,000 people and since has fallen 29% in2015.However,lungcancerisstilltheleadingcauseofcancerdeath.Eachyear,morepeo-pledieoflungcancer(142,000)thanofcolon,breast,andprostatecancerscombined.Manyothercausesofdeathhavealsogonedowndramaticallysince1960whenadjustedforpopulationandage: influenzaandpneumonia (82%), cerebrovasculardisease (79%),heart disease (70%), gastrointestinal diseases (56%), liver disease (48%),motor vehicleaccidents(48%),breastcancer(37%,andprostatecancer(33%).

New Drugs Drugdiscoveryhaschangedfromseekingrandomnaturalproductswithbeneficialeffects(e.g., penicillin, cyclosporin) to designer drugs intentionally based on knowledge of thefunctionandstructureofthetarget(e.g.anti-HCVandHIVdrugs).Immunologyhashelpedwiththediscoveryofmonoclonalantibodies,highlyspecificdrugsthattargetasinglemol-eculeand therebyhave fewer sideeffects.Someexamples includecheckpoint inhibitorsusedtostimulatetheimmuneresponsetocancer(JimmyCarterwascuredofametastaticmelanoma by this), anti-inflammatory antibodies such as Entyvio used for inflammatoryboweldisease (basedononeofour laboratoryantibodies from35yearsago)andanti-Bcellantibodiesforlymphomaandleukemia.Practically all the drugs used clinically now were not known when I went to medicalschool.We lowerour cholesterolwith statins, curewetmaculardegenerationof theeyewith anti-VEGF, and alleviate rheumatoid arthritis with tumor necrosis factor inhibitorsproducedbygeneticallyengineereddrugs.

New Treatments OrgantransplantationhasbecomewidespreadsincethefirstsuccessfulkidneytransplantwasdoneattheBrighamhospital inBostonin1954byJosephMurray.Improvements insurgery and immunosuppressant drugs have enabled lifesaving transplantation of heart,liver, lung,pancreas,smallbowelandbonemarrow.Outpatientkidneydialysisstarted in1962,whichallowedpatientstostayalivewithoutkidneyfunctionwhileawaitingadonor.Heart support included the heart-lung machine allowing replacement of artificial heartvalvesin1960andextracorporealmembraneoxygenationin1976.ThecurrentresearchatMassachusettsGeneralHospital(MGH)isfocusedonaclinicaltrialtoinduceimmunologi-cal tolerance to the foreign organs, through the use of donor bonemarrow. Thiswouldeliminatetheneedformultipledrugsandtheircomplications. So far,wehavehadsome


successinaboutadozenrecipients,withourfirstpatientnowovertenyearswithawell-functioningkidneyallograftandnoimmunosuppressivedrugs.

Biopsyfromapatientwhoreceivedakidneytransplantandbonemarrowtransplant8yearspreviously, using a novel research protocol developed at Massachusetts General Hospi-tal.Sheistolerantanddoesnotrequireimmunosuppressivedrugs.Achievingtolerancehaslongbeentheholygrailofclinicaltransplantationandprogresscontinuestobemade.Overall,36,527organtransplantswereperformedintheUnitedStatesin2018,whichsetanannualrecordforthesixthstraightyear(partlyanunfortunatebenefitoftheopioidcri-sis).Since1988750,000patientshavereceivedanorgantransplant.Thelimitingfactorisnotmedicine,butratherthedonorsupply.Thisistheyearofthepig!Thehopeforthefu-ture is that organs from pigs (xenotransplants)might fill the void through genetic engi-neering.A new technology, CRISPR, has boosted the likelihood of that outcome and astartupcompanyinCambridge,eGenesis,ispursuingthis.CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) enzymes, combinedwithaDNAcuttingenzyme(Cas9),permitsefficientgeneticinsertionsandrepairsinlivingcells.Severalcompanies,includingEditasinCambridge,havebeenstartedtodevelopther-apeuticstrategiesbasedonthisdiscoverybyJenniferDoudnain2012atUCBerkeleyand


FengZhangattheBroadInstituteofMITin2011(bothofwhomreceivedpatents)andclin-ical trials areunderway.Manyethical and scientific issueshavebeen raised, suchas theapparentgeneeditingofahumanembryoinChina.Muchmoretocome,staytuned!A fewothernotableadvances.Kneesandhips canbe replacedwithartificial joints, ena-bling us bionic oldsters to continue our tennis and golf games.Laparoscopic surgery iswidelyused.Nowyoucanstillwhereabikiniafteryourgallbladderoperation.Novelimag-ing techniques arehighlydependenton technologyand computation (CT scans, positronimaging, functionalMRI, Doppler angiography andmore). These have improved diagno-sis.Genetic sequencing is identifying individual drug targets in cancer for “personalizedmedicine”andcalculationofriskforhereditarydiseases.Genesequencinghasbecomeex-ponentiallycheaperandisnowlessthan$1000.

MIT and Medicine MIThasgrownenormouslyinthefieldsofbiology,biomedicalengineeringandmedicine.Asmedicinehasgottenmorescientificandabletoengineertherapies,itispredictablethatMITstudentswouldbeattractedtoBiology,CourseVII,nowthemajorof8%oftheunder-graduates.MIT started the Health Sciences and Technology (HST) program with Harvard MedicalSchool in1970.HSTadmitsabout40studentsperyear toa two-yearprogramstrong inscienceandappealing toscientificallyorientedstudentswho thengo toHarvardMedicalSchoolhospitalsfortheirclinicaltraining.Ihavehadtheprivilegeofteachingsomeoftheclassesandthestudentsareoutstanding.MIT’sBiologydepartment issuperb,withthreeNobelPrizewinnersamongthecurrentfaculty(RobertHorvitz,PhillipSharpandSusumuTonegawa).MITalsohas implementedmajorresearch institutes inbiologyandmedicine:WhiteheadInstitute forBiomedicalResearch (1982),McGovern Institute forBrainResearch (2000),PicowerInstituteforLearningandMemory(2002),BroadInstitute(2004),KochInstitutefor Integrative Cancer Research (2007).These foster connections and collabora-tion/sharedfacultywithMGHandHarvardMedicalSchoolandhavemadeKendallSquaretheworld’sepicenterofbiologicalresearch.AndMITisnotstandingstill.ThisyearMITcreatedtheSchwarzmanCollegeofComputingwhichwillsupportartificialintelligence(AI)researchandapplicationsinallfields,includ-ingmedicine. I was delighted to attend their inaugural program in March, I was blownawaybytheenergy,powerandcreativityof this innovation.AI isbeingusedto improvediagnosis of mammograms and tissue biopsies, to assist the radiologist andpathologist.Watsonishelpingclinicianswithtumordiagnosis.

Payment for Healthcare One year afterwe graduated,Medicare andMedicaidwere created and the so-calledAf-fordableCareAct followedin2010.Meanwhilethecostofmedicalcarehas increasedex-ponentially,from5%ofGDPin1960to17.9%ofGDPin2017,still8.8%ofAmericanshave


nohealthinsurancecoverage.Thesolution-Singlepayer?Moreregulation?Newtechnolo-gy?Betterlifestyles?Don’taskme,I’monlyadoctorandI’moutofspaceonthisessay.Robert B. Colvin ’64, HarvardMedical School ‘68, is Benjamin CastlemanDistinguishedProfessorofPathology,HarvardMedicalSchool,andPathologist-in-Chief,emeritus,Massa-chusettsGeneralHospital.He leadsapathologyresearchprogram in transplantationandkidneydisease.


Analog to Digital - Close-Up View Donald M. Stewart

The House of Analog Horrors Our livesbegan inananalogworld.By today’s standards itwasnot complex, ratheronethat captured the advances of the late Victorian era, the inventiveness of the early20thCentury,andarmamentsoftwoworldwars.Analogiswhatyoucouldreadonameterorheardfromaloudspeaker,whiledigitalbarelyexisted.Analogdesigntendedtoattractengineerswithquirkyoutlooks.Theirviewwasperfectlyreasonable,giventhetoilneededtoachieveananalogdesignthatwaslowcosttomanufac-ture,withadjustmentpointsthatwereindependentofeachother.Signalinteractionsmadeanalogdesignsdifficulttoachievefullaccuracy.Perhapsthebest-knownanalogcircuitto-dayisthebatteryperformancemonitorintheAppleiPhone.AnalogcircuitsalwaysleavemewiththesensethattheycouldbefurtheroptimizedifIonlyhadthetime.I admireanalogengineers–bothelectrical andmechanical - for their importantworkofsoftening industry’s transition todigitaldesign.ThePlanB (back-up)versionofa circuitcouldbecomplexanalog,butwithinthecapabilitiesofadebuggeddesignandmanufactur-

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ingprocess.Thedigitaldesignerson thedesign teamcouldbe solicitousas theyhad theenormousleverageoftheexperiencecurvetodrivedowncost.Howdidpeopleonthestreetexperiencetheanalogtodigitaltransition?Theshortansweristhattheyremainedinexperiencedasadoptiontimesweremeasuredindecades.Theear-liestcircuitwithvolumesinthemillionswastheautomotivesparkignitionswitchthatper-formedthehumbleroleofprovidingasparkforallcylinders.Itreplacedmechanicalcon-tactsthatdidnotperformconsistently.Mostpeoplewereunawarethatthedevicewasintheircar.Whenyou think about analog circuits, consider includinghumanswithour thousandsofanalog feedback control loops. As we know from personal experience, these electro-chemicalcircuitsfunctioninawiderangeofenvironments.Iexperiencedtheanalogtodigitaltransitioninavarietyofways:Asachildthecoaltruckwouldarriveperiodically,butitcouldnotdumpitsloadnearourfurnaceforlackofaccess.Insteadthecoalwascarriedovertheshoulderintothecoalbininabagsimilartoarucksack.Noonehaddesignedausefulcoalunloader,sohumanswerethebeastsofburden.Thefurnacehadascrewdrivethatdepositedcoallumpsinaregularpatternontheburn-inggrate.Thedriveengagedinnotoriousbehaviorsresultinginacoldhouseatunwantedtimes.Withthreeyoungchildrenandahusbandwithaheavytravelschedule,mymother’schoicesweremeetingthechallengebyfeedingthedriveonelumpatatimeorsignalingde-feattoanunknowntechnologicalmasterwhowon,exceptthedaywhenitwasbrokenupusingsledgehammers.Herswasananalogsolutionassheadjustedthelocationof lumpsonthegratetocompensateforerrorsinthefurnace.OurhomeinsuburbanNewYorkCitywasahalf-timberedmasterpiece.Itprovidedhidingplacesinabundance,andanindoorbalconyopeningontoatwo-storylivingroom.Today’sdigitally controlled tools never came close to it during construction. The builder mademeasurements hisway: Thehouse had21 separate levels, including one for every roomandoneortwomorewhenthegapsbetweenboardsseemedexcessive.TheBendixclotheswasherwasatalenteddancer,asitmovedwithstyleacrossthekitchen,usingitspowercordasatether.Myparentsconsidereditanill-temperedguestthatleakedwater,wasnotparticularlysafe,andcouldthumpthefloorclosetothehearinglimitof115db.Itmetthesamefateasthefurnace,brokenupinthebackofatruckonthewaytothedump.Recyclingwasstill25yearsinthefuture.DonStewart’64Course6,HarvardMBA1966,startedworkataNavybaseinFloridafortwoyears,thenmovedbacktoBostonworkinginsalesandmarketing.Withtwodecadesofexperience, he then joined the consultingworld, workingwith a partner to cut time-to-marketforproductsindevelopment.Thisisaself-consumingmarketwherecorporations


learnhowtomanagedevelopment time,oftenwithexcruciatingoutcomes.He isgratefulfortheeducationprovidedbytheMITfaculty.

From Pong to PCs| 111

From Pong to PCs Jim Allen

In the Beginning Onacold,snowymorning in1960, I trudgedacross theHarvardBridgeanddevelopedafrozennostrilonthewindwardside.IntothecomputerroomIwentandimmediatelyno-ticed thatmy nosewas thawing as I breathed in the almost 90° airwarmed by an IBM709.That709wastheprocessorandtheheatwasgettinghigherastheupgradedvacuumtubeskickedon.MySaturdaymorning labassignmentwas inBuilding26onaDigitalComputerCorpora-tion’sPDP1.Iwastomakealargedot(supposedlyanairplane),dropasmallerdot(sup-posedlyabomb)inanticipationofgettingthesmalldottolandonthetargetwhilethelargedotwasmovingacrossthescreen.Imissed,buteventuallygotbetteratunderstandingthiscomputer’s possibilities. The intended consequences include an accurate bomb sight. Anunexpectedconsequencewouldbearocketthatcanfindaheatsourceorastarwarsspin-offwiththeabilitytolocateashooter,manymilesaway.Onecansimplycalculatethetra-jectoryoftheincomingbullet(adjustingforwind,thesuneffect,curvatureoftheearthanditsrotation)andthenshootbacktoitscurrentsourcebeforetheenemyreloads.ThisearlyversionofAtari’sPonghelpedmetounderstandthe“Power”ofacomputerinmySaturdaymorningPhysics lab.Years later Iwasable to testmarket thatnew“game” inCaliforniawithAtari.IwasnotasimpressedasIshouldhavebeenwitheitherthe709,thePDP1lab,ortheAtaricomputergame.StillatMIT,IenteredacoursetaughtbyJayWrightForrestercalledIndustrialDynamics.Ilearned to plot changes in variables and created formulaswhere two ormore variablesweredependentoneachotherattheSloanSchoolofManagement.Itriedtoworkonget-tingastockmarketmodeltoworksothatIcouldpayforgradschool,butIwastoldthatDr.Foresterwasalreadyworkingonthat.MyroommatewascreatingprogramsinFortranus-ingnamesofvariableslikehell,sexandecstasy.IwaspretendingtolearnCOBOL.Inmy summer job, amanagement training course at Proctor& Gamble, Iwas thrown agreatproject-howtousetheaccountingsystemfornumberingjobsandequipment.Wehadathree-digitdepartmentcode,alistof4digitjobtypeslikewelding,ormachiningorreplacingorpacking.Thenwehadthreedigitsleftoverfromourtendigitcode.Isuggestedaletterandnumbertoidentifytheequipmentlikeapump,crutcher,plodderetc.Myideawasacceptedbyallof theothermanagers in theplant. Icamebacktosee itsusefulnessandlearnedmoreabouthowacomputercouldbeusedinbusiness.

IBM Was the Place to Be MyMIT thesis required something called a libraryprogramand Iwas able to figure outhowtousethislargeheavymachinethatlookedlikeagiantaddingmachinewithatype-writerattached.Itsprogramwas“wired,”notonpunchedcards…AnIBM403,ifyoure-call.BeforelongIwasatIBM,sellingequipmentwithgreatlineslike“morecorewillsolve


thatproblem”or“soundslikeyouneeda360upgrade”.Inotherwords,stillinthe‘60’sIhadexperiencewiththirdgenerationmachines,firstandsecondgenerationequipmentandgreyironalldoingnumbercrunchingforusefulpurposes.Asthemachinesweregettingfasterandcheaperandmoreuseful,businesseswererentingorleasing.Machineswereoftentooexpensivewithtooshortalifetobuy.TheequipmentcoulddohyphenationorpaginationorchangefontsfasterthantheIBMbouncingball.Therateofchange,accordingtoMoore’sLawwasroughlyadoublingofcapacityofcomputerchipsevery2years(now18months)andthepricehalved.IBMstockwasabout$700pershare($12intoday’s’equivalentaftersplitsorabout10%oftoday’sprice).Thisstockwasagreatbonusasitroseten-foldoverthenexttwentyfiveyears.

California and Memorex Beckon California’sSiliconValleywasalsointhisrace.Thevalleywasafineagricultureregionin-cludingWineries likeMorganHill, PaulMasson or Charles Lefranc.Many of thesewinemakersinSantaClarawerefromEuropeanfamilieswhobroughtrootsandstartedinfreshsoil.WhenthegrapephylloxerainsectshitEurope,manyvineyardsre-imported therootstockfromCaliforniaandtheirwineindustrywassaved.TheshiftforthewineindustrytoNapaandotherregionsstartedsincethecomputercompanieswerewillingtopaymoreforrealestatethanthewineindustry.EventheonionandpruneindustriessoldouttothehighflyersandtooktheirrealestateearningsintothelowercostareasofCalifornia.WhileatMemorex,whichbeganasatapemanufacturer,thecompanybecamequiteprofit-ableastheyaddedplugcompatibleperipherals,thustakingsomeofIBM’smarketshareatalowerprice.Memorexstockwentfrom$5persharetoover$160pershareinlessthanayear.Thetechcompaniesweredifferentbutalsohadseveral features incommon:greatgrassoutsidetheircheaponeortwostorybuildings,lotsofbrilliantengineers,andlotsofgoingawaypartiesattheirmain“afterworkwateringhole”.RobertNortonNoyceearnedhisPhDatMITbeforehecofoundedFairchildSemiconductorinSanJose.Hewasnicknamed"theMayorofSiliconValley."HewasanAmericanphysicistwhoalsocofoundedIntelCorporationin1968.HewasalmostassuccessfulasSteveJobsofAppleinthenorthernSiliconValley.AfriendofmineatMemorexwasAlanShugart.ItwassaidthatifAlShugartwalkedoutontothegolfcoursestylelawnatMemorex,andasked,the whole companywould follow. He was an outstanding friendwho had left IBM andbroughtwithhimtoMemorexacadreofengineers.Hebuiltseveraldifferenttechnologiesfordiscdrives,includingthefirstFloppydiscdriveforcommercialpurposes.Hethenleftandstartedhisownmanufacturingcompany.HisbestadventurewasSeagateTechnology,aworld-widecomputerhardwarecompanywhereAlbecameclosetoabillionaire.ItisnaturaltowishtodevelopatechnologytomakemoremoneythanatypicalIBMsales-man.So,IfoundedAmericanConservationCompanyanddesignedaprocessorcontroller(computer) likeacheaperversionof thePDPseries, tomeasuresourcesofheatandA/Cfrom either the ground or the air. Solar and geothermalwere great heat resources and

From Pong to PCs| 113

sinksandthecostwaseasilyidentifiablebytemperature.Theonlyproblemwasthatoneneededtohaveagoodideaofwhatmoneycosts.

Enter the PC! ThenextstepwastostartaPCorientedcompany.Onecompany,ComputerLandinSanJo-se,wasstartedbyaMemorexEmployeewhohadusedmysamedesksatMemorextwiceintwojobs,oneinInternationalsales.OurrevenueatMemorexgrewtomorethanEllaFitz-geraldbroughtinforhersignatureadvertising“IsitEllaorisitMemorex?”Later,inthePCbusinessboomofthe1980’sthelow-techIBMPCtookthemarket.Noton-lywasitpromisedasapersonalcomputerithadmorecomputingpowerthanthe7090in1962 at MIT or the 360/65 at the US Department of Defense,after seven or more ofMoore’sLawdoublings.Really,itcouldcalculatefasterandthedataportsorchannelswerefasterANDwithtinyheatissues.ThedefensedepartmenthadaboutamillionPC’sandIwas able to market the first commercially available laptop (copied from the CIA prod-uct).ThatproductbyGRIDfromFremont,California.Oneoutofevery100Fremontciti-zensownedapatent in2000.Applewas founded inRedwoodCity, nearFremont alongwithahostofotherstart-ups.TheGrid laptophadasimilarcharacteristic likethe709oftheearly‘60’s,lotsofheat.Ifyouputitonadesk,itwouldhaveanauditablefanthatblewthehotairacross thebottompowersupplyandkept thisvery fastprocessorsufficientlycool.Ifyouputitonyourbed,youWOULDlightyourbedspreadonfire.What is clear is that thebirthof computers in theUSAhaschanged theclimate forbusi-ness.Withoutcomputers,everypersonintheUSAwouldbeabanktellerifwewishedtodoasmanybanktransactionsaswenowdo.But, therewouldbenooneavailable,sinceeveryonewouldbeatelephoneoperatorifwemaintainedourphonecalllevel.

Thoughts for the Future Fewunderstand themanyapplicationsofhigh technology.Therearenotenoughpeoplewhoknowhowtoprogramasatelliteorfigureouthowtokeeptheinternetfromoverload-ing.Therearenotenoughpeoplewhoknowhowtomakeourcellphonestieintoourcarphonesorknowhowtoenterdaylightsavingstimechangesintotheircarclock.Seriously,wouldmorememorysolvethatproblemordoyouneedanupgrade?OnenewprospectisNanotechnology...asmallthing.Ananometerisonebillionthofame-ter…1/50,000 the thicknessofahumanhair.Nanotechnologybasedcomputersusetinymolecule-sizedmachinesthatprocessdatainawaylikethecomplexandintricatecellsofalivingorganism.Theheatfactorcanbemodest.Thespeedswillcontinuetogrow,maybeatMoore’sLaw,butmaybefaster.Wewillneverbeabletopredicttheeffectsfromartificialintelligence intimetonothaveunexpectedconsequences.TechnologychallengesaboundforthenextMITgradstosolve.JimAllen,MIT’64,workedforIBMandMemorexandlater foundedthehighlysuccessfulEntreComputingCenters.Heisnowretiredandownerofahorsefarm.


How Electronics Changed Since Graduation - A Com-pression of Space and Time Bob Blumberg

Early Impressions of Computer Technology HereIam,anex-ChemicalEngineer,writingaboutchangesintheelectronicsworldinthe55yearssinceourgraduation.Theonlywaytomakesenseof thatparadox is to tellyouthatIco-foundedanelectronicsmanufacturingcompanywhichIthenranfor30years,butmore than that, I haveobservedwhat theelectronics innovationshavedone toalterourlives.

Thethemeofthiswillbe“Compression”.ThisisnotthecompressionwelearnedinPhysi-calChemistry,orHeatorMassTransfer,butthecompressionofspaceandthecompressionof time.The most all-encompassing changes have been in the fields of computers andcommunications.

WhenwewereinHighSchool,the1956electionwaspredictedonelectionnightbyaUni-vac computer, runningvacuum tubes, and takingupa large room.Whenwewere fresh-man,Iremembermechanicallypunchedcards,compiledandputinassemblylanguage,andrun on a IBM 7090, now making use of solid state electronics in the form of transis-tors.Computersstilltookupasizableroom.

Moore’s Law a Major Driver in Achieving Growth in Computing Capabilities Soonprintedcircuitboardstookovertheinsidesofcomputers,andcomponentswerecon-nectedbywire-wrap.Thatwasfirstdonebyhand,thensemi-automated.Aftertransistorscame integrated circuits, shrinking real estate further.Then came pin-through-hole andwavesolderforprintedcircuitcards.Costpercomponentwasdrivendown.Finerandfin-er line spacing enabled chips to contain more memory, more processing pow-er.Engineeringworkstations and personal computers shrunk the real estate need for acomputerenormously,and thecostof computing fellprecipitously.Pin-through-holewasfollowedbysurfacemounttechnology,andenormousdegreesofautomation inmanufac-ture.

AtonepointinmycareerIhadapartner,inhis40’s,whowastheprincipalarchitectoftheIBM360/50computer,itslargestsellerinthosedays.(SadtosayhewasanRPIgrad,notMIT!).Hewentintoacomputerstoreandorderedastate-of-thePC/AT.Theclerk,around19yearsoldsaid“Thatwillbe$6000”(orthereabouts).Mypartnerresponded,“Iwastheheadof the teamthatdesigned the IBM360/50whichwasslower than this,had far lessmemory than this,andcostover$1Million”.Theclerk lookedupandsaid, “Whatelse isnew,Pops?”

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Compression Enables Cellular Communications and Big Data Meanwhile,incommunications,thecellphonewasinvented,andstartedmakinginroadstothe traditionalwire-line telephone communications.As thenumberofphones increased,thedensityofcelltowersincreased,andcoveragebecamenear-universal.Continuedcom-pression of circuitry enabled some computer-like characteristics to be includedwith thecellphone.On thesoftwareside, thebirthof computer-to-computercommunicationsandthedevelopmentoftheInternet,enabledphonestobecomesmarterandsmarter.

Now,wetakeforgrantedthatacomputerisintegratedwithaphone,andboththesecapa-bilitiesfitintoourpocket.Withvoiceandwrittenmessagecommunicationscapabilities,aswellasthetelevisionbuiltintothesmallscreen,eachofuspossessestheabilitytotalktoanyone,anywhereandanytime,tosendmessagesandmemossimilarly,tolistentoourfa-voritemusic,seesportingevents,thenewsandshows,tolookupinformationonanysub-ject,totranslatelanguages,andtoplayinteractivegames.Astheysay,“Whowouldathunkit?”So the space for enormous computing power has been compressed from huge rooms tosomethingthatfitsinourpocket.Entireencyclopediasandeverymagazineandnewspaperpublished fits in our pocket.Games, music, movies, a telephone, all things that took upspacearedowntoa5”x3”x3/8”object.

Consequences and Impacts of the Electronics Revolution Just as astounding has been the compression of time, and how it has affected ourlives.Letters,whichtookdaysorweekstodeliver,werefirstreplacedbyfaxmachines,andnowbyinstantaneouse-mails.Whenyouleftworkinaday,itwastoughtoreachyou,im-possible ifyouwereanywhereother thanhome,andeven ifyoucouldbereached, therewaslittleyoucoulddowithoutdrivingbacktowork.Now,everyoneison-call24/7,andhasnoexcusenottobeabletoputthingsasideandsolveaproblemwiththetoolsathand.Socialmediaallowustobeintouchwithallourfriendsinstantaneously,regardlessofloca-tionortimeofday.Wecanreachintoourpocket,takeaphotograph,andsenditaroundtheworld,all inamatterofseconds.Thereisnoreasontoeverbeboredwithall thein-formationandentertainmentatourfingertips.Althoughmostly for the good, this compression is not all good.Just aswe learned com-pression of gases generates heat, this compression of time and capabilities generates itsown“heat”aswell.Heat toalwaysbeworkingoron-call.Heat toalwaysbeentertained,avoidingdown timeand thinking time.Heat to generatepolitical divisiveness,whichweseealltoooftenthesedays.Heatthatpreventsquietnegotiationsanddiplomacytoflour-ish.

Yet, aswe reflect on the changes in electronics and the changes their advancement haswrought,theneteffecthasbeentoraisemillionsofpeopleintheworldtoahigherstand-ardofliving,toescapepoverty.Ourliveshavebeenenriched.Butlikealltechnologicalad-vances, thebenefitsdependonhowsocietyuses theadvances.Andpeopleareslower to


learnnewsocialhabitswell,thantolearnuseofthetechnologyitself.Hopefully,weandourchildren(grandchildrennowfortheclassof’64)willlearntousethemwisely.BobBlumberg'64-Afterayear-longMSfromMITinChemicalEngineering,BobwentuptheRivertoHBSforhisMBA.AstintatthePentagonasajuniorArmyofficerdoingplan-ningandbudgeting,was followedby10years in theVentureCapital Industry.Bob thenmovedacrossthetable,becameanentrepreneur,andwiththreeotherMITalumni,found-ed Spectragraphics, an electronicsmanufacturing company, which he ran as CEO for 30years. After selling it, he has been a consultant to small andmid-size businesses, and iscurrentlymentoring two youngerMIT gradswho are starting technology ventures. BobalsoworksforMIT’sCorporateDevelopmentCouncil,afteratermontheCorporation.Re-cently, he startedapoliticalblog,www.amctrst.org, dedicated to showing theneed for athird,CentristPartyinourcountry.

From Aeronautics Student to Citizen Lobbyist| 117

From Aeronautics Student to Citizen Lobbyist

JimLernerIwasoriginallygoingtotellyouaboutmyworkinWindEnergyandAirPollutionworkingfor the State of California.But Climate Change turns out to bemore significant, so bearwithmeasItellyouhowIgothere. I thought I was going to be an Aero & Astro Engineer.Ever since I was a little guy, Idreamedofflyingandspacetravel.Iwatchedthesciencefictionfilmsontheweekendsandreadbooks,bothsciencefictionandsciencefact,andthatreallygotmyjuicesgoing.IwillneverforgetwhatMITProfessorJimmyMarsaidtousatour50thReunionatMIT.Hesaid,“Wecan’tpaytheAerogradsenough,butweknowanMITAerostudentbecauseheorshealwayslooksupwhileinaparkinglotwhenanairplanefliesoverhead.”Howtrueitis! IstudiedAeroandAstroatMITandlovedit.Aftergraduationin1964IwentoutwesttoStanford(enoughofthosecoldwinters)andgotanM.S.andPh.D.inAero&Astro.IloveditandwouldhavecontinuedacareerstartingatBoeing,whereIworkedaftermyM.S.

A New Direction

ButthefirstEarthDayatStanfordin1970changedeverything!IhadnoideatheEarthwassomessedup.IrealizedIhadtodosomethingaboutit,butIhadnoclue.So,IwenttoPariswiththeStanfordundergrads,andwhileIproofreadmythesisinacoffeeshopIalsoreadPaul and Jane Ehrlich’s “The Population Bomb” and Donella and Dennis Meadowset al,“TheLimits toGrowth.”These twobooks changed everything forme.I still didn’t knowwhatIshoulddo,soIstayedinEuropefortwoyearsandsawhowtheylived.Theyseemedtogetbyon1/3to1/2theenergyandresourcesthatweusedandwereveryhappy.Whycan’twedothat?

SoIcamehomein1974andstart-ed looking fora job. Ihadseveralinterviewsbutdidn’tknowwhereto go until I talked to JohnHoldren.(JohnlaterbecamePres-ident Barack Obama’s ClimateChange advisor in the WhiteHouse.)Hewasayearbehindmein Aero and Astro atMIT, and hewent toStanford inAppliedPhys-ics, so I knew him.I contactedhim, and he said to look at theCalifornia Energy Commission(CEC) in Sacramento, the State

Capital,thatwasjuststartingup.I’llneverforgetwhathesaidnearly45yearsago:“Bettertohandoutmoneythantogrovelforit.”So,IwenttotheCECanddecidedtoworkonen-ergyandtheenvironment.


EventhoughIabandonedAero&Astroasacareer,Ialwayslovedairplanesandspaceve-hicles and followed them whenever I could.I convinced the management at CEC that IwantedtostartaWindEnergyProgramfortheStateofCalifornia.IknewthatmytraininginAerodynamicswouldhelp.IalsohadamentorinSwedenwhohadstartedtheSwedishWindEnergyProgramandhelpedmealot.So,in1978,morethan40yearsago,theCali-forniaWindEnergyProgramwascreatedbylegislationthatwassignedbyGovernorJerryBrowninhisfirstterm.IhadthepleasureoftestifyingbeforetheLegislatureaboutthisbill. MyAerobackgroundservedmeyetagain,whenIworkedfortheCaliforniaAirResourcesBoard.Since Ihadabackground inAeromyEPAcounterpart sentmeabookwritten in1999bythescientistsoftheInternationalPanelonClimateChangecalled“TheGlobalIm-pactofAviation.”Ireaditeagerly.IlearnedthatforeverypoundofCO2thatcomesfromtheexhaustofjets,theglobalclimatechangeimpactofjetsisabout2.5timesthisnumber,owinginlargeparttothe“climateforcing”ofCO2atcruisealtitude. Beforeyou start to feel guilty about flying, stop right there. Just remember that all of usfly.HowdidImanagetogettothisReunioninafewhours?Iflewinajetairplaneacrossthecountry.So,wemustfindawaytoproducezeroemissionsfromjet fuel.Ifyou’reanMITguylikeme,youarealreadycalculatingthetonsofCO2fromflying.Well,it’salot,be-causemoreofusareflyingfarther,andthatsurpassestheincredible55%improvementinfuelefficiencyofapassengerjetbetween1960(Boeing707),whencommercial jetswerefirstintroduced,comparedto2009(Boeing787)whentheBoeinglongrangemodeltookitsfirstflight. Atthetime,IknewnothingaboutGlobalWarmingorClimateChangeaswenowcall it.Ijustknewthateverybarrelofimportedoilwecouldavoidbyusingwindturbinestogener-ateelectricity,meant0.4metric tonsofCO2wouldnotgo into theatmosphere. (Aside: Ididn’t know at the time that the greenhouse effect was known formore than 80 years,thanks toSvanteArrheniusor thatPresidentLyndon Johnsonknewabout it, thanks toareportgiventohimover53yearsago.) Ilovedwindenergy,andafterworkingattheCEC,IwasawindenergyconsultantfortheCity of Fairfield (midway between Sacramento and San Francisco), that had big dreamsaboutunpluggingfromthelocalutilitygrid.ThenIformedmyowncompanycalledWindDevelopers,Inc.Ourgoalwastodevelopwindfarmsinthemid-1980s.Ifeltathomedoingthis, because itwasquite similar to theoil business inwhich I hadgrownup.You leaselandfromarancher,andyouprovidearoyaltyfortheprivilegeofinstallingenergy-pro-ducingdevicesontheir land.Inonecase, it’sanoilwell.Inanothercase, it’sawindtur-bine. IbrieflyreturnedtomyLouisianarootsinthefamilyoil&gasbusinessaround1985(No,I’mnotan“oilbaron”asmyStanfordadvisorandformerMITAero&AstroProfessor,HoltAshley,usedtocallme.).Ilearnedhowharditwastomakealivingfromstripperoilwellsthataveragedlessthan1/4barrelofoilperday.Iknewabouttheenvironmentalimpactofoilwells,butIknewnothingaboutClimateChange.


Climate Change is Real Infact,Ionlyfoundoutaboutclimatechangein1988,whenIwaswithmyfamilyonava-cation inWashington,D.C.Again,Aero andAstrohad a role toplay.Being an aerospacejunkie,I justhadtogototheAir&SpaceMuseumAnnex,thenlocatedinawarehouseinthe eastern end of the District.While driving there, Iwas listening to a radio broadcastwhereanexpertinclimate,Dr.JamesHansen,whoworkedatNASA,wastestifyingbeforeCongress.Iwassoshockedandinterestedatthesametime,thatIpulledthecaroverandlistenedtohisentiretestimony.Ittookawhileformetodoanythingaboutit,buttheseedwasplanted. WhenIreturnedhome,Iwaswonderingwhattodonext.AfriendsaidIshouldlookattheCaliforniaAirResourcesBoard(CARB),sinceithadtheclosestthingtoa“thinktank,”anditwouldallowmetocontinueworkingonenergyandtheenvironment. Iwenttoworktherein1990,yearsbeforetheyhadalegislative“mandate”tostartworkingonclimatechangeinCalifornia.Iworkedontransportationandairqualityplanning,whichmeanswemakecarsandtruckscleaner,wetrytogetpeopletotakealternativemodesoftransportation, and we implement for California the Clean Air Act as managed by theEPA.Ifthatsoundsbureaucratic,itis! Itwas late2006whenCARBgotthe legislativemandatetotrytoreduceCalifornia’sCO2emissions in2020towhat theywere in1990.WeknewthatCO2wasaglobalpollutant,butwewantedtoseeifwecoulddothisforCaliforniawithouthamperingtheeconomy.Icall this“taking littlebabysteps,”sincethe2020emissionswouldhavetobereducedby15%fromthe“businessasusual”scenario.Thethinkingwasthatifwecouldmanagetodothiswithoutdamaging theeconomyand jobs, thenwecould show this to the restof theworld.Ofcourse,it’sonethingtodoitforaState,andquiteanothertodoitfortheentireplanet. TherearesixgasesotherthanCO2thatcauseglobalwarming.OneotherisMethane(CH4)whichis80timesmorepowerfulthanCO2,butitisshort-lived(about12years).CO2hasthelargesteffectbecauseitisthemostabundantgasproducedbyhumansandstaysintheupper atmosphere for hundreds of years, continuing towarm the planet. So,when I say“CO2”,Imeanallthegreenhousegases,withCO2beingthemostdamaging.Inpractice,wesometimessayCO2effectiveorCO2efftostandforalltheGreenhouseGases. ItturnsoutthatCaliforniametitsrequirementin2016,fouryearsearly,so“allweneeddonow”isreducethistonearzerogloballyassoonaspossible.Somesay2030,whileothersaremorerealisticinsuggestingthiswillhappenby2045. Butgobackto2013,theyearIretiredfromCARB.InolongerwasboundbytheCaliforniaLegislatureandcoulddowhatever Iwanted.Iwas lookingaroundforsomethingneat todo,andIdiscoveredtheCitizensClimateLobby.Inanutshell, thisgroup,nowmorethan100,000memberswithchaptersinnearlyeveryCongressionalDistrict,hasbeenworkingonaproposaltoputafeeonCO2emissionsthatisrevenueneutral,i.e.,themoneycollect-edisreturnedtohouseholds.Inpart,thisenablesthepeopletopayfortheincreasedcostsof fossil fuels, andon theotherhand, thesteadily - rising feeonCO2sendsaneconomic


signalthatenablesrenewableenergytobecomelessexpensivethanfossilfuels.Thebeau-tyofthisideaisthateconomicgrowth,jobs,andGDPincreaseineveryregionofthecoun-try,evenTexasandLouisiana,asaresult.I figure that if theUSdoes this, therestof theworldwilltakenoticeandwillredoubleitsefforts.

TheCitizensClimateLobbylobbiesMembersofCongress.So,IamgoingtoDCrightafterour55thReunion, to lobbyCongress for the6th time in4years.Theskillsneeded todothisaretotallydifferentfromtheskillsIlearnedatMITandpracticedinmycareer.Itturnsout that listeningand communicating inaway thatpeoplenotonlyunderstandyou,butalsogetthemessageacrossaremuchmoreimportantthatsolvingacomplexequationandexplainingittotheMembersofCongress.Ileavethesciencetotheclimatologistsandbiol-ogistswhospendtheirlivesstudyingthisandwritingpapers.Wehavemaybe15minutestoatmostahalf-hourtotellaMemberortheiraidewhatheorsheneedstoknow,answertheirquestions,andleavesomematerialswiththem.Thesteadyworkhaspaidoff.Thereis now a bipartisan (meaningDemocratic andRepublican co-sponsors) bill in theHousecalledtheEnergyInnovationandCarbonDividendAct(HR773)thatdoesallthethingswepropose.Andthefactthatwearestrictlybipartisanreallyhelps.Thisisnotaboutonepo-liticalparty.It’saboutworkingtogethertosavetheEarth. Thinkof thisasequivalent toaMoonShotonlymuchharder.PresidentKennedysaid in1961thatweweregoingtoputamanonthemoonandreturnhimsafelytoearthbeforetheendofthesixties.Wedidit.Similarly,weundertooktoprotecttheworldfrombeingoverrunbytheNazisduringWWII.Wedidit.Likewise,wemustbeabletodothisforCli-mateChange.


We Must Do Something

Inanutshell,wemustdosomethingaboutthisverysoon,or lifeasweknowitwillnotbepossibleontheEarth.Wemightnotbeableto“solve”it,butwecanreducesuffering.That’swhatkeepsmegoing.Andwemightevenbeabletore-ducetheexcessCO2thatisintheupperatmospherecausingglobalwarmingtocontinue. A+2degreesC.increaseinaveragetemperaturebytheendofthiscenturyisnolongerten-able.Neitheris1.5degreesCinmyhumbleopinion.Why?Weareatnearly+1degreesC,and things are no longer viable.We are getting extremeweather, people are dying, andthere’snoendinsight.ConsequentlywenotonlyneedtoreducetheannualemissionsofCO2from40billiontonsperyeartozeroassoonaspossible,butwealsoneedtoreducemostifnotallofthe1trilliontonsofCO2(25timestheannualemissions)intheupperat-mosphereaswellasthedissolvedCO2intheoceans. CanwealljustleavetheEarthandbesaved?No.Thisisourhome,andtheBlueDotistheonlyplacethatwecancallhome.WemusttakecareoftheEarth. Dr. JimLerner, ’64,has3degrees inAeronautics&Astronautics.HeworkedattheCali-forniaEnergyCommission,wherehestartedtheStateWindEnergyProgramandtheCali-forniaAirResourcesBoard,whereheworkedonanumberofprojects related to theairpollution impacts of aviation.He is now the Senior Policy Advisor for the SacramentoChapteroftheCitizensClimateLobby.


Reflections on Energy Jim Monk Inthe late60’s, Istartedanewcareerdirection in the fieldofenergy.WhentheClassof1964 had graduated, I started out inmanufacturing, thinking this was a solid field thatwouldlastforever.ButtheVietnamWarandmybeingdraftedletmebackoutofonefieldandmovetoanother.WhileattendingtheSloanSchoolinthelate60’s,Ibecameinterestedinhowoursocietywasorganizedandrun–allwiththeaidofenormousamountsofenergyfromhydrocarbons.Thisseemedlikeanexciting,necessaryandusefularea,sooffIwenttobeanenergyspecialistwhenIgraduatedagainfromMITin1971.I startedwork for a very large energy company andwas soonworking on developing abusinessplanforanewrefinery.Arefinerydoesnothingbuttakearawmaterial–crudeoil --andturnit intosomeusefulproducts,suchasgasoline,keroseneanddieseloil.Butthereisaheftycostofbringinganewrefineryintobeing.Itwouldtakedecadestopayforthe investmentandanewissuewasraising itsheadat that time– theenvironmentalistswerebeginningtoobjecttothisstrangecommoditycalledpollution.Ourdevelopmentjobwastodecidetwothings:howbigarefinerywasneededandwhereshouldwelocateit.Asweworkedthroughtheprocessanothernewconceptbegantoemerge:ratherthangooutandbuildabrandnewrefineryinabrandnewlocation–a“greenfields”project–perhapswecouldgotoanexistinglocationandsimplyexpandoperationsthere.Additionalcapaci-tycouldbeaddedwithoutsubstantiallyenlargingthefacilityanditwouldthusbelesslike-lytoattractoppositionfromtheenvironmentalists.Asmy smallpartof that fairly largeproject, I andotherswere taskedwithdevelopingaforecastofthefuturecostofthatrawmaterialweweregoingtouseinlargequantities.Atthattime,theorganizationforwhichIworkedobtainedmostofitsrawmaterialfromSaudiArabia.Thecostwasaroundfiftycentsabarrel,oraboutapennyagallon.Whatmightthatcostbeinthefuture?Ihadaccesstolotsofexpertswithinthecompanywhowereexperi-encedinthecostofdevelopmentofoil fieldssotherewereavarietyofopinionsofwhatwasgoingtobethefuturecostofcrudeoil.Someofthatexperiencecamefromdevelopingoil fieldshere in theUS,where theoil formationswere smaller and the expenseshigherthaninthesandydesertsoftheMiddleEast.Inparticular,welookedatwhatwashappen-inginWestTexasasanexampleofwherecostsmightgo.Nowletmetakeasidebarforamomenttodiscussthatconceptof“Cost”versus“Price”.Atthattime,mostofthehydrocarbonenergyindustries–coal,naturalgas,oil–operatedonthe concept of the cost of thematerial.Wewent to some lengths to define exactly howmuchitcosttodrill,mine,laypipelines,buildshipsandharbors–wewerefocusedonthesupplysideofthings.Injustafewyearsintothefuture,thatwholeworldwasturnedup-sidedownandwehadtoadjusttotheconceptof“Price”.Priceiswhatyoucanobtaininthemarketplace foryourproducts.Ithasalmostnothingtodowithcost.Price issetbypeoples’perceivedneedfortheproductandthuswhattheyarewillingtopayforit.Butfor

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usinthebowelsofalargeenergycompanywhoworkedonthesupplysideofthings,itwasonlycostthatdroveusatthattime.In1972,weforecastthattwentyyearsoutthecostofthatbarrelofcrudeoilweneededtorun through the new refinery would cost over $5 per barrel – ten times the currentcost.Oh,yes,weweregoodforecasters!Lotsofseniorfolksintheoilcompanythoughtwewerecrazy.Buttheeconomicsweresolidevenwiththepriceincreases,sotherefinerypro-jectwasgiventhegreenlight.Justsoyouknow,abarrelofoilcontains42gallonsandisthestandardmeasureusedintheoil industry for volumes of oil.That standardwas set in 1866 in Pennsylvania, then thepowerful centerof the emergingpetroleum industry, but thevolumeactually came fromEnglishpracticesthatdatedbackhundredsofyears.A42gallonbarrelofoilweighsabout300poundsandwasaboutalltheoilfieldworkerscouldhandle.

Forecasting is Not Easy Onreflection,wemissedjustawholebunchofthings–OPEC,environmentalregulations,fracking–inmakingourenergypriceprediction.Clearly,theemergenceoftheOrganiza-tionofPetroleumExportingCountries (OPEC)and itsability toset thepriceofoil in themarketplacehashadadramaticeffectonall thecitizensof theworld.OPECengenderedoneofthemostmassivereallocationsofrealwealththeworldhaseverseen.Money,andpower, flowedtoOPEC inobscenequantities formorethan20years.Now, theirholdontheworldhasbeenloosenedsomewhatbythatlastitem,fracking,whichhasgeneratedasurgeofnewhydrocarbonsuppliesfortheworldtoconsume.Inthemeantime,theenvi-ronmentalregulationshavetakenseriousholdoftheworld’sattentionandarehavingtheeffectofloweringthedemandforhydrocarbonsastheyencouragetheuseofothersourcesofenergy,suchaswindandsunpower.Therewasnodiscussionintheearly70’sovertheimpactofhydrocarbonusageontheat-mosphere,otherthanthebeginningsofdiscussionsofhowsulfurthatwasboundupinthefuelswascreatingacidrain.Andmostofthattalkfocusedoncoal,ratherthanoilornaturalgas.Beyond the sulfur issue, therewas simply no concept that the hydrocarbons in thefuelswerebeingbrokendownintoendproductsthat includedcarbondioxidethatmighthave an impact on the atmosphere.Rachael Carson published her ground-breakingbook,SilentSpring,in1962,butitwasfocusedprimarilyontheimpactofchemicalsontheenvironment.While her book started the environmental movement, it took a couple ofdecadesbeforethatmovementhadaseriousimpactontheoilindustry.Carbondioxidewasindeedunderstoodbythescientificcommunitytobeanitemofinter-est,andstepsweretakentostartmeasuringthatcompoundintheatmosphere.Highupontheslopesofthelargestvolcanoonearth,MaunaLoa–locatedontheBigIslandofHawaii–a carbondioxidemeasurement stationwasestablished in1954.Ihavevisited this facili-ty.Thereisatalltowerthatputstheaircollectionpointmorethanahundredfeetabovethe surface, which itself stands over 11,000 feet above sea level.I have put my handsaroundthefourinchplasticpipethatcomesdownfromthetopofthetowerandgoesinto


the measurement room.These carbon dioxide concentration numbers became famouswhenAlGoreclimbedaladderinhismovie,AnInconvenientTruth,toshowjusthowmuchtheamountofcarbondioxidehasrisenovertimeandhowitisrisingexponentiallyatthecurrenttime.Thefundamentalnumberofpartspermillionofcarbondioxidehasnowrisentoover400PPMinearly2017–thefirsttimethatnumberhasbeenthathighinliterallymillionsofyears.The implicationsof thatsinglenumberareprobablyhuge,and itkeepsgettinghighereveryyearsofar.

Adventures in Algeria Fromtheenergycompany,ImovedtoaconsultingcompanyandwassoonsenttoworkinAlgeria.Thiswasinthelate1970’s.Wehadateamoffolkstheretohelpthegovernmentthinkaboutitsassets,includingoilandnaturalgas.TheyhadjuststartedexportingnaturalgastotheUnitedStatesintheformofLNG–LiquefiedNaturalGas–whichisnaturalgaschilledtoaboutminus260degreesFahrenheittoturnitintoaliquid,therebyreducingitsvolumebyafactorofover600times,makingiteconomicaltoshiplongdistances.NowtheUnitedStatesisusingthesametechnologytoexportnaturalgastotheworldsincewehavecreatedsomuchsupplywiththatfrackingtechnology.OneofourmajorprojectsinAlgeriawastohelpthegovernment’srepresentativestoOPECbegintosetthepriceofoilatthewellhead.WehelpeddeveloptheconceptofNetbackasamethodtosetthepriceofoil.WescouredthenewspapersofEuropeandAmericatoseewhatpeoplewerepayingfortheirenergysupplies.Thiswasthepricepeoplewerealreadywillingtopay.Wethentookcarefulmeasurementofthecostsinvolvedinthelongsupplychainback to thewellheadtonetback themarketprice to thesourceof theenergysup-ply.WefoundtheOPECcountriescouldchargejustawholelotmorethanthecostofpro-ductionbasedonthecurrentpriceintheenergymarketplace.Wesuggestedanewpriceof$7perbarrelaswhatOPECcouldcharge forSaudiArabianLight–akeycrudeoil in theworldmarket.Asthispricerolledthroughthesupplychain,wewitnessedgasolineshort-ages in theUnitedStates,rationingandthewholeEnergyShockphenomena.Today, thatpriceislongforgotten,andtheworldhassurvivednicely.We were also involved with Algeria’s negotiations over the LNG supplies.Two storiesstandout.TherewasateamoffolksfromoneparticularUSutilitythathadcomeovertonegotiatefora long-termsupplyofgas.Afterafewdays,theleaderofthatteamcametothemeetingwithabottleofmouthwash,laiditonthetableandsaidthateveryonewastotakeaswig.ItseemstheAlgeriandentalcareindustryisfarbehindthatoftheUS!Butaf-ter the negotiations were over the Algerians were gloating about how well they haddone.TheysaidhowmuchtheylikedtonegotiatewithAmericanengineers–andthatthewholeteamoffolksfromtheutilitywereengineers,someofwhomhadbeenpromotedtohighlevelswithinthecompany–becausetheengineersthoughtinastraightlineandwereall focusedon costs,whereas theAlgerianswere focusedonvalue andprice.Theyham-meredtheAmericanengineers!Thesecondstorydidn’tgetstarteduntil Iwasback in theUSA.After Ihadreturned,wecontinued a project that had gotten started with some questions asked by the Algeri-


ans.How longwillwe be able to charge the priceswe’ve recently set?How long is theworld going to continue to have oil and natural gas to use?This major project had usscouring theworld toassesshowmuchoil andgasstill remainedundergroundandhowmuchofitcouldberecoveredovertime.Ononetimescale,wetotallyblewtheassignment,butonadifferentscale,ourpredictionsarestilltrue.Theresultofourstudies toldus thatbyaround the turnof thecentury– this studywasdoneintheearly1980’s,sowewerelooking20–30yearsoutintothefuture–theworldwouldbegintorunoutofoil.Well,loandbehold,thenewcenturyhasarrivedandnooneismakinganyassertions thatweare runningoutofoil.As I see it, thereare threemainreasonsourforecastswereinerror.The main short-term error was not accounting for the economic impact of the EnergyShockofthelate1970’sontheworld’sdemandforoil.Whenyoulookatoilusagecurvesfromthattime,therewasadistinctdropindemandasoilprices jumpedprecipitously inthelate70’sandthatlowereddemandstayedthatwayformorethanadecade.Thathadtheimpactofslidingthedayofreckoningagoodwayintothefuture.Ournexterrorwasnotbeingabletoreallyknowifalltheoilhadalreadybeendiscovered–andithadn’t!Rightafterourstudywascompleted,workstartedontheNorthSeadiscov-eriesthatweretoprovideEuropewithanoilandgasboomfordecades.Therewereothermajordiscoveriesmade in the80’sbutby the late90’salmostnonewmajordiscoverieswerebeingmade.Instead,technologycametotherescue.So,thefinalreasonfortheerrorinourforecastistechnological:theoilindustryhasbene-fitedfromsomereallyuniquedevelopmentswhichhaveincreasedoilandnaturalgassup-pliesenormously.Thistechnologyisfracking.Andfrackingitselfbenefitsfromavarietyoftechnologicaldevelopments thatallowforprecisemeasurementandcontrolofwelldrill-ing.Fracking is conceptually simple.Many geological formations that contain hydrocar-bonsare“tight”,thatistosay,therockissodense,ortight,itwillnotallowthehydrocar-bons toseepoutof therockatallquickly.Ifyoucan fracture (frack) therock formationandthenholditopen,theamountofopensurfaceareaintheformationisincreasedenor-mouslywhichallowsevenaslowrateofseepingtobecomeasignificantvolumeofhydro-carbonscomingtothesurface.ThisonedevelopmenthasincreasedthesupplyofnaturalgasintheUnitedStatesmanyfoldandhasmovedusfromapositionofnothavingnearlyenoughnaturalgasforallthedemand,toactuallyexportingnaturalgastoothercountriesbecausewehavemore thanwe canuse.Frackinghas openeduphugenewareas in theUnited States, and now overseas, to produce natural gas and, increasingly, crudeoil.Frackinghasalsoengendereda lotofcontroversyandhasevenbeenbannedinsomestates.Butoneoftheclearresultsofallthisfrackingisforoilandnaturalgaspricestobeawholelotlowerthantheymightbeotherwise.Andthatisaverygoodthingforconsumers.Onalongertimescalethanthefewdecadesthathavebeencoveredsofar,ourpredictionthatthesupplyofoilandnaturalgaswouldbegintodiminishremainsabsolutelytrue.Theworldisnotmakingmoreoilandnaturalgasatanywheretheratepeopleareconsumingit,which means that at some point, there simply will not be enough of these key energysources to go around.Butwhen thatwill occur is up for some serious debate.Will solar


and wind power projects become so successful that oil and natural gas simply are notneededasmuch?Offsettingthat,willthedevelopingcountriesintheworldbegintousethesameamountsofenergyasAmericaandEuropehaveconsumedinthepast?Ifso,demandisgoingtoshootupandtheshortageissuewillrearitsuglyheadagain.

Future Energy Directions WhenIwasinvolvedindoingpriceforecastsinthelate1980’s,wepredictedpriceswouldbeover$120perbarrelbytheturnofthenewcentury.Theydidn’tmakeitonoursched-ule,butbymid-2008thepricereachedover$145perbarrel– thehighestyet–but thenproceededtosinkformanyyearsafterwardsastheUnitedStateswentthroughitsfinancialcrisis.That crisis eventually affected the whole world, especially China, and oil pricesplummetedasdemandslackenedwhileproducerscontinuedtopumptheirproducts.Justtohelpthinkaboutalltheseprices,hereisasamplechartthatshowsthepriceofWestTexasCrudeOil –which is a keyproduct of theUS and is intimately linked toworld oilprices.Thepricesshownfrom1946tothepresenthaveallbeenadjustedbytheConsumerPriceIndexandarethusincurrent2018dollars.ThischartwasproducedbyMacrotrendsLLCandisusedbypermission.

Thechartshowsthatenergypriceshaveseenalotofvolatilityoverthelast70yearsandhaverespondedtotwodramaticincidents,plussomeothers.Theoilshockofthelate70’sdrove down demand and prices for the following two decades.The economic shock of2008alsohadadramaticimpactonpriceswhichwascoupledwiththeburgeoningsupply


ofenergycomingoutoftheUS,andothercountries,duetothetechnologicalrevolutionoffracking. I’mnoeconomist,butIknowthelawsofsupplyanddemandattheheartofeconomicsap-plywithfullforcetothesupplyofhydrocarbonsandthedemandforthem.Ifyoucomeupwithextrasupplyinonepartoftheworld,itlowersthepricefortheresultantproducts.Orifdemandzipsupquickly,pricesaresuretofollow.Apracticalexamplethatoccursvirtu-allyeveryyearintheUSistheriseandsubsequentfallofgasolinepricesattimesofpeakdemand, such as around the Fourth of Julywhen the peak vacation driving time occurs.Thathappensifthemarketplaceisallowedtooperateunfettered.Buttherealityisthehydrocarbonmarketplacedoesnotalwaysoperateunfettered.IfyouhavebeendrivingaroundinEuroperecently,youseethatimpactinyourwallet–Europe-anUniongasolinepricesareawholelothigherthantheyareintheUS.ThereisnoinherentreasonwhytheirpricesarehigherthanthoseoftheUS.It’ssimplythattheEUnationslikethe tax revenueandarealsoworking to reducedemandby raisingprices.Now, anotherconsiderationiscomingtothefore:shouldenergypricesbeincreasedbyadditionaltaxesto (a) further reducedemandand (b)pay foralternativewaysofproducinguseful ener-gy.Thisisthecarbontax.Howitmightbeimposedandwhetherisshouldbeimposedarepoliticalissuesthatarebeyondthissimpleengineer’spaygrade.Myonlyobservationwillbethatenergypriceshaveaverypervasiveimpactonanyecon-omy.TheOPECinducedpriceshockofthe1970’ssentworldeconomiesintoatailspinformorethanadecade.Now,ifpartsoftheworldimposeacarbontaxandotherregionsdonot,itwillhavetheeffectofreallocatingwhouseshowmuchenergy.Inthe‘60’sand‘70’stheUnitedStatesbecamethehighpricedmanufactureroflotsofitemsduetoavarietyofforcesthatraisedourcostsofmanufacturing,andwhathappened?AlargeportionofourmanufacturingsectormovedelsewheretofindlowerpricesandnowwehaveaRustBeltwhereweoncehadthemightiestmanufacturingregion intheworld.Oureconomysput-teredforalongtime.Energysupplyanddemandcannotbecontrolledbyanyonecountry–itisaworldwideprocess–andunilateralchangestoitsenergypricesbyonecountrymaywellcreateunforeseenconsequencesthroughoutitseconomy.Nowthattheworldhasemergedfromthefinancialshockthatstartedin2008,demandforpetroleumproductsispickinguponceagain,butrightnowthefrackingrevolutioniskeep-ingsupplieshigh,sopricesarestayingreasonablylow.WhileI’vebeenwrongeverytimeItried to forecastenergyprices, thedirection that thosepricesaregoing togo in the longtermisveryeasytopredict.Theywillgoupandtheworldwillhavetoadjustonceagaintosubstantiallyhigherenergyprices.That’smyforecastandI’mstickingwithit.JimMonk '64,SM'71wentintomanufacturingafterleavingMITthefirsttime.Thatwasinterruptedbybeingdrafted into theArmyduring theVietnamConflict.When that rudeexperiencewasoverhecamebacktoMITforaMasterofScienceinManagementfromtheSloanSchool.Thusarmed,heembarkedonalongrangeplanthatfoundhimafter27yearsastheCEOofanenergycompany.Fromtherehebecameanindependentconsultantinfa-


cilitiesmanagementandenergyandmorphedintotheCFOofasmallhealthcarecompa-ny.Tobreakwithalltraditions,hebecameacoffeefarmerinHawaiiwherehelivesatpre-sent.

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My Personal Odyssey in Climate Science Warren Wiscombe Perhapsmyexperience“growingup”inclimatesciencewillhelppersonalizeasubjectthatnowadayscanseemdepressinglydoom-and-gloom.Butthesubjectdidnotbeginthatwayinthe1970s– far fromit!SoperhapsIcancommunicatea littleoftheexcitementwhichaccompaniedthecreationofanentirelynewfield,quitedistinctfrom“climatology”.Ienteredtheworkingworldin1969withanalmost-completedPhDinAppliedMathfromCaltechandanundergraddegree inPhysics fromMIT. (I leftgradschoolearlybecause Iwasburnedoutonschool lifeandwanted tobegina real life.) Innormal times,withde-grees fromhigh-techschools, Iwouldhavehadawiderangeof joboptions,butsuchop-tionsweredryingupfastafterawildsplurgeofhiringinthe1960s,whenalmostanyonecouldgetasciencepositiontohelp“beattheRussians”.1970wasawell-knownlowpointinphysicshiring,duepartlytotheprohibitionofdirectDepartmentofDefense(DoD)fund-ingofuniversityresearchbythe“MansfieldAmendment”of1969(aresultofVietnamWarprotestsonmanycampuses).

Radiative Transfer Beginning SoIfeltluckytogetajobdoingresearchatasmallprivatecompanyinLaJollawithDoDcontracts.There,afamousWWIILosAlamosveterannamedBurtFreemanmentoredmeinradiativetransfer,andIwasencouragedtolearnFortranandnumericalanalysisandbeginwritinglargecomputerprograms.Butthoseprogramswereforundergroundnucleartests,andIwasincreasinglyanxioustofindanotherlineofwork,especiallysinceIwasanearlyconverttotheenvironmentalmovement,whichwasjustgettingstartedintheearly1970swithEarthDayandNixon’screationofEPA.ThecompanyhadasmallcontractwithDoD’sAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency(ARPA,theinventoroftheinternet)toworkonclimate,andIfoundoutthattheleadpersonontheradiative transfer part of that workwas leaving the company. So I said “I can do that”.Overnight,havingstudiednoradiativetransfer inschool, Ibecameanatmosphericradia-tive transfer expert in theARPAClimateDynamicsProgram! I proceeded todevelop themostadvancedatmosphericradiativetransferprogramoftheday,called,fittingly,ATRAD.Luckyforme,radiationistheheartandsoulofclimatescience.ARPAfundedtheUS’sfirstmajorclimateprogram.Itattractedfirst-ratetalentlike:JakobBjerknes, discoverer of the El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO); and John Imbrie, whoproved theMilankovitch theoryof ice ages.At the centerof theprogramwas theMintz-ArakawaclimatemodelbasedatUCLA(weusedoneof the first internet links torunthemodel fromLa Jolla). Soon,we got another grant towork on radiative transfer inArcticstratusclouds,aspartoftheArcticIceDynamicsJointEXperiment(AIDJEX)Programthatwasputting year-long search campsout onpermanent sea-ice floes (mostlymeltednowduetoArcticwarming).


Climate Science Begins AllthisworkgotmenoticedbySteveSchneiderattheNationalCenterforAtmosphericRe-search (NCAR) inBoulder, Colorado,which led to an offer to join their fledglingClimateSection.(Later,Stevewouldbecomeamajorspokespersonandbook-writerforclimatesci-ence.)NCARwasexactlytherightplacetobeinclimatescienceinthe1970s,althoughIon-lyappreciatedthatinretrospect.WhenIgottoNCAR,Iwasimmediatelymetwithhostilityfrom theold-timemeteorologists,who regarded climate as anunimportantupstart field.TheywerecontemptuousthatIcouldn’treadaweathermap.TheirinterestlayinNumeri-calWeatherPrediction, a subject that took off in the 1950swith the invention of digitalstored-programcomputersandwhichbecamethecentral(andnearlysole)focusofUSme-teorology.Climatewas,tothem,aboringfieldinvolvingmeredatacollectionandstatistics–“theprovinceofthehaltandthelame”accordingtoonewag.Howthingswouldchangeinonly10years!ThevisionaryNCARDirector,WaltRoberts,sawtheneedforclimatescienceandhadlongbeeninterestedinSun-climateconnections.The1970ssawaone-timesurgeofoutsidersintoatmosphericscience,and,duetoWalt,NCARwastheepicenterofthissurge.There,Imetmanyofthephysicists,chemists,andotheroutsiderswhoenteredthenascentclimatefield.Ispentajoyful6yearsatNCAR,playinginthegiantsandboxthatwasclimatescience.Nopoliticalattentionwasfocusedonus,andwehadvirtuallyunlimitedbudgetstobringvisitors to NCAR. Luminaries like Paul Crutzen, eventual Nobel Prize winner; V. Rama-nathan,discovererofsome“non-CO2greenhousegases”;SusanSolomon,futureleaderoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange;andEdLorenz,discovererofchaostheory,allpassedthroughNCARandstayedawhile.Whilethecloudofhostilitysomewhatdissipatedovermy6yearsatNCAR,itneverreallydisappeared,andin1985,infrustration,RamanathanandIpublishedanarticleinBulletinoftheAmericanMeteorologicalSocietytitled“TheRoleofRadiationandOtherRenascentSubfields in Atmospheric Science”. This stirred up a hornet’s nest among the old-timeweather folk, but, a few years later,most of these people switched sides and rebrandedthemselvesas“climatescientists”.Bytheendofthe1980s,meteorologyhadprettymuchevolvedtobecomeclimatescience,withweathertakingabackseat.Andinasatisfyingre-bufftomyoldenemies,theAmericanMeteorologicalSocietyelectedmeaFellowin1989.

Some Later Years Ihadalwayswantedtotrymyhandatbeingauniversityprofessor,butchosepoorly–adepartment at NYU thatwas subsequently disbanded. Fortunately,while at NCAR, I hadmetDaveAtlas,afamousradarexpert,whomovedtoNASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenterin1979asthenewDirectoroftheAtmosphereLab,withvirtuallyunlimitedhiringauthority.DavehadmademeanofferwhileIwasstillatNCAR,andhereactivateditin1983.Iwashired in1984 justbefore thehiringdoorclosed,due toDave’s fightwithsomepeopleatNASAHQ.Ispentahappy30yearsatNASAworkingonvariousclimateproblemscenteringontheroleofcloudsinEarth’sradiationbudget.Inthenear-finalpartofmycareer,Iwas“borrowed”by theDept. ofEnergy for5 years tobeChief Scientist of theirhugeAtmos-

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phericRadiationMeasurementsProgram,whichwasthenthelargestnon-satelliteclimateprogramintheUSgovernment.

Paleoclimate Thoughts Like allmy colleagues in the early days, I had a strong interest in paleoclimatology, thestudy of climates prevalent at a particular time in the geological past. Indeed, energy-balanceclimatemodelsin1969predictedaSnowballEarthificesheetsevergotwithin30degreeslatitudeoftheEquator.Later,westudiedthepreviousinterglacial(120,000yearsago),thePliocene(3millionyearsago),andthePaleocene-EoceneThermalMaximum(55millionyearsago)asanalogsforthefutureglobalwarming. WarrenWiscombe’64,spenthiscareer…


Nuclear Deterrence and Satellite Communications By Tom Seay Thisessaydescribessomeofmyparticipationinthedevelopmentofmilitaryandcommer-cialsatellitecommunications.Thecontext formyfirstdecadeswastheColdWarandnu-cleardeterrence.So,thisessayprovidesasummaryofnucleardeterrenceinthatera,andcloseswithsomethoughtsaboutnucleardeterrenceinthefuture.

Nuclear Deterrence and the Cold War Theclassof1964enteredMITduringtheColdWar.ThehighestpriorityoftheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)wasandisdeterringnuclearattackandmaintainingthenuclearcapabili-ties necessary to do so. Deterrencemeans that a potential adversary should believe thecostsandrisksofproposedactionsoutweighanygainsitmighthopetoachieve.TodeterattackagainsttheUS,inthelate60’stheUShad1054land-basedintercontinentalmissiles(ICBMs), 469 strategic bombers, and 41 Fleet Ballistic Missile Submarines (FBMs), over30,000+nuclearwarheads, andairborne command centers.The intentwas tobe able toabsorb a first strike and still retaliate. The Soviet Union had 1427 ICBMs,140 strategicbombers,30FBMs,andanestimated10,000+nuclearwarheads. Thus,mutuallyassureddestruction(MAD).The US posturewas intended to foster stability, i.e., no accidental start of a nuclear ex-change.TheUSwouldnotstrikefirst.WewouldonlylaunchuponpositivecommandfromtheNationalCommandAuthority.Theabilitytoabsorbafirststrikeandstillretaliateim-plied an appropriate level of readiness. US confidence in this capability depended uponknowledgeofcurrentthreats,detectionofemergingthreatsdevelopedtocounterexistingandnewsystems,andanabilitytoadjust/counteranoverwhelmingthreat.Impliedattrib-utes: extremely reliable equipment and procedures, excellent command security andweaponprotection,andtolerablesustainmentcost.RememberingtheeffectsofnuclearweaponuseattheendofWWII,virtuallyallseniorUSpersonneltookveryseriouslythedangerofnuclearweaponuse,impartingsomestabilityintotheworldsituation.ItcanbearguedthatMADworked,astheUSandSovietUniondidnothaveanall-outwar,butitcanalsobearguedthatcrises,suchasoverBerlinandCuba,broughttheworlddangerouslyclosetonuclearwar.Radars,andlatersurveillancesatellites,wereexpectedtoalertmultipleconcurrentlaunch-es,whichcouldonlybeforanattackupontheUS,andonlyfromtheSovietUnion.Thenu-clear command and control (NC3) system must support: detection, warning and attackcharacterization; adaptive response planning; decision-making via critical conferences;disseminationofPresidentialorders;andmanagementanddirectionofforces.ThesystemwasintendedtopermitlaunchingofourICBMsbeforeincomingmissilescoulddestroyourICBMsintheirsilos.Whileonlylowdatarateswererequired,thesystemmustworkrelia-blythroughpre-,trans-,andpost-attackenvironments,provideseamlessconnectivityovermostofthenorthernhemisphere,andhavenegligibleprobabilityoffalsemessagedelivery.

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MIT Lincoln Laboratory Satellite Communications Programs In1963,just6yearsafterthelaunchofSputnik,MITLincolnLaboratorywascharteredtodemonstrate active satellite communications systems that could support Nuclear Com-mandandControlcapability.Thefirstprogramemphasizedenhancingsatellitedownlinks.Thedownlinksignal(fromasatellitetoaterrestrialterminal)isgenerallytheweaklinkinsatellitecommunications.Theuplinkcanbeimprovedbyincreasingthepowerofatrans-mitter;thedownlinkcanbestrengthenedonlybymaximizingtheeffectiveradiatedpowerperunitmassinorbit—amorecomplextask.Toresolvethedownlinkprobleminsatellitecommunications,Lincolndevelopedhigh-efficiencyspacecrafttransmittersinthedownlinkfrequencyband.Theseandotherspacecraft-relatedtechnologieswereaddressedbyase-riesof LincolnExperimental Satellites (LESs).High-efficiency systemsofmodulation anddemodulation,togetherwithencodinganddecodingsignalfordetectionandcorrectionoferrors, minimized the required signal to noise ratios, and thus the required downlinktransmitter power. Also needed were interference-resistant, multiple-access signalingtechniquesthatwouldpermitsimultaneoususeofasatellitebytensorhundredsofusers,someofthemmobile,withoutinvokingelaboratesystemsforsynchronizationandcentral-izedcontrol.Theseandotherterminal-relatedproblemswereaddressedbyaseriesofLin-colnExperimentalTerminals(LETs)thatwenthandinhandwiththeLESs.

LES-1.37kgspin-stabilizedpolyhedron,SHFbeamswitching.200mwERIPTheobjectiveof the first fourLESsandas-sociated LETs was simply to make long-range military communications routinelyavailable for large, transportable terminalsoperating in the military SHF band (7-8GHz). All of these all-solid-state satellitesweresimpletranspondersinwhichtheup-linkpassbandwasfrequencytranslatedandamplified with a hard limiting amplifier,andtransmittedbackdown.LES-1andLES-2 were essentially identical. Each satellitewasa37kgpolyhedroncoveredwithsolarcellsgeneratingabout25wofprimepower,and spin stabilized. LES-1was launched inearly1965,buta flaw in theordnancecir-cuitryleftthesatellitetumblinginaparkingorbit. LES-2 was successfully orbited later

in1965intoa32oinclined,2700kmby14,800kmellipticalorbit.TheEffectiveIsotropicRadiatedPower(EIRP)radiatedtowardtheearthwas200milliwatts.LES-4wassomewhatlargerat53kg,36wprimepower,400mwEIRP,andintendedtobeplacedintoneargeo-


synchronousorbit.Thelate1965launchleftthesatelliteinthetransferorbit,butconsider-ablecommunicationsandspaceenvironmentdatawerecollected.LET-1,a tractor-trailerwitha10kWtransmitteranda15ftdiameterantenna,wasalsousedtocommunicateviaabeltofpassivedipoles(“needles”)andviareflectionbythemoon.ThefocusoftheLincolnprogramthenshiftedtoevaluatethepotentialusefulnessofsatel-litecommunications inthemilitaryUltra-HighFrequency(UHF)band(225-400MHz)forsmall, lowercost,mobile terminals.LES-3, launched in1965,wasa16kgsatellitewithaUHFtransmitterradiating30wEIRPformeasurementofexpectedmultipathinterferencefromgroundreflections.Multipathpropagationeffectswereobservedasexpected:relativeto thenominal1m free-spacewavelength,muchofearth’s surface ismirrorlike, soelec-tromagneticwavescanbepropagatedbetweenthesatelliteandtheairborneterminalbyadirectpathandalsobypathsinvolvingreflectionsofftheearth’ssurface.Byknowingthelikelyparametersofthesignaldelays,theLincolnteamwasabletodesignsystemsofmod-ulationanddemodulationforUHFsatellitecommunicationsthatmitigatedmultipathprop-agationeffects.LES-5andLES-6wereallsolidstate,“bent-pipe”satellites:theyreceivedanuplinkbandoffrequencies,translatedtothedownlinkband,andretransmittedeverythingreceivedfromtheuplink.LES-5wasa104kgsatellitewith136wmaximumstartoflifeprimepower,ra-diating45wEIRP.LES-6wasa181kgsatellitewith220wmaximumstartof lifeprimepower, radiating 890 w EIRP. The greater radiated power came from a 4X increase intransmitteroutputpower,anda5Ximprovementintheeffectiveantennagain.LES-6wasthefirstsatellitetodemonstrateautonomousorbitcontrol.

LES-6.181kgspin-stabilizedcylinder.Au-tonomous orbit-keeping. UHF switchedarray.890WEIRPThe associated terrestrial communica-tions terminals used simple, non-directional terminals and moderatelypowered transmitters, enabling afforda-bleairborneequipment.Advancedband-spreading, modulation and coding pro-videdresistanceto jammingandchanneldegradations such as multipath, inbandinterferers,andnuclear-inducedscintilla-tion.In1965,Iwasfortunatetogetasummerjob in the Lincoln Laboratory Communi-cations Division while still in graduateschool,andconvertedtofulltimein1966,uponcompletionofmyEngineersdegree


inElectricalEngineering.Myfirstassignmentwastodevelopanunattendedreceivertoau-tomaticallyacquireandtrackbeaconsignalsfromLES-5.The3Wattbeaconsignalprovid-eda timeand frequency reference for communications terminals, aswell asauxiliary te-lemetrydata.Thesignalwastobereceivedataverylowsignal-to-noiseratio,inthepres-enceofchanneldegradationslikemultipathandDopplershift.ThebeaconsignalturnedouttoprovidethecriticalinitialcommunicationswithLES-5.Im-aginethetensionnotonlyforme,buttheentireLincolnteamandsponsorswhilewaitingforthesignaltoappearafterlaunchinJuly1967!Fortunately,thelaunchtogeostationaryorbitwassuccessful,thesatelliteproperlydeployed,andthebeaconreceivertelemetryre-ported all systemsgood.This experience showed that one couldpredictpossibleperfor-mance,andperformancelimitations,andthenbuildrealequipmentthatwouldperformaspredicted.Ialsodiscoveredthatmypalmswouldsweatunderverystressfulconditions!AsecondgenerationversionoftheBeaconReceiverwasdevelopedforLES-6andusedinmanyairbornetestsanddemonstrationsafterthesuccessfullaunchinSeptember1968.SupportedbytheLES-5/6demonstrationsuccesses,thegovernmentproceededtoprocureeightFLTSATCOMgeostationaryUHFcommunicationssatelliteswithlaunches1978-1989,subsequently replaced by eleven UHF Follow On (UFO) geostationary satellites withlaunches 1993-2003. These were MUCH larger satellites: FLTSATCOM satellite launchmasseswere1884kgto2310kgandgenerated2500wofprimepower.TheArmy,NavyandAirForcedevelopedmilitarizedversionsoftheterminals:over20,000weredeployed.TheAirForceportionofthepayloadsandterminalswasknownasAFSATCOM.AfterUHFmilitarySATCOMfeasibilitywasestablished,theLincolnprogramfocusevolvedtowardmakingthecommunicationssystemselectromagneticallyandphysicallysurvivable,capableof functioningdespitedeterminedeffortsbyanadversary to interferewith thembyjammingorbyphysicalattack.ThenextgenerationofLincolncommunicationssatellites(LES-8/9) and associated terminals demonstrated greatly improved performance com-pared to LES-5/6 and all other communications satellites before that time. Some of thefirstswere:1.)digitalonboardprocessingforsignalextractionsothatthedownlinkswouldonlycontainuserinformation,andfordigitalinterconnectionbetweendifferentfrequencybands,2.)useofExtremelyHighFrequency(EHF)signalstomaximizethedirectivityandgainforalimitedmobileaperture,andwiderbandwidthforgreatercapacityandinterfer-enceresistance,3.)useofUHFforlowercostterminalswithnon-directionalantennas,4.)crosslinksbetweensatellites forconnectivityamongmobileterminals locatedaroundtheworld,5.)athirdgenerationGyroforautonomouson-orbitoperation,6.)AMulti-HundredWattRadioisotopeThermoelectricGenerator (MHW-RTG) forhigh resistance toenviron-mentaldegradationsandextendedlifetime1.

1 A MHW-RTG was also used to power the Voyager spacecraft, which have both operated for over 40 years. Voy-ager 1 was the first spacecraft to enter the interstellar medium.


InthecollegialatmosphereofLincolnatthattime,Iwasheavilyinvolvedincreationoftheunderlying rationale and identifying needed capabilities. Then I performedmuch of thehigh leveldesignof the communicationspayload, and thedetailed signalwaveformsandonboardprocessingconstrainedbystringentlimitationsofflyabletechnology.[Ourflyableintegratedcircuits,whichhad two flipflopsperpackage,wereobtained fromtheproduc-tion line established for theMinutemanmissile program.] Thenweproposed anddevel-opedwhatwasprobablythefirstradio/modemtousemicroprocessorsandcarryingtwoprograms:onetosupport theearlysignals,andanothertosupport themorerobustLES-8/9 signals. This innovation facilitated introduction of new capabilities into operationalaircraftwithoutlosinglegacycapabilitiesneededduringatransitionperiod.Thepairof450kgsatellitesweresuccessfullylaunchedbyasingleTitanIIIlauncherintoinclinedgeosynchronousorbitsinMarch1976andwereextensivelytestedwithUHFandEHFmobileterminalsoverthenextcoupleofyears.LES-8wasretiredafter28yearsofop-eration.LES-9isstilloperationalafter42yearsonorbit---itisbelievetobethelongestcon-tinuously operating communications satellite in U.S. history. These long lifetimes are at-tributabletoadesignapproachwhereweidentifiedeverypossiblemeansofphysicalfail-ureswecouldthinkof,andmitigatedeachwithinthestateoftheart.Forselectedcriticalsubsystems,wehadtwoindependentunitsthatwereindependentlydesigned,tominimizethepossibilityofadesignflawcripplingthespacecraft.Portions of the LES-8/9 technologies were implemented by contractors for the SingleChannel Transponder payloads flown on the fourteen SHF DSCS III satellites, launched1992through2003.LincolnnextbuilttwoEHFpayloadsfortheNavy,forinclusionintheUFOsatellitesmen-tionedabove,andlaunchedinDecember1986andMarch1989.ThesepayloadsshiftedtheEHFfrequenciestoanoperationalband,versusthedemonstrationsofLES-8/9,andaddedacomputer-basedresourcecontroller.TheseEHFpayloadsenabledtheNavytoacceleratedevelopment and deployment of fullmilitary-qualified EHF terminals, and provided riskreduction for the subsequentMILSTAR satellites. Contractors built additional EHF pay-loads,sothat8orthe11UFOscarriedtheEHFcapability.ThefullcapabilitiesdemonstratedbyLES-8/9werefinallyimplementedinamilitarypro-gramwithfiveMILSTARgeostationarysatellites,thefirst launchedinFebruary1994andthelastinApril2003.ThethreelaterMILSTARshadanenhancedpayloadforhigherdatarates.GiventhattheneedforthecapabilitiesofLES-8/9forreliablenuclearcommandandcon-trolwereunderstoodinthemid70’s,whydidittake18yearstogetthefirstfullrealizationonorbit,andanother9yearstoachieveafullfive-satelliteconstellation?Someofthereasonswere:1.AnopinionamongCongressionalstaffersthattheAirForcecouldonlymanageonemajorspacecraftdevelopment,andthereforetacticalaswellasnucleardeterrencecapabil-ities should be included onMILSTAR, 2. Simple total cost estimates suggest it is overallmosteconomictoamortizethehostspacecraftcapabilities(orbit-keeping,powergenera-tion,attitudecontrol)overaslargeannumberofpayloadcapabilitiesaswillfitwithinthe


availablelaunchercapability(aneconomyofscale),3.)Forsupportofalltheservicesinthebudgetingprocess,eachservicehadtohavesomecapabilitiesincluded(secondreasonwhytactical capabilities were comingled with strategic capabilities). This increased the totalnumberofrequirements,andtheresultingcomplexityofthepayloaddesign.4.)Thedesireto avoid failure resulted inmuchmore testing anddocumentation thanbest commercialpractice. The resultingMILSTAR satelliteswere behemoths for the time: launchmass of4500kg.

Experiences in the Private Sector In 1980 I left Lincoln Laboratory to experience a public company: both in defense andcommercialcommunicationssystems.TheenvironmentwasquitedifferentthanatLincolnLaboratory:asamemberofseniormanagementIhadtodealwithquarterlyfinancialper-formanceandpersonnelchallenges,aswellasengineering/technicalperformanceandreli-abilityofourdeliveredproducts.Onthegovernmentcontractorside,Iexperiencedtheim-pact of highly detailed requirements and a complex bureaucratic process; while on thecommercialcontractorside, Iexperienced themuch fasterpacepermittedbysimplerre-quirements,clearobjectives,andclearlinesofresponsibility.Ourmodemsforthecommer-cial satellite industryoftenenabledadoublingormoreof the total communicationspro-videdthroughasinglesatellite:anenormousreturnforassetsthatcosthundredsofmil-lionsofdollars.Eventually the pressure tomeet or boost quarterly earnings outweighed the intellectualand financial remuneration, so in 1989we formed a startup corporationwith a plan tobootstrap our capabilities through the government’s Small Business Initiative Researchprogram. Thiswas the erawhen several commercial satellite ventureswere initiated toprovideworldwideconnectivitytosmalluserterminals.Serendipitously,webecameama-jorparticipantinthedevelopmentoftheORBCOMMsystem.TheORBCOMMconceptwastousesmalllowEarthOrbit(LEO)satelliteswithonboardsignalprocessingtoprovidelowdatarateshortmessageservicestoalargepopulationofuserterminals.Ourcontributionsincludedawaveformspecification,prototypepayloadprocessor,acommunicationsproto-colthatincreasedthecapacityofthesystemby6X,andthegatewayterminalmodems.Wedesignedausercommunicatorwhichperformedmuchbetterthanotherterminals intherealworldinterferenceenvironment.Wesupportedinvestorduediligence:auniqueexpe-riencewasauniversityprofessortellingusthatwecouldnotpossiblyachievetheperfor-mancewewerepredicting,becausehissimulationsdidnotachieveourperformance.Whenwe showed him actual equipment achieving the stated performance, he decided that heneededtoimprovehismodeling.Thisstoryhardlycapturesthestressofthisinteraction,asORBCOMMreallydidneedtoraisefinancing.ORBCOMMbuiltand launched intoLEO35 firstgeneration45kgsatellites,andbuiltoutthecorrespondinginfrastructure,foraninvestmentofaround$300M.Buildupofrevenuewas much slower than anticipated, such that the company went bankrupt. An investorgroup purchased the assets for 5 cents on the dollar---with some additional investmenttheywereabletoachievepositivecashflow.Ourcompanywasasset-strippedbythemajor


outside investor: the resulting company refined our communicator design and producedseveralhundredthousandcommunicators.

ORBCOMMGen2.172kg,3-axisstabilizedbox.Deployablehelicalantennaandsolararray.120WEIRPORBCOMMwasnotauniquesatellitecompanyingoingbankruptandbeingresurrectedforpenniesondollarofinitialinvestment.Iridium,whichwasintendedtoprovidecellphone-like serviceworldwide, alsowentbankrupt.An investor groupwas able topurchase theentire$3Bsatellitesandgroundinfrastructurefor$35M,andobtainedaUSgovernmentguarantee for $100Mof annual government business. The Iridium satellites also employonboardprocessing,buttheyalsoincludesatellitetosatellite links,sothelaunchmassisabout698kg,and98satellitesweredeployedinthefirstgeneration.Attheurgingofseveralcolleagues,in2000weformedanotherstartup,againintendingtogrowabusiness throughdevelopments fundedby theSBIRprocess.Much toouramaze-ment,wewereapproachedbyORBCOMMtohelpidentifycapabilitiesforasecondgenera-tionconstellation.Theyhadachievedover400,000users,withprimarypositioningastheleading supplier for remote connectivity in Machine-to-Machine and Internet-of-Thingssectors.WedevelopedaPayloadSpecification,and thenwegotasked tobid tobuild thepayloads.Wedevisedawaytotripletheeffectivecapacityofnewsatellites,andwerese-lectedtobuildthepayloads.Beginningin2014,18ofthesesecondgeneration,172kgsat-elliteshavebeendeployedintoLEOorbits.


Technologybaseforsatellitesandlaunchinghasprogresseddramatically.Now,verycom-plex,powerefficientelectronicsarerealizedincustomintegratedcircuitswherehardnessis achieved in part through the circuit designs. Radiation-hard solar cells now approach30%sunlighttoDCconversionefficiency,afactorofsixbetterthanthe1960s.Flyablebat-teries(forpowerwhenthesuniseclipsed)nowapproach100Whr/kg,afactor3XbetterthanfortraditionalNi-Cdbatteries.3-Dprintingisenablingfabricationofcomplexshapeswithsimplerandmorereliableassembly.On-orbitlifetimesatgeostationaryorbitarerou-tinely 15 years. Reusable large launch vehicleswere developed by the private sector. Incontrasttothe60’swhengovernment-fundedmilitaryresearchanddevelopmentfosteredmuchofthetechnicalprogress,inrecenttimesmostprogresshasbeendrivenbycommer-cialsatelliteapplications,andbydeepspaceexploration.TodayandLookingForwardNow,fastforwardtotodayandthefuture.Thetwoexistentialthreatstothesurvivalofthehumanrace(existenceoftheUS?)areglobalwarminganduseofnuclearweapons.Through a series of bilateral arms control agreements between the US and Soviet Un-ion/Russia,therearecurrentlyanestimatedtotalofabout15,000nuclearwarheads,withmorethan90%belongingtotheUSandRussia.However,therearenow8nuclearnationstates. Thepossibilityexistseven foranon-stateactor toobtaina fewnuclearweapons.DeterrenceofuseofnuclearweaponsagainsttheUSrequiresthattheUSdeveloptheabil-itytoreliablydeterminetheoriginatorofanuclearattackofanyscale,andbeabletore-spondagainstthepoliticalleadershipoftheoriginatingentity.Stabilityrequiresthatallpo-tentialopponentsbelievethattheUSwillnotinitiateanuclearattackofanysort.Theaccu-racyofdeliverysystemshasledtothefieldingofsmallerweapons,comparedtothe1960’s.Nuclearpowermaybecrucialtoreductionoftheenvironmentalimpactofenergygenera-tion.Unfortunately, traditionalnuclear fissionpowerreactorsusinguraniumalsoare themajorsourceofweaponsgradematerial.Nuclear fissionusingthoriumsalts(molten-saltreactors) enables reactors that will not melt-down, and the residuals are not easy toweaponize.Aworldwidebanonuranium-basedenergygenerationwouldreducethelikeli-hoodofmorenuclearweapons,andcouldbeeffectivelymonitored.Eventuallynuclearfu-sionisexpectedtoproduceevenmoreenergywiththesamesafetyandarmscontrolbene-fits.A US decision to use nuclear weapons can only be made by the President. As time haspassed since the last use of nuclearweapons, the senior leadership typically has limitedawarenessofthepossibleeffectsoftheuseofnuclearweapons---theretendstobeaviewthatnuclearweaponsaresimply“biggerbombs,”withlittleappreciationforthepotentialscaleofdevastationandlingeringaftereffects.Historically,a launchonwarningposturewasmaintained,assumingtheposturereducedthe probability that the landbasedmissileswould all be destroyedby a surprise attack.Thisassumptionisvalidonlywithaveryshortdetectionanddecisioncycle,andintheab-senceof any ambiguity about the attacker identity.Thus, thehistoric launchonwarning


posturenolongerenhancesdeterrence,butinfactreducestheassurancethatanattackercanbereliablydeterminedonashorttimeline.Forstability, there isaneed forcomprehensiveunderstandingbydecisionmakersof thefullworldsituation,andongoingactionsandcapabilitiesofallplayers.Widespreadaccesstorealtimeinformationisnecessary.Anobjectivemeansisneededtodetermineif infor-mationisfactualandtrustworthy.Impliedisarealneedformachineaidestoprovideuse-fulrealtimebackground,analysis,andinputstodecisionmakingaboutnuclearweapons,andbroadergeopoliticalsituations.Humanswillremain“intheloop”foruseofnuclearweapons,butdeliveryplatformsmaybecomeunmannedforcostandendurancereasons.Suchoperationswillrequireabsolutelyfoolproof and verifiable command and control between decision makers and such plat-forms.Dispersionandmobilitywillbeneededforsurvivabilityagainstlargesurpriseattacks.Sat-ellitecommunicationsfornuclearcommandandcontrolwillcontinuetoevolvetoprovidehigher assurance of correctness, resistance to adverse actions, and robust connectivityamongwidespread forces.Space isno longera sanctuaryagainstattacks (if it everwas),butthereareconcepts,differentfromtraditionalcommunicationssatellites,thatofferthepotentialforsurvivabilitysufficienttosupportnucleardeterrence.Deterrence isnota substitute fordefensivemeasures,particularlyagainst threat sourceswhohave relatively little to lose, or aredrivenby goalswewouldnot consider rational.Concreteexamplesareterrorists,criminals,androguenation-states.Forexample,aneffec-tivemissiledefensesystemneedstobedevelopedanddeployed,toreducethelikelihoodofanEMPattackbyasingle,highaltitudenuclearburst. TomSeay’64,SB,SMandEEdegreesinElectricalEngineeringjoinedMITLincolnLabora-toryupon graduation, andwas involved in early satellite communications.He joined theprivatesectorin1980,andservedinaseriesofseniormanagementpositions.HefoundedofseveraladvancedcommunicationsstartupsandnowworksparttimewithLincoln,pri-marilyhelpingdefinenewhightechnologydemonstrationsinsupportofdeterrence.

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Mirror-Twin Magnet Maven and Mountaineer Bob Weggel

The Golden Years! Howoff-targetmyjourneybegan,howfarfetchedmygrade-schooldreamof“President,oratleastSenator”!Idealcandidatesaretall,handsome,poised,outgoing,self-confident,andenergetic -notshort,plain,clumsy,shy, insecure,andwearyfromlaboringtoperformtoultrahighexpectations.Myhigh-schoolgraduationyearbookperceptively labeledmymir-rortwinCarlandme“MostIntelligent”-not“MostLikelytoSucceed”.

Mt. Sneffels, San Juan Range,2012 I’ve come to acceptmy limi-tations. Book larnin’ hasbrought a measure of suc-cess, the fruit of scienceandmath talent, prioritizingscholarship,andphenomenalgood fortune. Good fortuneto be still alive and thriv-ing:my parent’sshortevitywould have addedmy nameto your Departed List by2002 or 2003. Good fortuneinhealth:notadayofhospi-talization until 2014, for a

prophylacticstent.GoodfortunetoliveinAmerica,withitsnaturalbeauty,prosperityandidealsofdemocracy,egalitarianismandmeritocracy(albeitcorruptedbyplutocracy).Goodfortuneforfourmiddle-schoolyearsinEurope,savoringitssophisticatedcultureandawe-some Alps. Good fortune that my education featured such excellent teachers and class-matesatAnnArbor,Michigan;Wiesbaden,Germany;andMassachusetts(Winchester,Ar-lington,MIT,Harvard,andMassArt).

Magnet Wonk MITlaunchedmycareerasamagnet-designengineer,from1961through1966apprentic-ingevery summer, andpart-timeduring the school year, at thenascentNationalMagnetLaboratoryonAlbanyStreet,mentoredsuperblybyBruceMontgomery,MatLeupold,HabBrechna,HenryKolm,JohnWilliams,LarryRubinandProf.FrancisBitter.Untilitsclosurein1995,theHigh-FieldDivisionoftheFrancisBitterNationalMagnetLaboratory(FBNML)providedmewithincome,purpose,identity,andcitationin1980seditionsoftheGuinnessBookofWorldRecords:


“Thestrongestmagneticfieldstrengthachievedhasbeenoneof30.1teslasattheFrancis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory in Cambridge, Mass. by Mathias J.LeupoldandRobertJ.Weggel,announcedinJuly,1977.”

Left, 1961- The National Magnet Laboratory gets clean coolwaterfrom the Charles Riv-er.Right,FBNMLHybridII:Themagnetthatpioneeredcombiningawater-cooledinsertanda large-boresuperconductingmagnet togenerate fieldsmore intense thaneithercoulddoalone.

Theinnercoil,of40mminnerdiame-ter (32mmbore) and 156mm outerdiameter.The radially-cooled windings of theinsertmagnet that at 9MW contrib-uted 22 teslas (T) to FBNML’s 30.1-tesla world record for continuousmagnetic field intensity (June 16,1977).A similar insert, in the356-mmboreofasuperconductingmagnetgenerat-


ingupto13Tinsteadof8T,employingNb3SnaswellasNbTi,bathedinsuperfluidratherthannormalhelium, setworld recordsof33.6Ton12/18/91,34.2Ton12/10/92, and35.2Ton5/25/94.Whenthefieldvolumesufficed,holmiumpoletips,bathedinliquidheliumweremagnet-izedtotwicethelevelofiron,thiscouldraisethefieldintensitytoasmuchas37T.SummervacationsandtraveltoMagnetTechnologyconferencesindulgedmywanderlust.10,500milesin1970-withapairofhitchhikersatthewheelfromCaliforniatoBritishCo-lumbiatoColorado!-awedmewiththespectacularnaturalwondersoftheWest,includingnighttime atopLongsPeak, the crownofRockyMountainNational Park. 1975 fulfilled adreamtoviewMt.Everest,trekkingtwohundredmiles.

Earth Day Impact EarthDay1979changedmylife.ArallyfortheMassachusettsBottleBillrewardedmewithLoveatFirstSight-DianeAvery,anartquilter,pianist,andRNatMGH.Sincemarryingin1980,we’veresidedinherhometownofReading,MA.Wechosenottoaddtotheworld’soverpopulation;instead,wecarefortheenvironmentandenjoyaseasidecottageonBaileyIsland,overlookingCascoBay.ForaweekeachSeptember from1998 through2010Dianeand I troweledand siftedatFortSt.George (1607-08), the sister colony to Jamestown,Virginia.Artifacts thatweun-earthed included a silver shilling from 1592-1595 (Queen Elizabeth I)! Jamestown hasmerelyasixpence.

SilvershillingunearthedbyBob&DianeWeggel intheautumnof 2010 duringoneof thatyear’s two week-long sessions of archaeology at Fort St. George (1607-1608) at Popham,MaineledbyProf.JeffryBrainofHarvardfortheMaineStateMuseum.


DianeandIcontributedtoallbutthefirstandlastoneortwoofProf.Brain’sdozendigsonthesitefrom1997through2011.

Archaeology with Diane at Fort St. George, 1607-1608In2003,afterhalfadozenyearsatBrookhavenNa-tional Laboratory, my work reverted to consulting(Magnet Optimization Research Engineering, “Youdeserve M.O.R.E.”) and part time at Particle BeamLasers, collaborating with BNL on Small BusinessInnovationResearchgrants.The latestproject isPItodesigntheworld’sbestmagnetforneutronscat-teringexperiments.MIT? Alleluia! - I’m back! And so’s my twin, whofrom1966 to1980wasat theFBNMLwhennotatHarvard and, subsequently, Tufts Graduate School.We now are senior magnet designers for the MITspinoutCommonwealthFusionSystems,Inc.,taskedto expeditiouslydesign, fabricate, test, and mass-

producecontrolledthermonuclearfusiontokamakstogenerateabundant,economical,en-vironmentally-responsibleelectricitytoaworlddesperateforenergy.

Mountains and Nature Ilovemountains.SummitingMt.Whitneyin2004ledtoclimbsofallbutnineofColorado’s53fourteeners-mountainsmorethanfourteenthousandfeethigh-plusDevil’sTowerandtheMatterhorn!Notabene, however:myTowerwas in SouthDakota, notWyoming, andmyMatterhorninColorado,notSwitzerland.Ilovewildlife,too-bothfloraandfauna-andamthrilledwhenwildcritterscooperate,allowmetoapproach,andposeforthecamera.

In 2006 trail maintenance became a major activity, courtesy“Volunteer Vacations” of theAmericanHiking Society and theRocky Mountain Field Institute, Colorado Springs. We carvetreadway,buildbogbridges,movebouldersandsetthem,andblast ledge. My specialty is rockwork:walls, causeways, andsteps.AdoptingfortheAppalachianMountainClubatrailintheMiddlesexFellsReservationnorthofBoston led tomy joiningthe Board of the Friends of the Fells, eventually establishingtheirfirstendowmentfund.TheHarpswellHeritageLandTrust(CascoBay,Maine),RMFIandMaine’sFirstShiplikewisehavebecomebeneficiariesofsix-figureendowmentfunds.


Diane,onhisstepstothebeachonBaileyIsland,Maine.Whowouldhave imaginedthat I,suchaneggheadwhenat high school, would find such satisfaction in climbingmountainsandwrestlingbouldersintoposition?It’sthatI,oncesuchadudofanathlete,rejoiceintheabilitytodoso. At age76,my climbingdaysmaybedrawing to a close.But,alongwithmountaineerGeoffreyWinthropYoung, Icontinuetoholdmyheadhigh.

Ihavenotlostthemagicoflongdays;Ilivethem,dreamthemstill.StillamImasterofthestarryways,andfreemanofthehill.

Shatteredmyglass,erehalfthesandshadrun-Iholdtheheights,IholdtheheightsIwon.

Minestillthehopethathailedmefromeachheight,minetheunrestingflame.WithdreamsIcharmedeachdoingtodelight;Icharmtherestthesame.

Severedtheskein,erehalfthestrandswerespun-Ikeepthedreams,IkeepthedreamsIwon.

WhatifIlivenomorethesekinglydays?Theirnightsleepswithmestill.

Idreammyfeetuponthestarryways;myheartrestsinthehill.Imaynotgrudgethelittleleftundone;

Iholdtheheights,IkeepthedreamsIwon

RobertJWeggel,’64,joinedMIT’snascentNationalMagnetLaboratorythesummerofhisfreshmanyear,androseover35yearstoAssistantDirectorofitsHighFieldDivision.He’sbeen cited personally in theGuinnessBookofWorldRecords for “strongestmagnetic fieldstrength”.Forthepastdozenyears,hehasdesignedmagnetsunderDOESBIRawards.Re-cently he joined theMIT spinout Commonwealth Fusion Systems, Inc. to develop fusionelectricity.Hisextracurricularpassionsincludemountainhiking,rockworkforhikingtrailsandsoil-retentionwalls,wildernessconservation,andwildlifephotography.


The Evolution of Instant Photography Paul Lubin

The Start of Instant Photography PolaroidCorporationwaslaunchedin1937toexploittheinventionofsheetpolarizer in-ventedbyEdwinLand. In1943,whileonvacation inSantaFe,Landtookapictureofhisdaughter,Jennifer,whoaskedhimwhyshecouldnotseethepicturerightaway.ThisbeganLand’squestforaproductthatwoulddeliverafinishedphotographicprintin60seconds.

The original Polaroid Land Camera wasintroduced in 1948. This model 95A wasavailablefrom1954-1957. When we were freshmen in 1960, themother of my roommate (Steve Portnoy,XVIII,’64)calledandaskedmetopickupan easy-to-use camera for his birthday.Ihad heard of Polaroid cameras (my fa-ther-in-lawhadone)andIknewthattheywerefoolproof.IwenttoJordanMarshinBoston where these cameras had beenintroducedin1948andpickedupamodelwithabuilt-inflash.Weuseditquitealot.Thepictureswereinblackandwhite;youpressedabutton,outcameapapersand-wich, you waited 60 seconds, peeled thesandwichapartandyouhada3”x4”pic-ture.Inyourhand.Rightaway.Okay,youhad to coat it with a viscous acetic acidsmellingfluid.Itwasstickyandyouhadtowave it around to dry it. But itwas very

differentfrom“Somedaymyprintswillcome”.Iknewsomethingaboutphotography.Itook36pictureswithmy35mmcameraandsentthefinishedcanisterofnegativestoKodakwherethenegativesweredevelopedandstabi-lized in a series of temperature controlled baths then exposed to light-sensitive paper(threetimesifitwasacolorpicture)anddried.Inaweekorsotheprintscameinthemail.

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TheSX-70introducedin1972wasthefirstmodeltoejecttheprint,andhadnochemi-calresidue. Arrival at PolaroidAfter graduation, Iworked for a year as achemist at MIT Instrument Laboratory at45OsborneStreetinCambridgewheretheguidancesystemfortheApolloprojectwasbeingrefined.Ihadaveryinterestingpro-ject which ended successfully after ninemonths. I asked whatto work on next. Iwastoldtogotothelibraryandsomethingwould come up. But I was a Type A newMITgrad,22yearsoldandIwasimpatient.IwenttotheAlumniPlacementOfficeandasked what local companies were hiringchemists.Iinterviewedatafewandended

upatPolaroidCorporationat2OsborneStreet.Mybigcareermove.IstayedatPolaroidfor31 years as a chemist and a manager, ending as New Media Development Manager in1996.in1996.Ilearnedhowtomakelightsensitivesilverhalide“emulsions”,designthedeveloperfluid(thegoothatwentintothelittlepod),andparticipatedinthedevelopmentofthenegativethatstartedasninelayerscoatedatthesametimeandbecamenineteenlayersbythetimeIleft.TheCompanyhadlearnedhowtodealwithcreatingapushthebuttonpicturedeliv-erythatgaveafinishedprintin60seconds,developedinthelightattemperaturesfrom35degreesto85degrees,anddidn’thavetobeshakentodry.Polaroidcontinuedtoimprovethecolorqualityandimagestabilitybutwasnotpreparedforthedigitalrevolution.

The SX-70 Sonar One Step introduced in 1978wasthefirsttoofferautofocus.

The Rise of Digital TechnologySilverhalidephotography,thebasisofrollfilmandPolaroidtechnology,hadaninherentreso-lution of 8megapixels. Thebelief in theCom-panywasthatdigitalphotographycouldneverreach the resolution required by photogra-phersorbytheamateuruser.Butaselectron-ics became more and more refined, digitalcameras reached resolution as good as filmvery quickly. Now the resolution of oursmartphone’s camera far exceeds that offilm.Polaroidhadthetechnologytosucceedin


the digital world, but the culture that precluded layoffs prevented the company fromdownsizing from20,000 employeesmanufacturing filmand camerasto a much smallercompanymakingdigitaldevices.In1995,PolaroidhireditsfirstoutsideCEOfromacom-panythatmanufacturedhandtools.Hestatedthatspending12%ofsalesonR&Dwastoomuch.IwasanR&DManageranddecidedtoacceptavoluntaryseverancepackagein1996.

TheJoycamintroducedin1999wasoneofthelastinstantproductsoffered.Polaroiddeclaredbankruptcyin2001.Kodakfiledforbankruptcyin2012andsolditspho-tographicfilmbusiness.TodayIlovehavingmyiPhonewithmesothatIcanbothsmelltherosesandphotographthematmyleisureinretirement.PaulLubin’64grewupinChelsea,Massachusetts,anddecidedhewantedtogotoMITin1957afterSputnikwaslaunched.HegraduatedinCourse5andwenttoworkasachemistattheMITInstrumentationLab,wherehehadworkedforthreesummers.In1964,hemar-ried his high-school sweetheart, Myrna; and they have one daughter, and three mostlygrowngrandsons.TheyliveinFreetown,Massachusetts.

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Left,DingysailingontheCharlesRiverinthe 1960s. Many sports have changed inincremental ways over the years – newequipment,betterunderstandingofwhatleadstosuccess. Thepleasureofpartici-patingorwatchingcontinues. Below, This scene is fromRedDeath Re-demption.Videogamesnowofferrealisticworldsthatyoucanwalkorridethroughandparticipateinadventures.Intheearly1960s no one played video games athome. AtMIT therewas aDigital Equip-ment Corporation (now gone from thecomputerscene)PDP-1mini-computer(aclass of computers now gone aswell) onwhichaverybasicspacewargamecouldbe played. Now powerful computers andfast Internet connections bring to us ex-periencesweusedtohavegotothethea-ter for,orat leastmakea trip toacquirephysicalmedia.

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Amateur Photography and Cinematography Robert P. Popadic

Technique1961PhotoStaffShownhere is the1961Technique,MITyearbook, photo staff completewith35mmand4x5filmcameras.Notshownis the21/4x21/4Hasselblad,andthe"little"strobesweborrowedfromDocEdgerton.Thesewereallpopularcameraformatsintheearly1960s.Whilewehadaccesstostrobes,wewerealsousingflashbulbs.WebuiltanewTechniquedarkroomin1960,forfilmloading,developingandprinting.Ourthreeenlargerscouldhandle35mmto4x5sheetfilm.Ourfilmwaskeptfreshina1930svintage refrigerator, wherewe also kept our soft drinks.The 1962 Technique acknowl-edgedtheCoca-ColaBottlingCompany,whichstruckatdeadlinetime,“fordoingtheirut-mosttoseethatTECHNIQUEdidnotappear."

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Before MIT Inthelate‘50s,Ihada35mmrangefindercamera(whosebrandIcannotremember)andaYashica twin lens reflex – styles that are stillwith us, but gonedigital.The35mmcamefromadrugstore,oneofthefewstoresthatcouldbeopenonSunday;andwhereyougotyour film processed.The Yashica came frommail order. Interestingly a number of drugstoresovertimemorphedintocamerastores,likeHuntCamerainMass.Iwasintoavailablelightphotography,butdidothertypesofworkaswell.Thisincluded:photographsforthehighschoolnewspaper,awaygamefootballpicturessoldtothelocalnewspaper($2apicture-$17in2018dollars)whousuallybought2,aglamourspreadinaSundaynewspapersupplement,weddings(forpoorteachersmypricewasright),babypic-turesandcopiedphotos.MylightingequipmentincludedPhotoFlood#1and#2bulbs,reflectorsandstands–stillhavesomeinthebasement-unused;andacoupleofstrobes.Myfirststrobehada500+voltbatteryandwasbuiltfromaHeathKit.Backthenmostpeopleusedflashbulbs,soIgotaskedalotofquestions.IsubsequentlyacquiredanUltrablitz200wattsecondunitpow-eredbyawetcell.Ithadabigheadwithtwoflashtubesofdifferentflashduration,andtheability topowermultiple strobeheads. It hadwhat I thought thenwas a large capacitor(thesizeofaverylargesodacan).LaterusingDocEdgerton’sunits,whichheusedtotakepictures of cities from20,000 feet, I got to knowwhat largewas (ifmemory servesme,about1x2feetontopand9incheshighwiththeunitonrollers).

Edgerton’smilkdropphotoSciencefairproject-ThyratronTriggersinPhotography IusedtheUltrablitzinreplicatingDoc’smilkdropphotos.Idesignedtwosensors,andatimer,whichdelayedtriggeringtheflash.Onewasaphotosensortriggeredbyamilkdropleavingapipette.Theotherwas ametaldisk cemented to a speaker cone thatwas trig-geredbythemilkdropstrikingit.Thecamerawasmyenlargerwitha21/4x31/4sheet

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filmholderwherethenegativetobeenlargedwouldnormallybe.Lightsout,pulltheslideonthefilmholderandwaitforamilkdroptotriggertheflash.TheprojectwongrandprizeattheSouthernCTScienceFair.Called“Flash” inhighschool, IhadtodropthatnicknameasalreadytakenwhenIgot toDoc’slabatMIT.I shot mostly black and white and some Ektachrome slide film, processing both in mybasement lab. Photo paper wasn’t coated the way it is today so print washing tookawhile. Ihadarubberbathtubforwashing,whichsometimewasfullofprintsofvarioussizes.Printswerehandcrafted:by “burning in”using cardboardwithahole cut in it, bydodgingwithshapestapedtotheendofacoathanger,byraisingcornersofthepapereaseltocorrectparallax,byselectingthecorrectcontrastpapergrade,bycountingtomeasureexposure,andbyselectivelyacceleratingdevelopingwith fingerheat.Mostof thesehavedigitalequivalentsinPhotoshop,whichfirstbecameavailablein1990,onlyfortheMac.

MIT 1960-1964 WhenIgottoMITIjoinedthephotographystaffofTechniqueandhadgreatfunwithDocEdgerton’sstrobesandtworecentlyacquiredcameras-aGraflexSuperSpeedGraphic4x5(inproduction from1961 to1970)andaHasselblad500C introduced in1957 thatused120roll film.Freshmanyearwebuilt anewdarkroom inWalkerMemorialwithagiantwetareafordeveloping,3enlargerbays,anda4x4footchangingroomforloadingandun-loading film.In 1965 Technique and the darkroommoved to the Student Center,whichwasjustcomingoutofthegroundwhenwegraduated.

Room26-100 - Academics Divider fromTechnique1963 Doc’s strobe units were impressive.Youcould char newsprint at 3 feet, freeze theWellesleyWaterBallet inAlumniPoolandimpress professional photographers.Oneday with a large freshman crew to movelightsandthecapacitorbanks,andrunca-bles, wewere shooting in the 26-100 lec-ture hall when a magazine photographershowedupwithhis on cameraHoneywellstrobe.Hewasdulyimpressed.

In the1960s serious amateurswere using small off-camera strobes, butmost consumerswerestillusingflashbulbs.In1965theflashcubewasintroduced,whichallowed4shotswithoutchangingthecube.Todaymostconsumerdigitalcamerashaveasmalllowpowerbuiltinflashthatpopsupwhenneeded.Todayhardlyanyoneusesflashbulbs,buttheyarestillavailable.


We used 4x5 cameras because the large negative made higher quality black and whiteprintsandbecauseouryearbookprinterforfullpageortwo-pagespreadcolorrequiredweprovide a 4x5 transparency.Shooting sheet film we were more careful than with35mm.Per shot the filmwasmuchmore expensive than35mm; andwith one sheet perside of a holder you’dneed18holders to equal a 35mm36 exposure cassette.Shootingcolor transparency also required getting the exposure right sowe used a Polaroid backwithblackandwhitefilmtochecktheexposure.Todayyoucanstillbuy4x5film,butusageisdramaticallydownfromwhatitwasintheearly1960s.Sophomore year I was photography editor and enjoyedmajor production shoots wherefreshmancartedaroundtheratherheavycapacitorsforDoc’slights.Itwasalsoanoppor-tunitytofeaturemywomanclassmatefriendsinavarietyofpictures.Ikepttakingpicturesthroughmysenioryear,whenIwaseditor-in-chief. Senioryearworking inDoc’s labwegot somepre-releasePolaroidcolor film to testandprovidesomepicturesfortheNewYorkCityannouncement.Iphotographedabulletpierc-ingayellowballoon,oneofDoc’sclassicshootsrepeated,againstabluebackground.Blueselected because the film was shifting blue at the short strobe exposures.That picturewenttoNewYorkandIusedtherestofthefilmforsomefamilypictures.Polaroidinstantphotographywasintroducedin1948andby1964thevalueofitscamerassoldintheUSexceedthatofboth35mmand8mmmoviecamera(sourcePolaroid1964filmfordealers).ItofferedfilmspeedsofASA(laterISO)100,200,400,3,000and10,000.TheoriginalPo-laroidCorporationisnomore,havinggonebankruptin2001and2008.Thecurrentcor-porationwiththenameisabrandlicensor,andPolaroidfilmisstillavailable.DigitalisthenewInstantphotography.Photoshopwasyearsinthefuture.WhenoneofthemembersoftheTechniquemanagingboarddidn’tlookwellinagrouppicturewhereeveryoneelsedid,wecuthisheadoutfromanotherexposureandglueditovertheheadinthefirst.Oncloseinspectionitshowed,un-liketheresultswegettodaywhereitsvirtuallyimpossibletodetectalterationsinphoto-graphs.

After Grad School and Navy – 1968 – 1989 AftergradschoolandashortstintintheNavyIgotaNikonF,agreatcamerawithaveryfastf1.4lens,boughtbyaNavyroommatewhogotitinthePXwherehewasstationedinJapan.Thecamera,introducedin1959andinproductionuntil1973,wasverypopularwithphotojournalist.Thebody,F1.4 lensanda55mmf3.5macro lens includingcustomsdutycostmelessthan$300($2,140in2018dollars).TheUSlistforthecameraandlensonlywas$388($2,765in2018dollars). Imentionthisonlybecause laterI’lldescribethe lessprofessionalandlessexpensivestillcamerasIusetoday.IusedtheNikonFactivelyupun-til2012.Thef1.4lensisstillinuseandfasterthananythingIhaveonmydigitalcameras.Todaynewmanualprime(non-zoom)50mmlensescost$400to$700,morethanalotofdigitalcamerawithkitlenses.NikonF

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NikonFOuryoungestsonevenusedtheNikonFforagradeschoolcameraclass.Around1989 we were on a trip to BattleshipCove and hewas taking pictures of theinsideofPT109,whichwasinashed.Adad came up to us with his son andaskedhowmysonwasabletotakepic-tures.My son turned the camera to-wardshimandhesawthelargepieceofglassandhesaid“Isee.”Wehadadarkroominthebasementand

Imoveduptoanelectronictimerandusingvariablecontrastblackandwhitepaper,wherewithfiltersoneachievedarangeofcontrastfromasinglepaperstock.Ineverreturnedtoprocessingtransparencyfilmmyself,asIhaddoneinhighschool.Chemicalphotographywas still king.Filmspeeds increased, filmgraingot smaller,morefolksshiftedfromflashbulbstostrobes,printingbecamemoreautomated,andyoucouldgetlowresolutionscansofyournegativesputonaCD.Ifyouwantedtosharephotosyouprintedthemafterdroppingofformailinginyourfilmforprocessingandprinting.Dialupwaskingaswell,whichmeanttherewasn’tenoughbandwidthavailabletouploadpicturesfor viewing or for remote printing. Iwas happywithmy aging equipment thatwas stillprettycurrentastechnologyhadn’tchangedalot;andIbecameincreasinglyinterestedinvideo.

Analog Video 1990 - 1998

Sony–Video8Handycam Our first video camera, just found whilecleaning our eldest son’s part of the shop.Son went to grad school in the UK andstayed,which iswhyhis shop is frozen intime.Home movies with 8mm cameras werepopular in the 1950’swhen I was in high

school,butIdidn’tgetintohomemoviesuntil1990whenwegota8mmSonyvideocam-era.The8mmvideowasananalogformatintroducedin1984withaboutthesameresolu-tionastheVHScamcordersofthesameera.OurfirstuseoftheSonywasonanoutdooricerinkinNH,thekidstookturnsseeingwhocouldmakethebestswishpan,longbeforethesebecame popular in films.In 1993 I filmed the 350thanniversary of Wenham, where we


live.2018wasthe375thanniversaryandImanagedtoreadthe25-yearoldtapeandpro-duceaDVD.Stillhaveastackofold8mmtapesthatIhopetoeditbeforetheybecomeun-readable.Backwhen theyweremade, people talked about a 10-year life before readingproblemsdeveloped.Thesearewellpastthat.WhenIstartedediting,Ihadn’treadmuchabouttheprocess,soIplungedinandpluggedtheSonyoutputintoourVHSdeckandmanuallyhittheplaybackontheSonyandtherec-ordon theVHStoedit.ThiswasaVHSdeck thatmaintainedtrackingbymechanicalad-justmentoftheheads.Thebasewasheavytomaintainheadregistration.Thiswasincon-trasttoournextVHSdeckthatwasverylightandmaintainedtrackingdynamically.MynextstepupineditingwasaprogramfortheMac8500thatbasicallyautomatedwhatIhadbeendoingwithmy fingers, started the tapes rollingandcut the recording inat therighttime.ThecontroltotheSonycamcorderwastwo-way(sendandreceive),whilethecontroltotheVHSdeckwasoneway(sendthesignalandhopeitgotactedupon)viaaninfraredtransmitteryouputinfrontoftheVHS’sreceiverwindow.Ouryoungestson,sameonedescribedearlierandwhobecameafilmeditor,wasinterestedintheaterandwasinanumberofcommunityshows,soIgotrecruitedtotapetheshowsandprovideamasterforduplicationtoselltoparticipants.Fortheearlyshows,FiddlerontheRoof,Brigadoon,Musicman, I’dpickthebestscenesfrommultiplenightsofshootingandwithmymagicfingerseditthemtogethercreatingaVHSmaster.Noattemptwasmadetoeditwithin thescenebecauseof the limitsofmy fingersand thiswasa singlecamerashoot.Welater(sometimeafter1994)gotaHi8editingVCR,whichinadditiontoeditingmethodspreviouslydescribedcoulddoassemblyeditingusingtimecode.Thecamerawasconnect-edtotheVCR.OntheVCRuptoeightinandoutpointsonthesourcetapecouldbeenteredin the order youwanted them recorded on theVCR.Once the editwas started, theVCRwouldfindtheselectedscenesonthesourcetapeusingthetimecodeandrecordtheminordertothetapeintheVCR.Ifyouhadmorethan8scenestheprocesswasrepeated.TheHi8VCRhadahigherresolutionthanthe8mmSonycamerawewereusing.Youcouldaddaudio to a previously recorded tape by recording on the PCM track,whichwas a lineartrackseparatefromthevideoandaudiotracksrecordedhelically.OnplaybackyoucouldmixthestandardandPCMaudio.

Serious Editing Begins 1995-96 AvidTechnologyintroduceditseditingsoftwarefortheMacin1989andbytheearly1990swasreplacingtraditionalfilmbasededitingtools.Theveryearliestversionsweredesignedfor theAppleMackintosh II.In1992 theywere firstused toedit a feature film.I visitedtheirplantinMass.wheretheyweremodifyingeitherPowerMacintosh8500sor9500storunfaster.TheirsoftwarewasalsoverypopularforeditingTVnews.In1995-6myeditingcapabilitiestookamajorleapforward.IgotaPowerMacintosh9500(132MHzprocessor)with aTarga coprocessor card, aRAIDarraywith two20GBharddrives,anaudiopatchbay,audiomixer,andPremiereeditingsoftware.Afterdigitaledit-

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ingtheoutputwasanalogrecordedtotheHi8VCR.Showtapesnowhadtitlesandsomesceneeditingalthoughtheshowshootswerestillsinglecamera.VHScopiesandlaterDVDsweremadefromtheHi8Masters.Theworkflowwasanaloginput,conversiontodigitaltoedit,edit,analogoutputtotheHi8tapedecktocreatethemaster,andcopyinganddistribu-tiononVHSand laterdigitallyonDVD.Rendering (processingadded titles, color correc-tion,motioneffects,etc.)onthe9500evenwiththeTargacardwasslow,whichgavemetimeforenforcedcoffeebreaks.In1997IusedthisrigtoeditGodspell,whichouryoungestsonstarredin.Digital Video

CanonXL-1 My consultingbusinesswas goingwell, soin 1998 I got a Cannon XL-1, a prosumervideo camera with lots of buttons andswitchesthatrecordeddigitallyonminiDVtape ($4,024, $ 6,209 in 2018 dollars). Ithada16xopticalzoomandanf1.6-2.6lens(maximum aperture changed with degreeofzoom).DVhasahorizontalresolutionof720ascomparedtoanalogHi8at420,and8mmandVHSat250.The1990Sonyhada

lotofbuttons,butaselectronicsgotcheapermenusreplacedbuttonsandothercontrols,exceptonhigh-endprosumercamerasliketheXL-1.TheXL-1hadinlensimagestabiliza-tion.Theincomingimagewassplitintothethreeprimarycolorswhichwenttothree1/3inchchipswith270,000pixelseach.AftercompressiontheimagewasrecordeddigitallytominiDVtape.ThisresolutionwassomewhatbetterthanstandardbroadcastTVoftheera,but well short of what was to become the 2K digital Full HD broadcast stand-ard(1920x1080)and the even more recent shift to 4K(4096 X 2160)for film produc-tion.Forcomparison2Khascomparableresolutionto16mmfilmand4kiscomparableto35mmmoviefilm.Intheearly2000stheXL-1wasusedbyprofessionals forcommercialsandsomefeaturefilms.Itookthecamerawithmein1999onatriptotheHolyLandandproducedwiththehelponanothertourmemberaone-hourvideothatwasshownataconference.Thecam-eragotsomeinterestingreactionsinIsrael.MorethanonceIwasaskedattouristsitesei-thernottouseit,orthey’dofferto“watchitforme,”whilefolkswithsmallcameraswentontheirmerrywayshootingaway.IsuspectfolksthoughtIwasfilmingforprofit.Interest-ingwhen leaving Israel, folks in our groupwith small cameras got them looked at verycarefully,whilemycamerabag,whichcouldhold20smallcameras,barelygotlookedat.Asamemberofthelocallibrarybuildingcommittee(2000-2003)IusedtheXL-1todocu-mentconstructionforbroadcastonthelocalpublicaccesschannel.Alsodocumentedour


church’scentennialyear,andworkedonavarietyofotherprojects.Someoftheseinvolvedmorethanonecamerashootingatthesametime,whichmadetheeditedproductmorein-teresting.Iusedthe9500systemforeditingXL-1DVfootageuntilupgradingtoalaptop,whichwithPremieralloweddirectcontroloftheXL-1usingtimecodeanddigitalcapture.PriortothatclipcapturewasanalogfromthedigitalDVtapeandcapturedonemanuallybystartingtheplaybackandthenclickingstarttocaptureonthecomputer.Thiswas followed in 2011by aMacBookPro (2.2/2.4GHz quad core processor)with aPremier upgrade as part of Adobe’s Creative Suite.It had a card reader allowing directtransfer of files fromdigital cameras (still and video).I added a two-terra byte externalharddrive,whichgavemeabitmorestoragethanthe40GBRAIDarrayonthe9500sys-tem.Myonceregularrenderingcoffeebreaksdidn’toccuroften.Ifonechoosesnottocon-tinueworkingwhileburningBlu-Raydisksonecanstill getagoodcoffeebreak in. I stillhavetheHi8deckandadigitaltoanalogconverterforinputtingoldtapes,anditwillprob-ablybearoundforawhileuntilIgettheold8mmtapesconverted.GotanewMacBookProin2018,becausetheoldonedied,notbecauseIneededtheperformanceimprovement.

Digital Still Photography Iwasslowtomakethechangetodigitalforstills,havingspentafairbitofmoneyontheCanonXL-1IwasunwillingtospendalotforaprofessionaldigitalstillcameraeventhoughI hadbeenusingPhotoshop toworkon scanned images for years. Photoshopwas intro-ducedin1990.Ittookawhilefordigitalsensorstobecomeavailablethathadtheresolu-tion to competewith film for serious print sizes.Early digital cameraswere fine if youweremakingsmallprintsorpostingimagestotheweb.TheXL-1 tookstillsandhadanoptional flashunit.Stillswererecorded for6secondsontape.In1999,digitalstillcameraresolutionwasaboutthesameastheXL-1.Stillcamerasoftheperiodhad1megapixelsensorsand4-6MBofstorage.Consequentlymostphotoed-itingwashybrid–filmcapture,scanninganddigitalediting.By2004basicdigitalcameraswereoffering2-3megapixels.Earlyconsumerdigitalcam-erascamewithslowlenses(acostissue),slowsensors,smallsensors,andartifactsifyoupushedtheISO.Forthelessexpensivecamerastherewasadelayfromtriggeringtheshut-terandapictureactuallybeingtaken.

My Digital Still Conversion – 2012 In2012,myyoungestsonloanedmehisCannon60Dtouseonacruise.Shotthousandsofpictures,whichIeditedontheMacmostlyusingPreviewandoccasionallyPhotoshop.Lat-erthatyearourchildrengavemeaCanonRebelT4i(pictured)formy70thbirthday.Withthatcamera, I’vetakena lotofpictures, includingforour50threunion,copyingmanypic-turesfrom1961-1965TechniquestoaddtotheClassof1964’swebsite.

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CanonRebelT4iIfoundsomefeaturesusefulandothersnotsomuch.Havinggrownup in theworldofmanual cameraswhere you needed to de-cidewhatshutterspeedoraperturesuitedyour subject, I found such menu subjectchoices as portrait or landscape less thanuseful.Autofocusontheotherhandwasmuchap-preciated by aging eyes. Kit zoom lenseshad amaximum aperture of F3.5, that de-creases as you zoom out.The Nikon F bycomparisonwithaF1.4lensgave8timesasmuch light through the viewfinder.Ratherthanuse the fancychoiceofmultiple focuspoints, I usually put the focus point on

whereIwantthefocustobetakingintoaccountwhatIwantinfocus,andlockfocusbeforecomposingtheshot.SimilarlyI’llaimatwheretheexposureshouldbetakenfromandholddowntheexposurelock.IoftenuseApertureorSpeedpreference.TheyprovidethesamefunctionalityastheFTNPhotomicPrismontheNikonF,exceptontheFyouhadtoturnthespeedorapertureringto center themeter reading.I really like being able to check exposure by looking at thescreenaftertakingatestshoot.OftenI’llusethatexposureasthebasisforgoingtomanualsettings,especiallywhenshootingmultipleexposureswherebacklightisinvolvedthatcon-fuses themetering. Ialsodon’tuse thebuilt indigital filtersoreffectsbelieving that it iseasierapplyeffectsandadjustmentsinpostusingPrevieworPhotoshop.GuessI’manolddogthathasonlylearnedsomenewtricks.Recentlymysonsoldmehis60Dkitinsteadoftradingitin.IusedtoborrowthiscamerawhenIdidmulti-cameravideoshoots;andI’mstillproducing2Kvideo.Hefeltforhispro-fessional shooting and editing work he needed to be able to offer clients the 4K-option.Shootingin4Kisfutureproofing,muchasfolksstartedshooting2Kbeforeitwasbeingbroadcast.Shooting4Kalsoallowscroppingthevideofor2Koutputwithoutlossinimagequality,whichcropping2Kfor2koutputdoesnot.Healsofoundthe60Dtobequiteheavycomparedtoneweroptions.In the days of chemical photography when I usedmy Nikon F you had a camera body,lensesandfilm.Filmimproved(grainsizedecreased,speedwentup)andoptionschanged(colorreplacedblackandwhite),butyoucouldkeepusing thebodyand the lens.In thedigitalworldthecamerabodyandthefilmareessentiallyone.Andimagestabilizationinthelensmakesthemmoresubjecttoobsolescencewithimprovementsinelectronics.The sensor and the processor in the body essentially replaced film. Early sensors weresmall, lowinresolution, lowinspeed, limitedin latitude,andnoisywhentheISOwasin-


creasedabovesomeverylowvalues.Alsorelevant,especiallyforhigherresolutionvideoformatswashowfastyoucangettheinformationoffthesensor,processitandstoreit.Giventhata35MMstillframehastheequivalentof87megapixels(4x5sheetfilmabout15 times that), it was not surprising early digital sensors were used in video cameras(standarddefinition-SDrequired.3megapixels)andin1and2megapixelcamerassuita-ble for thenwebpostingandsmallprints.For reference:8mmmovie filmhasabout theresolutionofSDvideo,16mmabout2k,and35mmabout4k.A35mmmovieframegoesacrossthefilmandisthussmallerthanastill35mmframe,whichgoesalongthefilm.Digitalcamerasensorresolutionsexceededthatneededforvideobeforeitwaspossibletoget thatmuch informationoff the sensor,processandstore it.Howeverwhenprocessorspeedimprovedvideobecameanaddedfeatureofthedigitalstillcamera.Asanaddedfea-ture,camerasdidnotofferthesameeaseofuseofadedicatedvideocamera,designedtolet the operatormake changeswhile shooting, something the still photographer did notneedtobeabletodo.Mytwo2012vintageCannonshave18.7megapixelsensors(5184x3456).Thatresolutionisstillofferedonmanycameras.Themovetofullframesensors,36x24mm(sameasa35mm film camera) has pushed the upper end to over 45mega pixels (Nikon45.4 8256 x5504).Threehundreddotsperinch(DPI)makesagoodqualityprintand200DPIisoftenacceptable.An18.7MPsensorevenallowingforcroppingwillprovideenoughinformationforan11x14printat300DPIanda16x20atabout240DPI.LookingbackmyNikonFwasaprofessionalcamerainproductionforoveradecadeandcostabout$3,000intoday’sdollars.Thatamountofmoneytodaywillgetyouverygoodprofessionalstillbody.TheXL-1wasinuseforcommercialsandfeaturefilmsforarelative-lyshortperiodoftime.Itwouldcostabout$6,200intoday’sdollars,aboutthesameasaverynice4kprofessionalcamcordertoday.InterestinglytodaywhenIusetheobsoleteXL-1forbackuportocaptureaninsert,itgetsalotofrespect.Itlookslikewhatpeoplethinkaprofessionalcamerashouldlooklike,eventhoughsomefineandexpensivecamerastodaydon’tlooklikemorethansmallblackboxes.ThecamerasIusetodaycostalotlessandarenotprofessionalones,buttheyaregettingdonewhatInowneedtogetdone.BobPopadic’64Course6,HarvardMBA,spenthiscareerinthefinancialservicesindustryasabankexecutiveandconsultant.Hehasbeenanavidphotographerfromgradeschoolandavideographerfromtheearly1990's.

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How Small Boat Coastal Navigation Has Changed Robert P. Popadic

MydecadeslongsailingcareerstartedatMITinthefallof1960whenIjumpedintoAlumniPoolhopingIcouldpasstheswimmingtestsoIcouldsignupforsail-ing.NotsurewhyIhadthatexpectation,probablyjustahopeIwouldsuddenlymagicallyknowhowtoswim.Iendedupsigningupforbothswimmingandsailingclas-ses.NavigatingaTechDingyon theCharleswasallvisual -no compass, electronics, or charts.All you had to re-member was immersion in the waters of the Charlescouldbeunhealthy.TheCharleswasalsoreportedtobebottomless–itjustgotthicker.

Midshipman Cruise My first exposure to the toolsofnavigationwasonmymidshipman cruise the summer of 1963.Classmate AlWirzburger’64(deceased)andItraveledtoNorfolkandjoinedthedestroyerUSSLeary.Wemadeonetriptothe

BridgeportCTfortheBarnumFestival.I livedjustnorthofBridgeportsohadaccesstoacar,whichmademeverypopularwiththeofficersandothermidshipman.On thewaywe learnedabout charts, takingbearingsusing the compasseson thebridgewings,andplotting themonthechart–anart thatgoesbackcenturies.Ifyoucouldgetbearingsonthreeobjectsashorethatwereonyourchart,youcouldplotthebearingsandgethopefullyasmalltriangle(oftencalledacockedhat)withinwhichwasyourlikelyposi-tion.We learnedaboutdeadreckoning,which isbasically takinga “known”positionandprojecting it forwardbasedoncourse, speedandcurrents.Beendone forcenturies.Thisprojectedlinecouldalsobecombinedwithshorebearing(s),ifinsufficientshorebearingswereavailabletoobtainafix.We also did some celestial navigation using a sextant – a device formeasuring how farabovethehorizonastar,thesunormoonare.Measurementsonmultipleobjects,accuratetime, tablesandsomemathallowedpositiondetermination. Ifwasnotuntil thedevelop-mentofaccurateportabletimepiecesthatitbecamepossibletodeterminelongitudefromaship.AtwentythousandpoundprizewasofferedintheLongitudeActof1714thatwasn’tpaidoutuntil40yearslaterafteranaccuratetimepiecebecameavailable.Foralongtimecelestialnavigationwashowoff shorenavigationwasdone, thenelectronics starteddis-placingcelestialnavigation.In2006theNavalAcademystoppedteachinghowtouseasex-

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tant, only to reintroduce it in 2016 with growing concern over Global Positioning Sys-tem(GPS)beingjammedorunavailable.GPSwasfirstintroducedforthemilitaryin1973,andbecameavailableforcivilianuseafter1983whenKoreanAirLinesFlight007wasshotdownwhenitstrayedintoforbiddenair-space,BUTwithanintroducederror–called“selectiveavailability.“Thusyoucouldneverknow your position more accurately than 150 feet horizontal and 300 feet vertical-ly.Inducederrorforcivilianuserwasremovedin2000.TheLeary’selectronicnavigationaidwasLORAN(shortforlongrangenavigation)devel-opedduringWWII.ThebasicideaofLORANwasthatonecouldcomparethereceipttimesoftwo(masterandaslave)transmittedsignalsfromwidelyseparatedstations;andthedif-ferenceinreceipttimesdefinedacurveonthesurfaceoftheearthsomewhereuponwhichtheshipwaslocated.Identifythreeofthesecurvesandyouhaveatriangleinwhichyouarelocated.TheLeary’sreceiverwasprettyold,eventhen,asyouhadtoselectthefrequencyandthentwistadialtolineuponaCRTthetraceofthetwosignals.Thedialgaveyouthetimingdifference,which thenallowedyou togo to a chart and find theappropriatepre-printedcurvefortherightstation(frequency)andtimedifference.Youweresomeplaceonthecurve.Withmultiplestationsyoucouldgetyourlocationbytheintersectionofthemul-tiplecurves.

Traditional navigation tools, consisting of parallel rulers, compass, protractor and pencilslayingonachartofSalemandMarbleheadMass.

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Sailing the Chesapeake Bay AftergraduationfromHarvardBusinessSchoolin1966,IwentonactivedutyattheNavycontactingofficeatacivilianshipyardinNewportNewsVA.IspentmyuniformallowanceasadownpaymentonaFord20daysailer,enclosedtheopencuddycabinandsetofftoexploretheChesapeakeBaywithmycompass,charts,parallelrulersanddividers.InamedtheFord20 “Sabrina”afterAudreyHepburn’s character inBreakfastatTiffany's,not theNordicgoddess.Withacenterboardboatthatdrewonlyafewinches,asandybottomandlittletideitwasgreatfun.BeingaNavydeskjockey,Ithoughtitwouldbehelpfultotakecorrespondencecoursesinship handling and navigation.The latter introduced me to paper charts, parallel rulers(usedtotransferabearingfromthecompassrosetowhereyouwereplotting)anddividers(handyfortransferringdistances).

Hardlya ship shapedeparture from thehoteldockafterunexpected rainduring thewed-ding.ImetmywifeKaren shortly after arriving inNewportNews in Juneof 1966. In Juneof1968weweremarried,andwentonourbudget (dollarsand time)honeymoonwithournavigation tools now supplemented by a cruising guide for the Chesapeake.Cruisingguidesprovidedinpaperformwhatislargelyavailableonlinetoday–tidetables,currentcharts, listsofmarinasandservices,etc.Before theweddingwe tied“Sabrina”upat thehoteldockon the JamesRiver,withoutputting theboomtentup.During thereception itrained.Undeterredwemotoredawayfromdisappointedfolkswhoexpectedustousethecar theydecorated.Wehadwater sloshing in thecockpitandheadednorth for theYorkRiverand themarina thatadvertisedrooms in thecruisingguide.Arrived theresafely tofindtheroomsreallyweren’tquitefinished–bedinaloft;andreceivedthesuggestionweshould stayat ahotel– the sameonewhereourweddingpartywas.Wedidn’t like thatidea,sotookoffwiththeboatfordinneratarestaurantwherewecoulddock,andthende-cidedtoanchor inmidstreamin theYorkRiver toavoid thebugsandsleep in thecock-pit.Workedoutfine.


To Marblehead Massachusetts Columbia26Karen finished the school year teachingand I left active duty shortly thereafterandwe trailed “Sabrina”, the Ford 20, toMarbleheadMass. In thesummerof1969we sailed to Cape Cod, slept under theboom tent in the very large cockpit; andmostly went ashore to eat.That year wetookdeliveryofaColumbia26,whichwaslarge enough to do some comfortablecruising.Wenamed in “Sabrina”, again –noIIoranythingfancylikethat.Weaddeda 50-watt double sideband crystal con-trolled radio, a Heathkit depth sounder,which Ibuilt,aradiodirection finder(forusewithnavigationbeaconsandcommer-cial radio stations near the coast), and afancyhand-bearingcompass(nicewooden

box,flashlightlikehandletolightthecompassbowl).Atthatpointwehadmorenavigationtoolsthantheleaddestroyerinthe1923squadroncruisefromSanFranciscotoSanDiegothatdroveitselfashoreatHondaPointfollowedbysixotherships.Theleaddestroyerwasnavigatingusingdeadreckoningandunfortunatelylargelyignoringtheearlyradionaviga-tionaidsavailable.WemadeanumberoftripstoCapeCod,Martha’sVineyard,NantucketandplacesonBuz-zardsBay.OntripsoftenKarenwasatthetilleralotwhileItookbearingswiththecom-passorradiodirectionfinder,plottedcourseandbearingswithpencil,parallelrules.OneyearinpeasoupfogweusedthedepthsoundertofollowaconstantdepthcurvealongthesoutherncoastoftheCapetothebellforFalmouthHarbor.Ontheradioweheardalargepowerboatwithradarwasgoingouttotryandfindasailboatthatcouldn’tfindtheharborentrance.Most smallboatsdidn’thave traditional radar then,but therewasWhistler - apoormansradar,asquareunityouhungaroundyourneckandmovedwhileyoulisteningtoearphones.Wenevergotone.Weusedourdoublesidebandradioforcallingotherboats,bridges,marinasandoccasion-allytomakebriefphonecallsviatheMarineOperator,whereyouoftenhadtowaitinlineforatimetomakeacall;andcouldlistentocheckiftheywereholdinglandbasedcallsforyou.Double side band radios,which had considerable range could not be licensed afterJanuary1,1972andwerecompletelybannedin1976.Onlyallowedweresinglesidebandones,which allowedmore effective use of the radio spectrum (more channels).And youcouldn’tgetalicenseforoneunlessyoualsohadaVHFradioforlineofsightcommunica-

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tion.WeaddedaVHFradio,butkepttheolddoublesidebandonejustincase.AsIrecalltheywereallowedandCoastGuardmonitoredthecallingfrequencyforemergencies.WithourVHFradiowecouldgetweatherforecasts.Oncecellphonesbecamegenerallyavailablein the early 2000s,when near shore they became the primarymeans of communicatingwithfolksashore.Andpeoplecouldnowalsoeasilycallyou–somuchforyoursailinggetaway.In 1996, a storm struck SalemHarborwhilewewere visiting our oldest son at CarnageMellon.“Sabrina”,theColumbia26,endedupontherocksinSalemHarbor–onependantpartedandthecleatfortheotherpendantbroken.

A Bigger Boat Pearson28brochurepicture In 1998 we bought a used 1985Pearson 28 that came with fullheadroom,hotandcold runningwater, an inboard engine, VHFradio,handheldVHFradio,depthsounder, speed indicator and aLoran-C unit that previously hadbeen on a fishing boat.And yeswe also named it “Sabrina”. Lo-ran-Chadcomea longwaysincetheoriginalLORANunitIusedonthe USS Leary.This one actuallygave you the latitude and longi-tude, no dial twiddling to matchwaveforms, but GPS still had arandom error introduced for ci-vilianusers,which itwasreport-edmadeLoran ifnotmoreaccu-rate, more reproducible (helpfind your favorite fishing

spot).Bythe1970srelativelylowcostLoran–CreceiverswereavailableresultinginmanyLORANstationsbeingphasedoutby1980.Inturn,underpressurefromGPS,anumberofLoran–Cturnoffdateswereannouncedandthencancelled;untilitfinallyLoran-CbecamehistoryintheUSandCanadain2010.


ThePearsonhadatraditional“nav”stationwithaplaceforchartsandnavigationinstruments,atabletoworkon,andplaceswhereweinstalledVHFradio,radarandlaptopwithnavigationsoftwarelinkedtoaGPSunitatthehelm. Thiswasalsothehomeforhandheldradio,digitalhandbearingcompass, various guides and navigation books. On thecockpit bulkheadweremagnetic compass and traditionalwind and speed instruments (not networked) and belowthemainsheettrackwasaLoranunit. Anewboatneedsnewtoys.Wegot:adigitalhandbearingcompass,which I still use (fits inmy shirt pock –hardlygetstherespecttheoldanalogonegot);ahandhelpGPSunit (still around), aFuruno radar, and “igation softwareformy laptop.The unitswere all connected by an earlynetwork.The GPS fed the laptop tomove the little boatshaped iconaroundonthecharts,andtheradar toputa

circleonthescreenwhereyournextwaypointwas.Ifyouwere luckythecirclewrappedaroundthereflectionof thebuoyyouwereheading for.OureldestsonJohnandI testedthenewtoysoutona trip toMaineearly in the1999season.Wewent fartheroff shorethenwehadbeenbeforeandfeltverycomfortable.Withtheradio,radardisplayandlap-topatthe“nav”stationwetookturnsatthehelmandnavigating.TheMaytripwasveryearlyforMaine.Wefoundfieldsofmooringsavailableinpopularharborsandalotofres-taurantsthatweren’topenyet.Beingacollegestudenthemayhavebeengettingabittoomuchofdadandwentashoreandfoundsomekidstoplayballwith.Heforgotabouttheextent of the tide swing and where on the beach he should leave the hard dingy (non-inflatable).Isawthetiderisingandcalledhimonthehandheldradiohetookwithhim;andhecamebacktothedock,Ipoweredbyandhejumpedonandwechasedtheharddin-gyuntilwerealizedfromthechartwewereheadedforshoalwater.Backtothemooring,got the inflatable dingy, which was half inflated on the fore deck, pumped it up andlaunched.John thenwent off, found the dingy and had to convince folkswho found thedingyitwasoursandwasn’tsalvage.Thiswasthetimeyoustartedtobeabletogetintegrateddisplays;andelectronicsstartedtomovefromthe“nav“station,whereyoucouldsitatanicetable,spreadyourcharts,andcommunewithyourelectronics, topodson thewheelpedestal or atop the cabin.ChartsbegantohavethelongitudeandlatitudeofbuoysprintedonthemsoyoucouldenterthemaswaypointsintoyourGPS.MoreexpensiveGPSunitscouldalsostorechartsandplotonthem.Nowformanysituationstherolesofnavigatorandhelmspersoncouldbecombinedintooneperson.Networkscontinuedto improveandmoredevicesbecamenetworkena-bled.Some place along the way Karen lost interest in sailing and I started sailing bymyself,something I doubt Iwouldhavedonewithout aGPS at hand. In2000 they removed therandomerrorintroducedforcivilianusers.GPSwasnowmoreaccurateandreproducible

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thanLORAN.NewerGPSofferingscurrentlyavailablearesupposedtobesoaccurateyougetadifferentreadingdependingonwhichsideofthecockpityouaresittingon.Notsurethatwillanydifferencetothesmallboatnavigator.Paper charts are still nice to have especiallywhen the battery runs out or an electronicgremlinisabout,orwhenagiantsolarflaresuchashappenedin1859occurs.Paperchartsarehuge,youneedtobeonashiptohavea“nav”tablebigenoughtospreadthemoutun-folded.Theyalsohaveatonofinformationprintedonthem,whichyoucanaccessbyget-tingcloserespeciallyifyouarenearsighted.Theusablepartofadigitalchartislimitedbythesizeofyourscreenandtheycome in twoflavors–rasterorvector.Rasterchartsarebasicallyscannedpapercharts–ifyouseesomethingandcannotdeterminewhatitisyouzoom in until you can read it.Vector charts are generated at the level you are viewing,whichmeansatalargerscaleyoumaynotbeshownsayarockunlessyouzoomin.Paperchartsformeatleastaregreatforgettingthebigpictureandputtingwhereyouareincon-text.

A Smaller Boat Oneafternoonwhilesailingalonein2012,“Sabrina”thePearsonandIhadalowtideen-counterwitharockoffabeachinhomewaters(itwasjustoverthefoldonachart).Inget-tingheroffwiththedieselthestuckfinkeelflexedthehullenoughtomaketherepairofanoldboatatotalloss.Thefollowingyearweboughtatrailerablekeelboat,a1974TyphoonWeekendernamed“MyGarrison.”Wekeptthenamethistime.It’s18.5feetlongandato-talchangefromthePearson28.Itsactuallyhardertosinglehandforanumberofreason,mostlyrelatedtogoingfromadieselcontrolledfromawheelpedestaltoanoffcenterout-boardhangingoff the stern.However, the cockpit seats are just the rightheight forournow6and7yearoldgrandchildren.Downsizedabit:noradar,nodepthsounder,andon-lyahandleheldradio.Stillhavethesamedigitalhandbearingcompass,papercharts,andGPS.I find I use theGPS as a compass a lot, even though there is a lag vs. themagneticcompass.IusetheGPStogetspeedoverthebottom,ratherthantheniceRaytheonspeed-ometertheperviousownerinstalledthatgivesspeedthruthewater.Withasmaller,slow-erboat (displacementhull speed is largely limitedbywater line length);andslowerandprobablyheaviercaptain,Idon’tgoasfarafieldandthushavesimplernavigationneeds.Navigationaidsaretohelpyougetwhereyouaregoingandstayoutoftrouble,soyoucanenjoythesun,wind,seaandyoursailingcompanions.BobPopadic’64Course6,HarvardMBA,spenthiscareerinthefinancialservicesindustryasabankexecutiveandconsultant.HesailsoutofSalemHarborinMassachusetts.

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The Impact of Technology on Ice Climbing Leon Kaatz

Iceclimbingandtechnology? Soundslikeaweirdmarriage;notso. Technology’s impactonmainstreamsportsiswellknowntomostofus.Witnessthedesignandchoiceofmate-rialsforfootballhelmetstoimprovesafety;golfclubshaftsandtennisracketframestocon-trolweight,swingandaccuracy.Mostoftheseimprovementscenteronthechoiceofmate-rialsandsoitiswithiceclimbing.Butmaterialsarenottheexclusivedomainwheretech-nologyhasimpactedthissport.Beforejumpingheadfirstintothisdiscussionabasictuto-rialisinorderonwhatisiceclimbingandhowitisdone.

Attheoutsetit isnecessarytodistinguishbetweeniceclimbingandmountaineering. Iceclimbingistheclimbingofsteeplyinclinedorverticalicewalls.Ithasdevelopedstrictlyasasport.IceclimbsaregradedindifficultyfromWaterIceWi1(easiest)toWi7(hardest).Thegradingencompassesseveralfactors,themostsignificantbeingthepitch.AWi2climbmighthavea45degreepitch.AWi6climbisusuallydeadvertical.Mountaineeringistheascentofmountains,generallyacrossandupglacierfields.Thegenesisofmountaineeringismoreintravelandexplorationthaninsport.Theascentofmosttallmountainsrequiresconsiderablemountaineeringwith littleorno ice climbing.2Thisessay isdevoted to theimpact of technology on ice climbing, notmountaineering. That being said, some of thebasicequipmentusediniceclimbingwasoriginallydevelopedformountaineering.

Crampon–topviewCrampon–bottomview

Basic Tools Thebasictoolsoftheiceclimberareapairofcrampons,apairoficetools(morecommonlyknownas ice axes to thegeneralpopulace), and ice screws. Cramponsare anaccessorythatget strappedon toone’s ice climbingboots.Theycontain sharppointedprotrusionscalledpointsalongthefront,backandsides.Inbasicicewallclimbingmovesprimarilythe2 FromthebasecampofMountEveresttothesummitentailsabout11,000feetofverticalgain.Theonlytrueiceclimbingonthatjourneyisona40footsectionjustbelowthesummitcalledtheHillaryStep.Thatsectionofthemountainwasimpactedbythe2015earthquakeand,bymostaccounts,isnolongerviewedastrueiceclimbing.WhenitdidexistitwasgenerallygradedataboutWi3.

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front points are used. They are kicked into the icewall and provide the climberwith ameasureofcontactwiththeicewall.

Cramponincontactwithicewall.The typical front point only protrudesabout 1.5 inches forward from the toe ofthe boot. Despite this seemingly smallamount of contact with the ice wall theyprovide a significant amount of purchase.The secret is in the accuracy of the kickand the maintenance of the points.3 Thesideandrearpointsoncramponsareusedprimarily for stability on glacier traverse.In this context the motion is not vertical(typically less than a 45 degree incline).Thesideandbackpointsprovidestabilityand traction on such glacier surfaces.Thosereaderswholiveinnorthernclimes

may be familiar with a product sold under the brand name of “Yaktrax.” Yaktrax arestrappedontowinterbootstoprovidetractionwhilewalkingonanicysurface. Thesideandrearpointsofthecrampons(alongwiththefrontpoints)servethissamefunction.

Icetool The second fundamental tool is the icetool.Justascramponsaretheappendagesthat secure the climber’s feet to the icewall,icetoolsaretheappendagesthatse-cure the climber’s hands to the ice wall.As the climbermovesup the icewall theicetoolsarethrownintotheicesurfaceto

provideupperbodyconnection to thewall. The fundamentalcomponentsof the ice toolaretheshaftandthepick.

3Themoreskilledtheiceclimberthebetterheorsheisat“reading”theiceandknowingthebestspotstokickinto.Thefrontpointsmustbekeptsharp.Mosticeclimberswillfileandsharpenthefrontpointsoftheircramponsaftereachdayofclimbing.


IcetoolleashIcetoolpenetration Someicetoolsalsohavedetachableleasheswithoneendaffixedtotheshaftofthetoolandtheotherendslippedovertheclimber’swrist.4Aswiththefrontpointsoncrampons,thetipsoftheicetools,whenproperlythrownwillprovideabout1.5inchesofpenetrationintotheicesurface.Aswiththefrontpointofthecrampons,placementandkeepingthepointsharparecriticaltoperformance.Placementisanacquiredskillthatcomesfromknowinghowtoreadtheice.Aswiththefrontpointsoncrampons,mostclimberswillsharpentheendsoftheiricetoolpicksaftereachday’susage.

IcescrewCarabineerIcescrew,lead,ropeconfigurationThethirdpieceofequipmenttobediscussedistheicescrew.Theicescrewisananchorpointscrewedintotheicesurface.Itspurposeissafety.Theclimber’sropewillbepassedthroughacarabineerthatissecuredtotheicescrewbyashortlead. Theicescrew/leadconfigurationistocatchaclimberifheorshefalls.Aswithcramponfrontpointsandicetoolpicks,placementoficescrewsiscritical.Goodplacementrequiresanaccuratereadoftheice,howitisformed,andlocationofitsweakpoints.Theicescrewissecuredtotheice

4Leashesservetheobviousfunctionofpreventingthedroppingofthetoolbuttheyareshunnedbymostad-vancedclimbers.Moredifficultclimbsaresometimesfacilitatedbyswappingtheicetoolsfromhandtohand.Leashesmakethisimpossible.

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wallbygentlytappinginthepointandthenscrewingitintothesurfacetoaboutahalfinchfromthetopoftheshaft.Thecylindricalportionoftheicescrewishollow,thusallowingforamoresecuregripintheice.Themostsignificantimpactoftechnologyoniceclimbinghasbeentheadvancementinthedesignandconstructionofcrampons,icetools,andicescrews.

Crampons Cramponsarenotarecentdevelopment.Evidencehasbeenfoundthatpaleohuntergath-erers used similar devices to gain tractionwhile crossingmountains to search for food.Leathersandalswithspikedplates,believedtobeover1000yearsold,havebeenfoundintheCaucasusMountains inRussia. Thereareevendepictionsofcrampon-likedevicesontheArchofConstantinebuiltbytheRomansin315A.D.Thecramponinitscurrentbasicdesignwasfirstmanufacturedforsalein1910byHenryGrivel,anItalianclimber.5Earlycramponsweredesignedwithtwoflatfrontpoints.Thefrontpointsandthebodyofthecramponwereallonemoldedpieceofmetal.Theflatfrontpointflaredbackfromthepointtiptothebaseofthecramponframewiththeflarebeinghorizontalrelativetotheicesurface.Inthemid-1990scrampondesignmovedintoanewgeneration.

Verticalfrontpoints Inthemoremoderncramponsthefrontpointsareverti-cal relative to the ice surface. This provides for betterpenetration into the ice with less power needed in thekick toproduce thepenetration. Thismoremodernde-signproduceslesscrackingoftheicesurfaceasthecram-ponpenetrates,resultinginamoresecureconnectiontotheicewall.DetachedcramponfrontpointAt the same time that the crampondesign provided forvertical frontpoints italsoprovidedforinterchangeablefrontpoints.Modernfrontpointsarecompletelydetach-ableallowingforreplacementwhentheyultimatelywearout.Thisfeature,inadditiontoallowingforreplacement,

allowsforadjustmentofposition(depthofpenetration)andallowsforclimbingwithdualfrontpoints versusmono frontpoints. This last advancement allows the crampon tobemorecloselytailoredtotheclimbingconditions–monopointsforaveryfeaturedicesur-face,dualpointsforasmoothericesurface.

5 History of Climbing Crampon, Doug Williams, 2017.


Thefinaladvancementincrampontechnologyisconstructionwithafixedantibotplate.Anissuewhen traversingacrossa snowglacier is thebuildupof snowon thebottomof thecrampon. Thisbuildup impacts theclimber’sbalanceandstabilityandtheconnection tothesurface.Toaddressthisimpedimentcramponshaveafixturecalledanantibotaffixedtotheundercarriage.Earlycramponsdidnotprovideforanyantibots.Inthenextgenera-tionofcrampons(1970sand1980s) theantibotswerearubberplate thatclippedto theundercarriageofthecrampon. Althoughfunctionallyadequate,theyweredifficulttouse.Majorissuesweretearsintherubberandtheinsecurityoftheclipsaffixingtheplatetothecrampon. Rarelydid they lastmorethanoneseason. Replacingthemunder typicalcoldweatherclimbingconditionswasadreadedtask.Replacingantibotplatesinthecomfortofone’slivingroomwouldtakeabout20minutesandrequiredadegreeofmanipulationwithone’shands.Noneofthiscouldbeaccomplishedwhilewearingclimbinggloves.Removingone’s gloves with temperatures in the single digits (or less) was not a pleasant option.Moremoderncramponshaveafixedbuilt-inantibotplate(Seesecondphotoabove,orangeunderplate).Theydon’tbreakortearandtheyaremaintenancefree.

Ice Tools Theoriginalicetoolsweredesignedandbuiltformountaineering,noticeclimbing. Theywere meant to be used primarily for balance traversing across or up a glacier surface.When theywere first developed theyhad straight vertical shaftsup to3 feet long andametalpickprimitivelyattachedatthetop.Thesetoolswereheavy,cumbersome,andhadsignificantvibrationwhenstruckintoanicesurface.Inreality,intheirfirstincarnationicetoolswereusedprimarilylikeawalkingstick. Thegeneraldesignoftheicetool,asusedtoday,wasdeveloped in theearly1970s. Themost significantdesignadvancements aretheuseofashortercurvedshaftanddetachablepicks.The curved shafts on today’s ice tools allow formore flexibility in the grip and reducedstrainonthewrists,elbows,andforearms.Thecurvedshaftandshorterlengthprovideforamuchmorepowerfulswing.Formosticeclimbers(particularlyyourauthor)thelimitingendurancefactoriniceclimbingisinthearms,notthelegs.Themoremodernshaftdesignprovides greater “sticking power” for the pick with no added effort or strength in theswing. As noted earlier, placement of the throw is a critical factor in ice climbing. Theshorter curved shaftmakes itmucheasier to connect the throw to the iceat theprecisepointaimedat.Thecurrentdesignallowsformoreofthethrowtocomefromthewristin-steadoftheforearm.Thisprovidesgreaterprecisionwithoutsappingupperarmstrength.Theevolutionofdesigninicetoolshaftsinthepastdecadehasfocusedmoreonthegripandhandle. Thenewergripshaveanupwardprotrudinglipthatcomesoverthebackofthehand. Thisminimizes thepossibilityof lettinggoof the tool. ThisadvancementwasspearheadedbyGrivel.6

6Grivelisalwaysonthecuttingedgeofnewtechnologiesiniceclimbingequipmentdesign.Thisissobe-cause,unlikeothermanufacturers,Grivelreliesonclimbersfortheirfeedback,notengineers.

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Icetoolgrip

Theearlyicetoolshaftsweremadeofwood,typ-icallyhickoryorash.Theylackeddurabilityandwerepronetosnapping.Thefirsticetoolswithmetal shaftsweredeveloped in theearly1960sbyScottishclimbersHamishMacInnesandBen-jamin and Steven Massey.7 The first metal icetoolshadsteelshafts. Theseshaftsgavewayto

aluminuminanefforttocutdownonvibration.Today’smostmodernicetoolshaveshaftsmadeofcarbonfiber.Theyarelighterandmuchbetteratabsorbingshock.8The advancement in ice tools is not limited to improvements in the shafts. The ice toolpickshavealsobeenthesubjectofconsiderablechangebothinmaterialsanddesign.Thepicks inuse in the1960sweremadeofaveryhard thickmetal. Thesepickswere long-lastingbutverystiff. Today’spicksaremadeofasoftermetalandhaveathinnerdesign.This makes for better penetration into the ice. This is of significant importance whenclimbing in ultra coldweatherwhen the ice is very brittle. The older heavy thick pickswouldtendtocauseshatteringoftheicesurfaceoncontact.Thisimpactedpenetrationandthescatteringof iceshardscausedasafetyhazard. There ishardlyaveteraniceclimberanywherewhohasn’t, atone timeoranother, comehome fromadayof climbingwithabloodiedfacefromflyingice.In1966thedesignoficepicksunderwentadramaticchangefromastraightpicktoadra-maticallycurvedpick.Thischange,inspiredbyFrenchclimberYvonChouinard,wasbasedontheprinciplethatacurveonthepickcompatiblewiththearcoftheswingwouldallowthepicktostaybetterputintheice.Theideaworkedandusheredinanewperiodofinno-vationinicetooldesign.

7AccordingtotheScottishMountainHeritageCollection,MacInnescreatedtheall-metaltoolafterbeingin-volvedintherecoveryofbodiesofaclimbinggroupwhofelltotheirdeathswhenthewoodenshaftsoftheiricetoolssnapped.8Thistechnologywasimportedfrombikemanufacturers.


Wi5climbWi6climb Before the advancements described herein only the most elite ice climbers could climbgradeWi5;climbinggradeWi6wasunheardof.NowgradeWi5is,atleastonagoodday,withintheabilityofaclimberwithadvancedintermediateskills.

Ice Screws Icescrewsasweknowthemtodayhavebeenaroundsincethemid1960s.Thepredeces-sor to the ice screw, a device called a snarg, looks outwardly about the same as an icescrew.Thisdevicehadnarrowerthreadsthananicescrewandneededtobepoundedintotheicesurface. Itcouldberemovedbyturningcounter-clockwisejustasanormalscrewwouldberemoved.Tothecasualobservertheobviouslimitationtoasnargwastheenergyrequiredtoinsertitandtheneedtocarryadditionalequipment(icehammer).Thenotsoobviouslimitationislackofflexibilityonwhereitcanbeplaced.Thispointissubtle.The

problemisn’talimitationonwhatpartoftheicewillacceptthesnarg;theproblemisthatinordertobeabletopoundin the snarg without falling it has to be at the climber’sshoulderheightandabout12-24 inches to thesideof thearmwielding the hammer. The climber needs to be in asecurestancewhenthesnargishammeredin.Climbingiceisnot likeclimbingstairs. Theopportunities togainase-curestancearelimited.IcescrewtipInsertionofthemodernicescrewiscommencedbyarela-tivelyeasyshoveofthetipofthescrewintotheicesurfaceand then screwing it in by the handle affixed at the top.

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Usuallyagoodpushisallthatisrequiredtogetitstarted.Atmosttheclimberwillhavetouse the tipofhis/her ice tool to chipawaya littlebitof the surface ice toget the screwstarted.Thepointtobemadeisthatoncetheclimberhasasecurestancetheicescrewcanbeinsertedintoanyadequatesurfacewithintheclimber’sreach. Thelimitationofinser-tiononlyatshoulderheightdoesnotexistwhenusingicescrews.MosticescrewswereoriginallymadeintheSovietUnionusingtitaniumandColdWareramissile technology. Theseproved tobeunsatisfactorybecause theywere toobrittleandwouldbreak in extremecoldweather. Today’sbest ice screwsare generallymade fromchromoly steel, they come in lengths from 10-24 cm, and have a rating of 7-8 kN. Theprominentfeatureoftoday’smodernicescrewisasharptipandsharpthreadsabout1/8inchdeep.Thesesharpedgesare,however,adoubleedgesword(nopunintended).Thesharpedgesfacilitatestrengthandeaseofplacementfortheicescrew.However,ifyoudoalotofplacementofthesescrewsyouareunlikelytogetmorethanoneseasonfromyourclimbinggloves.Froma“techie”pointofviewthemostinterestingthingabouticescrewsderivesfromre-centstudiesonthebestwaytoplacethescrew.Notsurprisinglytheintuitivenotionisthattheicescrewismostsecurewhenthetipisangledslightlydownwardintotheicesurface.In1997BlackDiamond,amajormanufactureroficeclimbingequipment,conductedanex-haustivestudytotesttheaccuracyofthisanecdotalbelief. Thefindingsweresurprising.BlackDiamond’s studyconcluded that the screw is twiceas strongwhenangledupwardintotheicesurface(intothedirectionofthefall).9

Summary Thisessayhasfocusedonlyoniceclimbingandonlyon3basicpiecesofequipmentusedfor thatendeavor. Timeandspacehaveprecludedme fromaddressingotherequipmentusediniceclimbing(e.g.,ropes,harnesses,clothing,helmets,boots)aswellasaddressingthesistersportofrockclimbing. Perhapsthesewillcomeoutatthe60threunion. Ihavebeeniceclimbingfor27yearsbutuntilIresearchedthisessayIhadnevergivenanyseri-ousthoughttotheimpactoftechnologyonthesport.NowthatIhavedonesoIamdrawntotheconclusionthattechnology,aswecommonlyviewit,hasnothadasignificantimpacton the sport. Tobe certain, changes thathavebeenmade to the equipmentused in thesporthavemadethesportsaferandaccessibletomorepeople;theyarecertainlyresponsi-bleforraisingthebarastothelevelofaccomplishmentinthissport.Thatbeingsaid,mytakeonthisisthatthesechangesarebetterdescribedasanevolution.Alloftheadvancesdescribedhereincameaboutslowly,onestepatatime.Therehasbeenno“bigbang”thatdramaticallyimpactedthesportovernight.Perhapsthatisforthebest.Iceclimbingis,inreality,averycerebralsport.Itisactuallyasmuchaboutmentalagilityandproblemsolv-

9IwasnotawareofthisstudyoritsfindingsuntilIdidtheresearchforthisessay.Despitetheageofthisstudymylackofthisawarenessisapparentlycommonplaceintheclimbingcommunity.Ihavenorecollec-tionfromanypastclimbingseasonsofseeinganyclimbersplacingicescrewsinanydirectionotherthanthedownwardslope.IamcurioustoseethereceptionIwillreceivewhenIstartspreadingthis“gospel”nextwinter.


ingas it isaboutathleticprowess. MyclimbingpartnerregularlyattributesmyabilityaticeclimbingtothementaldisciplinesandproblemsolvingskillsthatcomewithanMITed-ucation.

Epilogue Don’tbe surprised if thenextbig advances in ice climbing come fromMIT. Twovenueswhere Iregularly iceclimbeachwinterare theannual iceclimbing festival inSandstone,Minnesota and theNorth Conway area inNewHampshire. Invariablywhen climbing attheseplacesIrunintoclimbersfromtheMITClimbingClub.InvariablytheywillbetestingoutsomenewpieceofequipmentthattheyhavedesignedandfabricatedinthelabsatMIT. LeonM.Kaatz, ’64,hasbeenanactiverockandiceclimbersincetheearly1990s. He isconsideredoneofthetop100iceclimbersintheworldinhisagegroup.In1998heandhisclimbingpartnersettherecordforthefastestever2-manascentoftheIndexPinnacleintheFrenchAlps. He isoneofunder100climbers in theworld tohavesummitedDevil’sTowerinWyomingontwoormoreofitsfaces.HehasdonethreefirstascentsincludingaclimbintheEasternSierrasin2001thatwasnamedMITinrecognitionofhisreceivinganMITBronzeBeaverAward.

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