Theatrical Scene Painting

W' illi~m--+-~--r-~~ I am i Souther IllinoIs Pr~ss Ca~bcmdale

For Jenny, Averie, and Reilly

Copyright 1987, 2008 by the Board of Trustees, Southern Illinois University All rights reserved, First edition 1987 Second edition 2008 Printed in the United States of America

11 10 09 08 4 3 2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication Data Pinnell, William H. Theatrical scene painting: a lesson guide I William H. Pinnell-2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-8093-2765-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-lO: 0-8093-2765-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Scene painting-Technique. 1. Title. ND2885.P562008 751.7'5- dc22 2007019669

Printed on recycled paper. 0 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.0

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition ix Acknowledgments xi

Part 1 Materials and Techniques of Texture 1 1. Space 3

Paint frame; boomerang; continental system; floor paper 2. Equipment 7

Buckets and containers; paint carriers; brushes; paint and dye: dry pigments, cascin, vinyl paints, latex paints, dyes, bronze powders

3. Color 19 Color psychology; basic color mixing; color wheel; primaries, secondaries, and complementaries; using black and white; Table ofNioc Mixtures; classic scene-painting palette (traditional terminology)

4. M ixing the Base, T int, and Shade 29 Procedure; analogous colors and the common denominator

5. Preparing the Surface to Be Painted 32 Flameproofing; primer coat

6. Basic Scene Painting and Texture 34 Focus and toning; procedural methods; graded wet blend; scumbling; spattering (and spatter and drag); sponging; stippling; rag rolling; rolling; flogging; puddling; dry brushing; stenciling and stamping; spraying; brush care

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Part 2. Basic Lessons 71

7. The Three-Dimensional Illusion and the Light Source 71 Highlights and lowlights; shadows, glazes/washes; lining; using the straightedge

8. Stonework 80 Bricks; rough stones; cut stones; marble

9. Wallpaper 103 Painting considerations; pounce method; stenciling; pattern arrangements; spattering or spraying; stamping a pattern

10. Woodwork 116 Graining; rendering methods: wash method, opaque method, dry-brush method; wainscoting; recessed and protruding panels; additional examples

Part 3. Advanced Lcssons 139 11. Cornice Moldings 139

Roman agee and cove; reversing the light source 12. Panels and Posts 157 13. Reflective Metallic Objects 161

Graphic-arts approach; scene-painting approach 14. Draperies 170 15. Foliage 180 16. Clouds, Mountains, and Water 191 17. Scale Transfers 202

Pai nter's elevation; gridding; opaque and overhead projectors 18. Perspective and the Vista 209

Perspectivc; vanishing points 19. Drops and Scrims 222

Laying out; starch priming; storing drops; flexible glue; painting the drop; translucencies; cut drops and scrims

20. A Final Word 232

Glossary 235

Preface to the Second Edition

Any readers fam iliar with the first edition of this book will fi nd its second edition far morc comprehensive in scope. lhe first edition, a good primer, is geared to the beginning- and intermediate-level scene painters, but I have found over the decades of teaching design and painting at the university level that as the caliber of my students began to risc, so did the need for a more in-depth syl-labus for my scene-painting courses. The first edition of 'Theatrical Scene Painting left some questions unanswered, and the range of its painting examples did not match the growth and eagerness of my students. I have expanded the painting projects in my classes, so writing a second edition to keep in step seemed the natural and necessary thing to do. Many sections from the first edition were kept, some dated ones ] threw out, and in others, I updated methods of proce-dure for both the basic and advanced painting lessons. Some new features are

additional text to support origins of painting techniques clearer step-by-step descriptions and more convenient illustration-to-text sequencing many new instructional photographs and drawings additional painting projects and their possible variations an expanded glossary a gaIJery featuring examples of professional scenic designers and scenic artists

' Lhese improvements are speCifically intended to allow the reader and painter a more clear and concise formula for effiCiently and successfully creat-ing impressive projects. This edition, with its clarity and appeal, was created in the hope of inspiring further explorations into the magical illusions unique to the art of theatrical scene painting.

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Preface to the First Edition

All stage scenery strives for a textural quality, a surface smoothness or roughness that will provoke a particular, albeit subconscious, emotional reac-tion in the spectator. One does not react or relate equally to textures of coarse stucco, plush velvet, aged wood, or polished chrome. lluough the setting, the scenic designer uses, among other tools, textures and dimensions to support the emotional qualities inherent in tbe play. Appropriate to the ex tent of the production budget, those textures may be three-dimensionally duplicated or achieved through the artistry of the scene painter.

The following work takes a very traditional and singular line. The tech-niques that form the foundation of traditional scene painting are what will be examined here, techniques employed to fool the eye into believing that two-dimensional surfaces possess a third dimension. Many devices and materials can be used to supplement the illusion of scene painting. Exciting and creative developments have been made with an aggregate of materials and textural aides. But this book is geared to the creative artist who, for lack of additional tools or for personal preference, must work with merely canvas and color.

Everything discussed and illustrated on the following pages is directed toward techniques employed in the realistic style of scene painting. But attempt-ing to teach or learn and recognize realism is merely a starting point. Although realism and attempts to "mirror the real world" may be the foundation of one of the largest walls in the theater, they do not necessarily provide the most enjoy-able entertainment. Realism may, conversely, serve as a model from which we derive our own interpretations and create individual styles of expression.

Of course, scenery and its accompanying scene painting must blend into the style and interpretation of the production. And more often than not, a play

will demand a realistic locale for the passage of its events. Accordingly, the painter must apply his knowledge of realistic impressions. But it is important that each and every painter in doing so not preoccupy him or herself with a quest for realistic duplication. Style must be encouraged. For with the devel-opment of style, self-assessments of aptitude and strong and weak points will occur. With the strong points will come the confidence needed to expand and experiment. With the weak points, ideally, efforts will be made to overcome shortcomings or find alternate approaches.

What will result will be the individual painter-a painter who, through experimentation, has developed a uniqueness of expression unlike any other painter. And, after all, is that not what the theater is about: to develop an abi l-ity to perceive, evaluate, and create an expression that is d istinctly individual, meaningful, and entertaining?

Scene painting can be pleasurable or a devastatingly arduous and tedious experience. l 11e hours can be long, and your wardrobe will take a good beating if you are not suitably dressed. The importance of preplanning and organiza-tion cannot be minimized . Preparation is the key. Carefully plot what has to be done, and verify the sequence of painting steps that best suit your work-ing habits. Make sure the scenery has been fully prepared for painting and is securely in position. Is there enough floor space for safe mobility? There is nothing worse than having to walk uphill no matter which direction you head. H ave extra surfaces been set aside for testing paint samples? Finally, are there enough buckets, containers, and stir sticks available to mix your colors? The next morning you will thank yourself for quitting earlier the day before so the painting area could be cleaned and reorganized.

Most importantly, make every effort to keep your work enjoyable. Take a break when you need it. D on't push for the marathon sessions. Remember that your painting is making a valuable contribution to the production and is no less important and integral [0 its success than any other element. Your role is an expressive one, but unlike any other in the theater, it can only be achieved by the sympathet ic stroke of the painter's brush.

Acknowledgments

The design and painting process is constantly one of creative self-educa-tion coupled with the tutelage given by respected and trusted mentors. Much of this book is evidence of the talented instruction given me by Professor Emeritus Russell E. Smith of Wayne State University and scenic artists Vern Smith and James Miller.

Special thanks are extended to the following: Rick Banville, production manager of Opera Atelier in Toronto, Ontario, for his kind permission to feature many examples taken from the Opera's productions; to Gerard Gauci, resident designer for Opera Atelier, for his breathtaking desig ns and color plates he generously allowed me to USC; to Richard Mongiat from Scenic D rop Studios in Toronto, who, on behalf of his late business partner and fr iend Jules Tonus, painted the designs commissioned by Opera Atelier; and to David Court, whose ever-growing talent is evidenced through his kind contribu-t ions. With Richard Mongiat, 1 also gratefully recognize the artistry of any additional painters whose specific contributions could not be identified . Much apprcciation is extended for the generous assistance of the technical theater staff at the University of Windsor, in particular Nancy and Tedfred Myers, Nicola Oi Risio, and Daniellc Mac Kinnon .

Finally, I will forever deeply appreciate the support and patience of Kelly and my mother and father, without whose love, advice, and encouragement this book and its revision would never have been written.

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Theatrical Scene Painting

Part 1 Materials and Techniques of Texture

Scholars and historians have debated for centuries as to how, when, and by whom scene painting came into being. The debate has raged because most of what is known is relatively scant, upon which conjecture has been based. What can be cited arc the writings of Roman historian Vitruvius, who, writ~ ing in the first century H.C.E., made mention of a painter who worked with the Creek playwright Aeschylus. As many of toclay's theatrical conventions found their beginnings in ancient Greece, it is hardly ullsurprising, and quite likely, that the first person to use some semblance of theatrical painting was this first of all great Greek playwrights. The painter with whom he worked-and on what play or how many is unknown-was a gifted and inventive painter by the name of Agatharchus. H is bag of tricks may have contained a technique the Greeks called skiagraphia, or "shadow painting." This is most interesting, as the mere hint of a shadow in a painted illusion leads to the assumption that the paintings created by Agatharchus likely possessed some semblance of depth, plane variation, or three-dimensional illusion.

To what extent the fo rms of scene painting used now were in practice then is totally without evidence. It is assumed that a type of scenic surface-or pinake (a precursor of the scenic Rat), which scholars believe was inserted in entrance doorways of the skene or scene house (see fig. l)-was painted upon, thus giving an impression of the genre or theme of the play being presented. Despite the historical references to shadow paiming, however convincing or tangible the images may have been, is, unfortunately, in the hands of the wish-ful dreamer; and what could have been an interesting illusion to the eye of the ancient Greek was probably achieved by accident or keen observation on the part of the painter. It is safe to say that practitioners in antiqu ity possessed no

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~ "~~:::::~~~~~;~~ ~~>- - ) ~-~ .. '-. / ~

A cOlljeclUral plaecmcru of '- ~ ____ ~ ~//I a pinoke ( P) in a doorway of - ~ an ancient Greek skene. or 5CCne house -

Figure 1

knowledge oflinear-pcrspectivc formulae or what the art world has come to rely on as the most powerful and expressive tools: line, mass, color, and texture.

The appreciation and potency of texture for scenic reality came into prom-inence in the twentieth century. Texture remains an invaluable tool and has received nearly as much scientific investigations on the subconscious as have the psychology of colors and aroma therapy. And the term lexture, in the visual arena, is not meant to just be applicable to a flat surface that possesses a tactile illusion. Multiplaned surfaces (actually replete with sculpted moldings) reces-sions, and architectural protrusions can also said to be visibly textural.

Texture on stage scenery may be achieved in two ways : aetna/or simulated. Actual textures assume a three-dimensional fo rm and may be constructed by using dimensional replicas or by building up the scenic surface with substi-tutes, such as resins, Styrofoam, carpeting, and plastics. The list of materials for application is practically endless and can be as simple and ingenious as using painted bubble wrap for chain mail. Simulated textures are achieved through the techniques and talents of scene painting in which the audience is fooled into believing that a surface is actually textured or multilevcled. Not only can the scene painter produce a wide variety of textures but also create amazing illusions of depth and protrusion.

The scene painter employs a number of tools to achieve texture: varying shapes and sizes of brushes, sponges, fabric, sprayers, rollers, feathe r dusters, and string. One need only look around, fo r there is really no limit to what can be used. The utensils coveted in this book are time tested; they may, however,

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be abandoned or substituted according to the preference or style of the indi-vidual painter.

But before further discussions on texture as simulated through scene painting, it is necessary to outline the working requirements of space and materials one will need before this art of illusion can begin.

1. Space A good working area is essential. A warm, dry atmosphere is a distinct

asset. The consistencies of most paints and dyes react unfavorably to cold, and the drying time will be markedly and inconveniently retarded. Conversely, paint ing in a warm room or in sunlight will speed up the drying times.

Paint Frame Many professional scene shops and theaters have large, wooden paint

frames, hung vertically, to which drops, scrims, and other forms of two-dim en-sional scenery may be attached. The frame is usually permanently attached to the back walJ of the theater or paint shop, but it may be of such a nature that it can be raised or lowered through a slit in the floor, allowing the scenic artist to remain on one level without climbing ladders (see fig. 2).

S" ElMOV WQr\!jnl t,m:t

Figure 2

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Boomerang If the paint frame is stationary, the scene painter may either work on a

movable bridge or use a boomerang. A boomerang is a construction on casters much resembling a flight of steps with convenient land ings so the scene painter can change his or her elevation and paint the scenery with ease (see fig. 3).

A BOOMERANG Figure 3

Continental System Should a paint frame not be available and large drops or scrims have to be

painted, a room with adequate floo r space is necessary. Individual flats can be painted on their sides or, if ceiling space allows, may be stood upright. Should the room's available height be a restriction, the scenery must be placed flat on the Roar. The method of painting scenery wh ile it is lying faceup on the floor is called the (ontinental system. 1his system originated in Europe and received its moniker by Westerners in referring to Europe as "the continent." Paint-ing continentally is also commonly referred to as horizontal painting, painting jlat, or painting down. Most scene painters prefer the continental method for painting much of their scenery, regardless of the space and f..1.c ilities available.

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This preference is largely related to the number of painting effects that can be achieved when the forces of gravity are not in play. Blending and man ling col~ ors into soft, ethereal fusions are all but impossible on a vertical surface. And when one works with dyes, which are generally much thinner in consistency than paints, the control of color and line is much easier to accomplish conti-nentally. Upright painting, where gravity can be the enemy, may result in the unwanted and frustrating dripping of color. Painting a small piece of scenery that is lying faceup and resting on sawhorses is a convenient arrangement in that the painter may comfortably stand and work with the same proximity to the painting surf.'lce as if it were placed vertically. The adjustment from the vertical to the horizontal approach when the scenery is lying on the floor does require practice. In vertical painting, the bristles of the brush are within inches of the motor control of the fingers and wrist. In horizontal painting, small areas can be painted by the painter kneeling; however, to avoid back strain and give the painter a broader visual scope of the work being done, brushes are commonly attached to boards and bamboo sticks so the painter can remain in a standing position (see figs. 4a and 4b) . With patience and practice, one can develop the same sense of motor control with the bristles that are now three feet away. Not only will the painter work with ease but the paint is, by gravity, always running downward to the tip of the brush, thereby lessening

Figure 4a.}ules Tonus, scenic artist

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C ONTINENTAL PAINTING - STANDING

Figure 4b

the number of times the brush must be recharged. An additional advantage to the continental method rests in the retarded drying time of the paints and dyes. Because air cannot readily circulate between the scenery and the floor, paints will remain wetter longer and allow additional time for the wet mixing of colors if desired.

Floor Paper When continentally painting flats, the floor should be covered with brown

kraft paper to catch spilled or refuse paint. When painting drops or scrims on the floor, gray bogus paper as an undercovering should be used to allow evenness in drying. (The rough side of the bogus paper should be facing up to allow maximum absorption.) Kraft paper, on the other hand, should not be used under drops and scrims, as it does not absorb water well and wilJ buckJe when wet. Commercially available waxed paper should be used when gluing appliques or reinforcing cut drops with scrim or scenic netting. The waxed paper will peel away from the rear of the drops and scrims, whereas gray bogus paper will stick.

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2. Equipment

Buckets and Containers Even fo r paiming small, simple pieces of scenery, buckets and contain-

ers in which to mix paint are needed. The obvious containers are the ones in which the paint is shipped. Most commonly, manufacturers package theif products in either of two types of containers:

1. convenient 1- or S-gaJlon plastic bucket that has its own snap-on lids to keep the color fresh. These may be cleaned and used for years, will stack neatly together, and are very light and portable.

2. I-gallon metal or plastic paint cans with lids. Those of metal will not stack, and the lids, when firmly sealed, must be pried open with a paint key or slot screwdriver. Plastic cans are available with snap-on and screw-on lids and stack when empty.

l he main drawback of these cans occurs when paint is allowed to collect in the top groove of the can in which the lid goes. Taking a few moments to hammer nails to make holes through this groove will allow collecting paint to drip into the can, keeping the groove clear and allowing the lid to be resealed with ease. Both of these containers types are fairly easy to clean ifhot water is allowed to soak in them soon after the paint has been exhausted.

It is wise to save the 5-gallon containers that white or black paint come in when large quantities are ordered . These containers are rugged plastic, with sturdy handles and heavy-duty lids with pour spouts perfect for mixing large quantities of a color and storing unused quantities. Plastic buckets (2- to 3-gallon capacity) with shaped pour spouts are a must. The only draw back is that many available in hardware and dO-it-yourself centers may not come with lids. For the durat ion of the painting period, 1,4 inch plyvvood disks may be placed on the top of the bucket, with a weight of some sort resting upon it. This will keep most of the air out and hclp paint retain freshness for a couple of weeks . Aluminum cans, commercial ly referred to as number 10 size, will prove very handy for smaller quantities of special colors (dozens of these cans arc thrown out daily by restaurants and cafeterias) as are coffee cans with plastic lids. For smaller quantities of brilliant colors, metallic paints, and the like, maintain a generous supply of plastic, lidded containers from margarine, yogurt, dessert topping, and sim ilar items (see fig. 5).

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Figure 5 5 gallon

Paint Carriers

23 gallon No. 10 can (coffee can)

Paint carriers are a must for the painter who has to move from area to area in the shop (sec fig. 6). These not only provide for the easy mobility of the paint but helps prevent the spilling of it and includes a storage area for extra brushes, charcoal sticks, and fclt-tip markers. Under the rolling carrier are casters for roUing the unit around, while furniture pads tacked on the underside of the base of the pick-up-and-carry type minimize the possibility of damage to the horizontal painting surface when the carrier is moved .

;. PAINT C ARRJ ERS .;.

PICKUP & CARRY

Figure 6

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Brushes The brush is the painter's most prized possession. To the sensitive painter,

each brush in his or her collection has a unique feel and special purpose. 1he more superstitious of painters will only work with their own brushes (much the way a ballplayer uses only his or her own bat) and claim that borrowed brushes are unsuitable, inferior, and simply don't feel right. Regardless ofindi-vidual preferences, eccentricities, or superstitions, every painter is aware that no one brush will serve all painting needs and that a repertoire of shapes and sizes is required to fulfill painting stroke requirements.

Figure 7 illustrates the components of the paintbrush. The shapes of the bristle and ferrule and the length and shape of the handle determine the type of brush and its recommended usage.

1be foUowing brushes common to scene painting arc displayed in figure 8: 1. A large brush called a primer is 5 to 6 inches in width and, as its name

would suggest, is used to treat newly covered flats with a scaling coat of paint. Its bristles are soft and should not be confused with a whitewashing brush, which has stiffer bristles. The larger the brush the marc smoothly and quickly large areas can be covered. The primer brush may also be used for applying base coats of paint. This brush is usually ordered through a theatri-cal supplier, although some home centers do carry wide brushes with fairly supple bristles.

2. Lay-in brushes come in 3 inch, 4 inch, and 5 inch widths. They cover rapidly and cut sharp edges when twisted. Brushes of this nature can be pu r-chased in any paint or hardware store and home center, but be sure to choose ones with relatively soft bristles. (Those referred to as "latex brushes" will work well, as many brands of scenic paint come in latex form .) Bristle length is also important. Avoid stubby brushes, as the longer the bristle, the more paint the brush will hold .

3. Foliage brushes, sometimes called jantai/s, range from Ph to 3'h inches in width at the ferrule. 1beir unique bristle shape allows for graceful imprints when the edge of the bristles' length is pressed against the painting surface. Fantails arc purchased through theatrical painting and supply houses.

4. Small, long-handled brushes arc called liner brushes (or, more com-monly years ago, fitches) and will range from a 1J4 inch cutting brush to 2 inches in width . These brushes possess a sharp chisel point, generally made from Chinese bristles, and are used primarily for lining, tapering strokes, and endless detail work and touch-ups. 1he ends of the bristles may be parallel to

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.;. DIAGRAM OF THE PAINT BR USH .;.

Figure 7

2 3 4 5 6 -

'." '1ftt T:(,,~ : " t'i J IUU ,

Trim EJrush

Figure 8

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the bottom edge of the ferrule or shaped at an angle, resembling a standard trim brush (see the trim brush in fig. 8). They are available through theatrical suppliers.

5. Stencil brushes and round brushes have a round ferrule and are used to pound paint through stencils. Not as long as a stencil brush, round brushes come in varieties of diameters and bristle qualities and may also be used for detail work. They are available through theatrical supply, arts supply, craft stores, and similar places.

Trim brushes are favored by house and interior painters because their angled bristles allow easy painting into corners, at wall-ceitingjunctures, and around moldings and trim. They can be used for variety of utility purposes in scene painting and are available at hardware stores and home centers.

6. Spuialty brushes are those adapted from new brushes or from older or worn brushes. One common example is the cut-bristle brush, which is used for graining, cloth-fiber appearances, and general linear texturing. Clumps of bristles have either fallen out or been removed . Any brush could become a specialty brush if one is ingenious enough. Hardware and paint stores also feature semidisposable, black, foam-rubbe r brushes with wooden handles. These brushes come in va rious widths and have a preformed chisel point but are not suited to large-scale tasks. TIle foam brush can be effective in painting props, set dressing, and smaller units of hard scenery. They can be used to cut in detail lines and arc sweeps. Notching the chisel end can produce interest-ing wood graining (see fig. 40b). But the foam itself is shorr-lived, crumbles easily, and never holds a great deal of paint. There are no rules as to what to use to get the job done: whatever works well and can be llsed repeatedly should qualify.

Push brushes or brooms are ordinary long-handled janitor's brooms with softened bristles. Used for continental painting techniques, they can be found in hardware stores and home centers.

With the possible exception of push brushes and brooms, all other paint-brushes have one thing in common: each can be used in a variety of ways. Using a lay-in brush for the following examples, one may stroke on the paint in the usual fashion or imprint paint in three different ways :

1. jlat print. The broad face of the brush is pressed against the surface (see fig. 9a). A variation on this is thejlick, which somewhat resembles a scumble stroke.

2. jlat-twist print. The broad bristle t:'lce is placed flat against the surface, and the brush is gently twisted or flipped over (see fig. 9b).

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Figure 9

3.

(a) Flat Print

side print. The side edge of the brush lies on the paint surface as the handle begins a rolling up motion (sec fig. 9c).

Another attack is the end print, which, essentially, is a stippling motion in that just the ends of the bristles make contact. It behooves one to practice these st rokes and possible combinations and variations with all different types of brushes as mastery will create a valuable arsenal.

If one is serious about scene painting, it is worthwhile to buy best-quality brushes. Brushes resembling some of those described above might be found in cavernous home centers, but for scene-painting needs, it is best to shop through a theatrical supplier where one can be sure the brushes purchased suit theatrical needs. European white bristle liner and f.1.ntail brushes are extremely durable if properly used, cleaned, and stored. Artist easel brushes may find a calling for special painting needs but are generally of too hard or soft a bristle texture for scene-painting needs.

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Though certainly not a brush, having a supply of painter's tape on hand is important. Resembling masking tape, though not as strong and stubborn, painter's tape is intended to mask off areas and is much more easily removed than masking tape. It comes in a variety of widths, is found in the painting supply area of almost any hardware store or home center, and is conveniently recognized by its green or blue color (for additional scene painting aids, please see part 2, section 7, "Lining,~ and section 9, "Wallpaper").

Paint and Dye Many types of paints and dyes are used in painting scenery. Paints, in

their opaque form, are used to provide a color that will mask over a previous color. When thinned to a wash, also called glaze, consistency, they work much in the same way as a dye by casting a transparent or semi-transparent color over an existing one. (The terms wash and glaze arc synonymous and may be used interchangeably.) The original colorwiU show through to the extent it has been enhanced or masked by the thinned paint or dye-aver-color.

All paints, whether used straight from containers, watered down, or mixed with other colors, are classified as a suspension, rather than a solution. A solution is a combination ofingredients that when mixed will not separate; in a suspension, the ingredients separate. Paints are composed of a coloring agent mixed with a liqu id binding agent. This binding agent is made from water and another substance that will cause the paint to stick to the painting surface after the water in the binding agent evaporates. The color property in the paint is almost excluSively heav ier than its binding agent, which is why paints need to be stirred often . The coloring agent or agents are floating, that is, suspended, in the liquid binding agent. And the more paint is thinned down, the more likely the color will sink to the bottom if the paint is not repeatedly stirred.

l hose coloring mediums that have historical significance and those in common use today, which may be of historical significance, are (though not in any significant order) :

dry pigments caselO vinyl paint latex paint dyes bronze powders

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From the above, many derivatives are available, and the combined usage of several on one painting project is not uncommon. Each is described below fo r its singular characteristics and individual usage.

Dry pigments are the oldest and most "traditional~ form of scene paint. 1heir use, in primitive form, predates not only the theater but the civilized world. Paleolithic artists whose cave paintings were discovered quite by acci-dent by amateur spelunkers in southeastern France created colored images that have been carbon-dated to thirty thousand years. The age of the paintings is under somewhat of a controversy as some of the paints used were created from iron oxides. As only those drawings and paintings whose colors were mixed with bone, wood, or plant fibers (i.e ., from once-living organisms) can be dated using carbon 14 dating, a scholarly squabble to do with the exact dating of the cave paintings will continue unt il other empirical evidence, if any, surfaces. It does appear that the most prevalent color used in ancient paintings was a red derived from what is now classified as hematite. The word hematite is derived from the Greek word hema or haima, meaning blood . Although hematite can be found in two forms, either in black, lustrous crystals or red powder, it was the red that was most used by Paleolithic peoples. The color red was associated with blood, the most vi tal of fluids. It came to dramatically symbolize life's very beginning and end. Although the Paleolithic color spectrum was but a flicker of the unlimited one in use today, they used red, black, and yellow to create impressive and often magnificent sweeps of line that majestically cap-tured their prey and beasts of prey. Their coloring pigments of ground rock, bits of clay, limestone, charcoal, ground bone, roots, and berries were mixed into a paste that served as a binding agent that would make the paints adhere to the cave's walls. The binding liquids were made from rendered fat and bone marrow, sinew, saliva, vegetable ju ices, urine, or egg whites. The extent to wh ich the ancient colors were liquefied would have had a direct bearing on their methods of application.

While the cave paintings may be spectacular in appearance and sophisti-cated in scope, there is no evidence to suggest that the colors were employed other than in a crayon-stick type of consistency. Perhaps brushing, as now thought of, was not even used. Historians can only speculate on how the paints were applied by observing the final product. The very pock-marked surface of the cave walls could lead to speculation that the paints were either dabbed or smeared on, perhaps by using the fingertips. Large areas could have been covered by using animals skins damp with paint. To suggest primitive people invented the paintbrush is wishful speculation. It is, however, reasonable to assume that commensurate with the extent of the artistry found on the cave

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walls could have been the creative technology capable of binding hair to a stick or bone, thus resembling the beginnings of a paintbrush. As the consistency of the paint medium became thinner, one might jump to the notion that its application could have become more graceful and refined. Could feathers have come into play? The Yanomami peoples, living an almost preh istoric ex istence in remote areas ofVenezue1a and Brazil, blow thinned colors through hollow bones, thus creating an air-brushed appearance to their paintings. Could their global ancestors have done likewise?

Regardless as to debamble methods of application, primitive paints have much in common even with roday's media, in that every form of modern paint contains a binding agent; and as was the case in the dawn of humankind, once the water in the binding agent evaporates the adherent property-whether animal sinew or acrylic-allows the paint to stick to a surface. And although the basic formula of color plus binding agent has not changed since prehistoric times, its processing has evolved light-years in terms of synthetic substitutions and color variations.

Despite their color range, which is broad and often brilliantly rich, dry pigments are not in common use today largely because of two f.'lctors: (1) the inconveniences of preparation and maintenance and (2) health concerns. Dry pigments are finely ground; although heavier in volume than talcum powder, particles, when sifted and measured, may go into the air and may be ingested. Although more difficult to purchase now, dry pigments are available by the pound in powder fo rm, and later mixed with a separate binder, or glue solu-tion. If mixed only with water, the paint will dry back to its original powdered smte and not adhere to the scenery.

Though almost any type of binder could be used with this kind of scene paint, the one type that will not dull the Vibrancy of the powder pigments and is the most economical in the long run is called size water. Although size water may apply to any glue solution that has been cut with water, ground, or flaked, animal glue and hot water are the ingredients of traditional size water. Using animal glue has become both an environmental and political powder keg, greatly discouraging its use . As to the maintenance of lique-fied dry pigments, all binding solutions have a tendency to separate with the gluing agent, which, being heavier than water, will settle to the bottom. This can cause quite the sludge at the bucket's base, which must be stirred until the paint is mixed thoroughly again. (When using the old animal glue, the binder would coagulate and harden when cool. The bucket needed to be reheated in a double-boiler arrangement to soften it, and the resulting smell could be putrid !)

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When dry pigments have d ried, they may often lack the permanence of other media, such as, casein, vinyl, or latex, and may need to be "sealed," or covered, by a waterproof glaze (Le., latex or vinyl) to prevent the pigments from rubbing off. Whiting is used to stretch the quantity of the paint, which is then tinted to the appropriate color with other more expensive and exotic dry-pigment colors. On the cheaper end of the price scale is the whiting; the price of pigments per pound increases as the colors become more brilliant. Dry pigments are at least three times darker when wet, so some painters mix their colors fi rst in powder form, thus approximating the value of the paint after it has dried, and then add the binder, and mix to the desired consistency.

Couin, along with vinyl colors, is a very popular medium because of its ease of workability. Casein contains its own binder and stems from protein found in milk. It can be poured in its thin paste form from the can and conve-niently mixed with warm water. Dyes may be added to casein to deepen and strengthen its tone. Completely waterproof when dry, casein can be washed with a light solution of soap and water. Offering good hiding power, it may also be thinned to a wash and will mix read ily with other water-based med ia. Because ofits durabi lity, casein may be covered with glazes of dyes or thinncd paints without being rubbed up. Its Rat drying finish is slightly lighter when dry, and its rich colors maintain most of their wet-state vibrancy. Shelf life is excellent if tightly scaled. A small amount of water can be added to the top of the paint to keep it moist.

Vinyl paint comes in liquid form, contains its own binder, and is thinned with water. Like casein and latex colors, its principal attributes lie in its perma-nence and the convenience of preparation and workability. It docs, however, lack the brilliance of dry-pigment colors and is not as vivid as casein, but it can be heightened (or enriched) by adding dye or casein paint. Vinyl paint is avail-able in flat or semigloss and when applied straight from the can is very durable fo r painting floors and platforms. Th inned to a normal paint consistency, it can be used on muslin or canvas; further thinning will produce an excellent wash. Clear liquid vinyl can be used to waterproof dry-pigment colors, while clear gloss vinyl adds an extra dimension of richness to wood graining, a luster to marbleized units, and the like.

Although latex paint is available in wide ranges of colors, it has a tendency to gray very slightly when dry. Alkyd-latex (its formal name) comes in consis-tencies ranging between thin paste and hcavy cream, with a base containing synthctic rubber. Readily thinned with water, latex dries to permanency. Latex contains its own binder and can be scrubbed clean when applied to porous and semiporous surfaces {e.g., canvas and wood).lt forms its own resilient surf.'lce

16

that accepts glazes of cascin, vinyl, or dye. Latex does not adhere well, if at all, to nonporous surf.'lces, such as plastic or glass. It adheres to Plexiglass if first thinned to a wash; thick and paste-like consistencies peel away. Latex is available in flat, semigloss, and clear varieties. Clear latex, which somewhat resembles heavy cream when wet, dries completely transparent and is available in gloss and mane finishes. In the glossy variety, the degree of sheen is con-trolled by the amount of water used to thin the mixture (the more water, the less sheen). Working straight from the original container will result in a highly polished look. Clear latex is excellent for increasing surface richness and as a "fixative" for all dry pigments. including dry tempera. As with clear liquid vinyls, expect a darkening of the painted surface . Color may be added to clear finishes if one wishes to alter the tone of a painted surface. This provides not only an excellent corrective tool should the finished product be too bright but can also lend a sense of age or the appearance of built-up grime to a surface .

Dyes come in both powder and crystal forms. Most are soluble in hot water; some are alcohol soluble. Household laundry dyes may be purchased at any grocery, hardware store, and pharmacy; more potent and large-case orders are available from theatrical supply. All dry dyes will mix readily with one another, allowing for an infinite spectrum of possible colors. Even some read-ily available dyes claiming to be water-soluble may float on the surface of even the hottest of water; a small amount of isopropyl alcohol added sparingly will break down any resistance. Salt added to the hot-water solution wilJ increase the dye's permanence.

The type of dye traditionally used in the theater has been aniline dye. It comes in powder form with a shelflife that is exceptional. Its richness of color will not fade with age if the container (preferably a metal can) is kept tightly scaled. Although many theaters may still have a supply of aniline dyes, its use could pose serious health and environmental consequences. Aniline dyes (ontain an extract oj benzene, a poisonous liquid obtained from coal tar. If one must work with aniline, one iJ adviJed to do so in a well-ventilated area while wear-ing a maJk and by taking frequent breaks to minimize continuous exposure to its fumes. Painters are advised to find alternatives to aniline dye, including using the commercially available household varieties and increasing their strength and depth of color by cutting back on the amount of water added . Watering down a scenic paint to a thin wash, or glaze, consistency actually creates a dye, although most paints cannot be removed with bleach once they have set. One of the strongest and most permanent of dyes can be made by boiling red or yellow onion skins; costumers and property makers often use tea as an aging or "breaking down" element.

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As the name of the medium suggests, a dye enhances or alters the color upon which it is applied. 1t can be used to bleed or puddle on fabric backdrops, augment the beauty of a velour's texture, pull out the grain of raw wood, create a dreamlike mist on a scrim, or cast superb shadows. Dyes must be used and prepared with care. The general rule is to prepare a dye that is a little weak rather than one that is too strong. The darker the desired effect, the more applications of dye should be used. D ye only works one way: it darkem. To lighten is to bleach. Dye that has been mixed too strongly (i.e., with very little water) will crystallize and rub off. To be safe and to assure permanence, even the most inexpensive of dyes can be made permanent by mixing them with binders of size water, white glue, or clear vinyl.

Bronze powders are not exclusively bronze-colored but are metallic in nature. The title brol1ze is a generic one, and the powders come in a wide range of colors. These metallic pigments are not readily available and arc expensive but, in terms of traditional scene painting, were once indispens-able for scenic use . Like dry pigments and aniline dyes, bronze powders have fallen out of favor for health and contaminant reasons. The powders arc incredibly light in weight and seem to float out of the can when opcned . Thcy can be easily inhaled and spread through the air by the slightest breeze. When mixed with a reliable binder, however, they adhere nicely to a surface. Tn their heyday, they were ideal for gilding architectural ornaments, picture frames, set and hand props; highlighting decorative filigree and drapery tas-sels; denoting veining in stonework; or stenciling on drops and flats. Metal-lic powders can be used on wood, plastic, metal, or fabric. Frugally added to paint, they will float to the surface of the painting as it dries to lend a metall ic glaze. Though bronze powders can be mixed with many types of binders, almost all forms will dull the metallic pigment to varying degrees. For minimal discoloration, mix with clear gloss vinyl (2 parts vinyl to 1 part water). Stir often .

Convenient alternatives to bronze powders are available in ready-to-use metallic coiors, thanks to the blossoming popularity of custom-interior painters, home decorators, and their loyal legions of home dO-it-yourselfers . Some of these metallics arc water based and may be mixed with a variety of scene paints. Many can be ordered f.'lctory-direct in large quantities. For finishing touches, enamel and water-based metallic spray paints may be used. It is advisable to work il1 weI/-ventilated areas and wear a mask whenever using any type of spray paint. 1n a pinch, a spray can may be upended and sprayed into its own cap, creating a puddle of paint, which then can be applied with a brush.

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3. Color

Color psychology The psychology of color is a fascinating subject, one that has been researched

extensively. D ocumented findings receive increasing importance and impact on daily lives. Scientists studying chromadynamics have to an extent proven the effects colors have on vision, respiratory rhythm, heart rate, rhe endocrine sys-tem, diet, mood, and the like. Such studies and subsequently published find-ings have led to a method of therapy called chromatherapy, whereby patients with certain d isorders arc exposed to various colors and color combinations in an effort to minimize or eradicate side effects associated with the disorder.

The degrees to which muscular tcnsion, tremors, and relaxat ion increase or abate can be measured and, often, are overtly noticeable. Some patients afflicted with Parkinson's disease have been observed with increases in tremors when exposed to red and yellow. Equipping these same patients with green-tinted eye lenses avoided tremor increase when exposed to these colors. StilJ other colors may, in some cases, affect judgment. There is a tendency for those exposed to red (possibly denoting heat) over an extended period to overesti-mate the amount of time that had elapsed, while those exposed to blue (denot-ing cold) underestim ated how much time passed.

Although numerous and highly interesting examples may be given as to the varying effects colors have on individuals, one must not lose sight of the subjective side of color stimulation and reaction. Some people, perhaps due to personal association, may react in opposite ways to a color. A child who stuffed himself with banana cream pic to the point of vomiting may fo rever have an aversion to light, creamy yellow. The color that may provoke nausea in one per-son may lead to tranqUility in another. Globally, various cultures put opposing weight on their Significance of color communication: white may suggest purity and virginity in many Western cultures, whereas it may be symbolic of death in others.

According to chromadynamics, colors are absorbed by the eye and the body. Red radiates waves oflight that are closer together than blue, thus bom-barding, perhaps, the eye and body more quickly and intensely. We are con-stantly influenced, even on the minutest of subconscious levels, by the colors surrounding us. Therefore, the colors of the environments in which we work and live need serious consideration. From young children who need the stim-uli of primary colors to the sick and aged who require pale blues and greens to relieve tension and despair, color can intensify or relax the human condition.

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The theater uses color as one of its strongest tools but usually in ways that are not meant to assault or bombard the spectator. Many colors on the stage are used in muted form so as to not take their taU on the audience over a two- to three-hour period of exposure. Stage lighting plays an enormous role on the impact of colors by either increasing or decreasing the proxim-ity of visual waves being emitted. 1l1e waves are controlled by enhancing or neutralizing paint colors through the color oflight and by the degree ofillu-mination (bright light bouncing off even a pale gray wall can be absolutely confrontational to the viewer.) Primary colors and "first" secondaries (true orange, purple, and green) are rarely used in large quantities as they are very rich and cause more distraction than support. While individuals may have hugely diverse and subjective reactions to various colors in isolation, those same colors used in little bits here and there on the stage have little effect on the spectator. A scenic, costume, or lighting deSigner simply cannot be overly concerned with how individuals may react to color, other than to make strong and select ive statements on occasion for dramatic impact. Dressing the conniving woman in scarlet is apropos and supports the nature of her charac-ter. Bathing the romantic scene in moonlight rather than noon sunshine only en hances the mood . Painting the set for the hospital corridor in a soothing light mint green instead of nauseating malaria yellow just makes sense! As such, designers know that certain colors when supported by appropriate uses of line, texture, and mass work appropriately to enhance the genre of the play: light, frothy colors fo r comedy; intense pastels fo r fa rce; primaries for extreme stylizations and cartoon-like skits; earthen tones for drama; deep rich, heavy tones for tragedy. Bur even these have exceptions.

Basic Color Mixing For the beginning painter, the mixing of the paint sometimes takes longer

than the actual scene painting. It is worthwh ile to go to the precautions neces-sary to ensure the colors and consistencies are exactly right before the paint is applied to the scenery. The scene painter must have a thorough understand-ing of the harmony, balance, and sequence of colors as they vary in value and intensity. If the scenic designer and scene painter are not the same person, then the role of the painter is one of duplicator of colors. lherefore, the designer must provide the painter with an accurate sample of the finished painting. A painter's elevation is produced by the designer, whereby, unless a full drop or scrim is to be painted, only select portions of the set are usually pictured (see figs . lOa . lOb, and 10c).

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Figure: lOa

,

Figure lOb

21

Figure lOe

Color Wheel The first step facing the painter is to identify the position that each of the

colors occupies on the color wheel. The color wheel is the most familiar graphic arrangement of color relationships in use. Although the wheel may come in a variety of formats, the circular sequence is universal and shows the step-to-step formation and sequencing of colors that eventually end at the point where the flow began. Observe the color wheel in figure 11. While some color wheels may contain several variations in color, the simplicity of this wheel indicates color relationships found in their purist form. Within the circle is a six-pointed dotted figure, overlapped by a striped triangle that in turn is overlapped by a solid t riangle.

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COLOR WHEEL.

Figure 11

Primaries, Secondaries, and Complementaries The solid triangle points to three colors : yellow, red, and blue . These are

called primaries because they cannot be mixed from other colors. Thei r pig-ments must be obtained from natural elements or plants containing those col-ors. The striped triangle points to the three colors created by the mixing of two equal quantities of primaries. The resulting orange, purple, and green arc cal led the secondaries. (Colors made from combining a primary with a second-ary or two secondaries combined together may be called tertiary, when, tech ni-cally, all colors other than the three primaries arc secondary colors.) The initial secondaries of orange, purple, and green arc said to be the principal or central secondaries because of the equal ratio of their primary components. Lastly, the dotted figure points to six additional secondaries that are the results of the proportions of the hvo primary colors that are mixed to create them.

This color wheel, then, contains the twelve principal hues that make up the scene painter's palette. One might recognize colors similar to those on the wheel in the average paint store. No doubt the yellow orange will not be called

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as such because the name is unexciting albeit true to its base formula . Instead it might be labeled Santa Fe Sunset, for example, to increase its appeal. TIle very complex nomenclature of color is a problem in and of itself, even when ordering from theatrical suppliers, because there is a great discrepancy in the way the terms are used. Unfortunately, individual terminology and definition are subject to particular tastes, preferences, convenience, or popular trends.

As an example, one company may offer a primary red pigment, while another company counters with the supposed equivalent-spectrum red. By definition, a primary is an original hue in the light spectrum of color. D o not be surprised if the corresponding reds are very different in value. One may be a bluish red , that is, a red with blue cast; the other may have touches of yellow. Any time the primary is not a trut primary (and, surprisingly, that is most of the t ime), the color is said to have contaminatiorl.

Commercial colors usually have some degree of color contamination . Most have additives of white or black. The problem is that contamination is not uni-form.lf one were to be able to count on a certain degree of white contamina-tion, say, in all of one's colors, one would be able to account for the contami-nations during mixing. However, the degree and colors of contaminants vary largely from color to color and company to company. One must be on guard for such variances and through experience learn to counteract their effect.

If one were to procure absolute primaries, equal quantities of the three mixed together would create black. Most commercial colors claiming to be primary or spectrum colors when mixed equalJy will produce either a deep gray or deep brown, depending on the contaminants used, instead of black. Any pairs of colors when mixed to produce black are called compltmentaries. An easy way to discover a color's complement is to match that color with the one directly across the color wheel. For example, green and red are comple-mentary colors. Mixing these together will create black only if combined in equal quantities ifall colors involved.

1 quart of RED Combining

with 2 quarts of GREEN (1 quart YE l.LOW and 1 quart BLUE)

is the same as an equal mixture of the three primaries

~and equals Bl.ACK ....

An example that proves the same principle but is visually more interest-ing is this demonstration: To 2 cups of the relatively dark color that is purple

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(made from 1 cup of red and 1 cup of blue), add 1 cup of the lighter color of yellow. Stir, and the result will again be black. Hard to believe adding a light color to a dark color can produce an even darker one.

Suppose 1 quart of red and 1 quart of green arc added together. Break the colors down into sma ller parts. The red accounts for 2 pims of tile primary color red. The true or central green is made of1 pint each of the primary colors yellow and blue. The 2 pints total of yellow and blue combine with 1 pint of red to produce black (for a total of3 pints mixed together). Leftover will be 1 pint of red. The final mix, which is 3 pints black plus 1 pint red, will be a black red, or more likely a black that has the faintest cast of red . Changing the ratios of any of the contributors will alter the value of the eventual hue.

Black was used in the past example to illustrate two points: (1) absolute primaries combined in equal proportion, or any complementaries combined in equal color-component proportion, will produce black, and (2) black is inte-gral in the mixing of colors when variation in color value-thc quality or rich-ness of color--is needed. The absence of black in the scheme of color mixing could be a detriment.

Why, then, is black not included on the color wheel? It certainly does not fall into the category of a primary because it can be mixed from other colors. Neither is white found on the color wheel, yet it is like the primaries in that it cannot be mixed from other colors. Some proponents of color theory refer to black as the combination of all colors and refer to white as the absence of color. What is important to note is that black and white can tint or shade with similar results as the colors on the color wheel. In the practical mixing of color, the use of primaries and secondaries to create various hues can be costiy, particularly when large quantities are called for. At the risk of diluting or dulling a color's strength, the experienced painter can cut many a corner and save quantities of the more valuable color by using black andlor white in appropriate measures.

Using Black and White Colors may be described not only to their relative placement on the color

wheel but also by the amount of white or black they may contain. White can be combined with any color and what will result is a tint of the original color. The white will soften the original color or render it increasingly paler as the amount of added white increases. Black added to a color will create a darker version of the color, or a shade. Darkening a color with black erodes away the color's richness, making the color duller and more "lifeless" as the amount of added black increases. H owever, with judicious use of black (perhaps the least

25

expensive color) and white, an extensive array of tints and shades of anyone color is possible.

To create a shade that retains more of the richness of the base color than an addi-tive of black would aI/ow, add to the base color its complement (found on the color wheel): that is, add some orange to some base blue to arrive at a shade of blue. This principal can get quite confusing when a base color starts off as a mixture of several other colors. To avoid an unintentional muddy appearance, mix as few colors together as possible to create the base. The painter will eventually acqu ire a feci for how colors interact. As a shade is usually associated with a cool tone, and a tint with a warmer glow, experiment with adding deep blues or purples to create a rich shade . For example, a powerfully rich shade of burnt umber can be made by adding purple to it.

Table of Nine Mixtures Black and white can be mixed together in countless proportions. What

has become standard for a beginner's scene-painting needs is the Table of Nine Mixtures. 1110ugh black and white are used below, the Table of Nine Mixtures can be applied to any two root-color combinations, using the following formula.

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Table of Nine M ixtures (The number is any unit of measure, such as a cup.)

white 0 black 8

white 1 black 7

white 2 black 6

white 3 black 5

white 4 black 4

white 5 black 3

white 6 black 2

white 7 black 1

white 8 black 0

This column is a scale of mixture from black to white. The top combina-tion represents a pure black and the bottom a pure white; those in between represent varying values of gray.

Begin to imagine, for example, the virtually limitless possibilities of color with mixing the medium (4 to 4) gray with pu rple. Create an entirely new scale with the ratios of the black-white Table of Nine Mixtures: mix 8 parts purple with 0 parts medium gray, and continue through to the end of the table, o to 8. If this series is cont inued with all values of gray from the black-white table, the result is for ty-nine different values of purple, excluding the pure purple and original values of gray resulting from 0-to-8 and 0-to-8 ratios. Values of gray can be used to neutralize bright colors and lessen their vibrancy. The procedure is called graying down a color.

l he usc of white alone with purple in the nine-mixture table produces seven different tints of purple. Using black will create seven shades. Because many of the black pigments available are contaminated, shades appear muddy. A lways purchase the purist of blacks and the most brilliant of whites.

Classic Scene-Painting Palette (Traditional Terminology) While it is theoretically true that a painter could get by with uncontam i-

nated quantit ies of the three primaries plus black and white, convenience dic-tates that at least those colors found on an expanded version of the basic color wheel should be on hand to f,'lcilitate mixing. The following palette lists the twelve principal hues of the expanded wheel and names the colors closest to those hues. lhese colors represent a respectable palette to have in inventory. Paint distributors may classify the paints by the traditional names, but the individual paint shop may va ry its palette structure according to its own preference.

YELLOW: light chrome yellow YELLOW ORANGE: medium chrome yellow ORANGE: American vermilion ORANGE RED: flame red RED: turkey red lake REO PURPLE: magenta lake

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PURPLE: royal purple PURPLE BLUE: violet lake BLU E: cobalt blue BLUE GREEN: celestial blue or teal GREEN: emerald green YELLOW GREEN: primrose yellow or cadmium yellow

I n addition, careful selections of white, black, and earth colors are important to complete the palette. They are less expensive than the colors listed above.

BROWNS : burnt sienna, burnt umber, raw sienna, golden ochre WHITE: permanent white BLACK : ivory drop black

Colors may roughly be divided into two categories: warm or cool. Those colors possessing predominant proportions of blue, purple, or green arc sooth-ing to the eye and are referred to as cool. Colors having a predominance of red, orange, or yellow are striking and energetic, arouse emotion, and arc warm. Taking these categories to extreme will render them cold or hot. Cool and cold colors have a tendency to lie dormant or lend an illusion of distance to objects. They may seem to recede from the observer and, thus, are passive in nature. Warm and hot colors are energetic and create an excitement that can be force-ful and seem to approach the observer. As such, they are active in nature.

It is nO[ unusual in scene painting to add blotches of a warm or cool color to a colored surf.1ce. Not only will visual variety and interest be enhanced but the temperature of the surface may be strengthened or altered . The painting surface "temperature," combined with supporting texture, will aid the scenery in the establ ishment of mood for the environment. Although elements ofline, mass, and color are standard tools of expression for the artist, the scene painter docs not have control of the uses of line and mass within his or her area of responsibility, unless, of cou rse, the scene painter is the designer as well . The painter must combine color and texture on the confines of a two-dimensional surface to create illusions, using ranges of color and texture appropriate to everyday existence or, if required, taking the tools to extreme. All effects arc gauged in relation to the actor or what has popularly become known as the human condition. We cannot help but associate visual elements with our own frameworks of existence. Should a hospital be a deep yellow-green stucco envi-ronment or a soothing light mint green with smooth walls? Should one create a sense of serenity or ill at ease? ]s a fireplace to be made of crisp, aqua ceramic

28

tiles or seasoned orange-brown bricks? Decisions of visual expression and observer impression are fundamental to the overall conception of the designer, but the matter of execution and knowledge of color and texture must finally be assumed by the painter.1he use of temperature in color and the illusions of texture are the keys to the visual expression entrusted to and controlled by the scene painter. In its simplest form, all illusionary painting requires the mixing of three hues of the predominant color: a base, a tint, and a shade.

4. Mixing the Base, Tint, and Shade To produce almost all types of scene-painting techniques, from texturing

to detail work and regardless of the type of paint used, a minimum of three hues of a color are used.

Before beginning, one cardinal rule of color mixing must be recognized: It is a/ways easier to mak.e a color darker than it is to mak.e it lighter. Surprisingly large amounts of white are needed to lighten a color that accidentally was mixed too dark. Many times itwiU behoove the painter to empty the ill-mixed or too-dark a color into an "ends" bucket for use as a back-painting color than to waste voluminous quantities of white in attempts to lighten a dark color.

The three hues of color to prepare are labeled according to their purpose. The first color to mix will represent the predominant color the scenic unit is to be painted. It is called the base color. From th is are created the two remaining colors: the tint and the shade. In synonymous painting terms, the tint may also be called a highlight, and the shade a lowlight.

In the Table of Nine MiJ.:tures, the middle of the scale, or the 4-to-4 ratio, represents the medium or base gray (although the black will exert more visual strength than the white .) Those colors approaching the absolute white arc tints or high(er) lights of the base; working toward absolute black finds the shades or low(er) lights of the base color. An average tint and shade, according to the table, could be made using the middles hues, that is, t int := 6 white + 2 black, shade:= 2 white + 6 black. Mixing the base, tint, and shade by way of the ninc-mixture table is no more than a simple cookbook recipe for the inexperienced painter, but practice wiIl provide shortcuts to the measuring process. It is wise for the novice painter to begin early to develop and strengthen an ability to match sample colors. A simple beginning would be to miJ.: the base, tim, and shade grays according to the table and then abandon all tools of measurement other than the judgment of the eye and attempt to visually match the three values made by the table formula.

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Procedure The steps below encourage mixing by eye rather than recipe (see fig. ]2):

Step 1: Line up three buckets. To make the base gray, into the center bucket add 4 equal parts each of black and white, and stir. This color will have to be made in a large enough quantity as it will be used to create the tint and the shade.

Step 2: Into the right bucket add 2 parts of white . To this white, slowly add some of the base color while sti rring to make the tint. Arriving at the desired tint will take some practice. It may be best to work in teaspoon quantities of white and base to get a feel for how quickly hues change.

Step 3: Use the bucket on the left to mix the shade. Pour in 2 parts base color. Slowly add black to this, while stirring, unti l the desired shade is reached .

TO M A KE THE

TINT :

TO M AKE TH E

5 1-l A DE:

r-- - -------- --, ADD ". l .... yr ---- ---- --~

WIIlTE

BLACK. !.

Figure 12 BASE

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Note that both the tint and shade are made by dark.ening lighter colors. Using the base color to make the tint and shade is easier than relying on the table~ mixture method. Remember that when creating a shade for anything but a base gray, use the base color's complement on the color wheel to create the shade. As an example, if the base color is blue, usc its complement (orange) to darken the base color to the desired depth of shade.

The extent to which the tint and shade arc removed in hue from the value of the base color will have a definite relationship to the degree of texture, or

three~dimensional illusion, created. In other words, the more textural desired for, say, a wall to look, the brighter the tint and the darker the shade should be. Conversely, if a subtle textural illusion is required, mix the tint and the shade in hues close to the base color. Avoid mix extremes fo r the t int and shade as these will appear unnatural for realistic scenery, and create a cartooned look (unless, of course, that is the look designed) .

For most painting projects, the paint shou ld be mixed to a cons istency simi~ lar to whole milk. When the stir stick is lifted from the bucket, the paint should run from the stick smoothly, not in little drops. Beware of adding too much water to the mixture. Translucency will result. Too little water will prevent the paint from flowing off the brush. The paint should be opaque, spread easi ly, and not be sticky or difficult to spread and blend. Being a suspension, all mixed paints should be stirred frequently when in usc. If allowed to set, the paintsedi~ ment must be dug up from the bottom of the bucket before the color is appHed. Failure to maintain a well-mixed solution will result in an uneven application consisting of thin spots, and some colors may tend to separate slightly.

Imagine the base color is not a simple medium gray but a complex green-blue green (an expansion of the twelve principal hues located between green and blue green on the color wheel). One can, of course, pull out the table-mix-ture recipe or proceed using the base-color pigment as the common ingredient in the tint and shade.

Analogous Colors and the Common Denominator This common ingredient or root-color principle can be extended to allow

two colors that would normally be combative side by side to compatibly coex-ist. Suppose that green and purple are reqUired to appear onstage in proxi m-ity. The duo can be rendered analogolls if an identical additive is introduced to each of them. Examining the properties of purple and green shows that blue is a color found in each. M ix up a batch of white tinted with blue, and add equal quantities to equal amounts of purple and green . What occurs is that the

31

blue white acts as a (ommon denominator and renders the two extreme colors analogous. Carrying this theory further, virtually any color can exist with any other color provided they have been neutralized by a like root. In essence, the formulation of tints and shades derived directly from a base color is basically the same theoretical procedure.

All of the above examples of color mixing have been illustrated because of their simplicity. The theories are quite simple, provided the colors arc kept relatively uncomplicated. Sophistication and expertise come with practice, observation, and patience.

5. Preparing the Surface to Be Painted Few things arc more annoying for the scene painter than to be confronted

with scenery that has not been properly prepared for painting. When first built, framed scenery, such as the common scenic Rat, must be covered with a decent-weight muslin or canvas and evenly stretched, glued, and stapled to the outer frame. The material must then be sized (with glue and water, or size water) so that the fabric shrinks and becomes taut.

Flameproofing As required by fire codes, any cloth material used on the stage must be

Rameproofed. Flamcproofing the muslin and canvas can be done in the paint shop, or the material can be ordered from the supplier already flameproofed .

Some Rameproofing solutions will not react well to different size waters or primer paints, in that the canvas or muslin may actually begin to stretch after it is attached to its wooden frame. Experimenting by applying liquid starch to the material after Rameproofing shou ld prevent the subsequent sizing and priming from causing the material to sag. Any protruding staples must be thoroughly pounded into the wooden frame because protruding staples will catch the brush.

Primer Coat Before the actual scene pa inting may begin, painting surfaces may often

need a primereont. The paint used as the primer should match the type of paint to be used for the actual scene painting and can be any color or a combination of leftover quantities (often referred to as slop paint). However, the pri mer

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should normally be as light a color as possible so that a lightly colored base color wiJi cover it easily. Priming is best defined by listing its purposes:

1. On newly built or covered flats, priming seals the weave in the fabric, thus creating an even surface and eliminating the possibility of backlighting bleeding through to the su rface of the flat (also called light leaks).

2. Pri ming seals raw or unpainted wood surfaces. Untreated or unsealed surfaces absorb more paint than a primed surf.'lce.

3. On older scenic units and flats, priming with a medium-neutral color will help cover previous coats of paint. If stubborn or tenacious previous coats tend to bleed through the primer, a water-soluble sealant may have to be applied, and then the unit is reprimed.

Mix the priming paint as one would normally mix an opaque paint con-sistency. If using white paint for priming, add some color to it so that it will stand out against the white canvas or muslin of newly covered scenery.

As the water in the primer paint can cause wood fibers to expand, thus pushing outward toward the surface, recheck for any staples that have risen up, as these will need to get pounded in again. Exposed wooden areas willlikcly Ileed to be sanded down, coated with a sealant, and reprimed. Be sure that any sanding normally occurring as part of the bui lding stage has been completed and no unintentionally uneven joinery planes or rough ends and edges ex ist. On scenery that has been joined togcther, such as two or more flats that need to fold togcther, assure that all dutchmans (the material that covers the hinges and scams between the Rats) have been glued down with no protruding or lifting edges. (New dutchmans that cover the scams between older, heavily painted flats will need several coats of primer to smooth out their surface tex-tu re so as to match the surfaces of the older flats . Th is step will be necessary regardless of the nature of the dutchman. Even cloth tape, which makes for a qUick and serviceablc dutchman, will need several primer coats in order to match the flats' surf.'lces.)

Using a primer brush or the widest lay-in brush available, work the mix-ture well into the material. l be brush strokes should go in many directions (as in cross-hatching), somewhat resembling a crude figure-cight pattern (see fig. 13). When painting a large area, solicit help. If painting alone, work in rough squares, and work continuously. Do not work in haphazard patches and have to go back and fill in spaces. On newly covered units, the idea is to paint quickly to allow the entire surface to dry in unison. Failure to do so will cause unevcn tightcning and shrinkage of the fabric. If possible, allow the scenery to dry continentally for the even distribution and absorption of the primer paint. A slightly thicker mixture should be used on coarse, heavier weights of canvas.

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,-- - ...... I ,..... 'I . ..... ) " /"./ _..... -

Figure 13

6. Basic Scene Painting and Texture After the primer coat has dried thoroughly and no thin spots or painter's

holidays remain, the actual scene painting may begin. Some painters prefer to take theif base color and apply a base coat as a further sealant. This step is an optional one and is dependent upon the condition of the painting surface and the covering power of the primer coat. Applying just the base also relates to the methods of preference employed by the individual painter, particularly in situations when subsequent colors are applied over a dried base color.

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Figure 14

The first step in the painting of scenery is to do the lay-in work. Covering the surface with the base color alone or with its corresponding tint, shade, or temperature color, constitutes the lay-in stage. Several techniques of texture may be performed during this initial step, or the painter may restrict his or her application to simple background toning.

Scenery is rarely, if ever, painted using only one hue of one color on a given surface . Nuances in tone or brightness must be incorporated not only to approach a realistic appearance but also to lend visual interest. In addition, stage lighting is generally strong in intensity and often coming from so many different directions that it has a tendency to Ratten out even three-dimen-sional objects and will cause large, Rat surfaces to look dull and uninteresting and, occasionally, reRective.

When a plain, one-colored surface, such as a wall, is studied in daylight or under artificial light, the unevenness of interior light causes subtle varia-tions in tone often near the edges and corners. While such delicate shadings arc greatly minimized outdoors, owing to reflected sunlight, interior shadowy areas are intensified, conversely, because of the lack of ambient light. TIle room in figure 14 is depicted under daylight conditions with bright sunlight stream-ing through the window. Notice the wall with the window is the darkest and the wall opposite the lightest.1he source of light is singular and illuminates an enclosure. TIle shadings that appear in the corners and near the ceiling create shape and visual interest. As stage lighting cannot solely duplicate these varia-

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tions in tone, the effects must be applied with paint. Even in stage settings depicting an exterior scene, some degrees of toning must be applied to break up the static appearance oflarge surfaces.

Focus and Toning Complicated theories of light source and reflection aside, the common

practice in painting scenery, be it for interior or ex terior settings, is to paint the top if the scU/ery darker than the bottom. In interior settings, the gradation of tones from dark to light is more in evidence than its exterior counterpart. This is done primarily to prevent the eye of the spectator from being drawn away from primary focus : the actor. As the eye is drawn to light rather than dark, the bottom areas of the scenery, that is, where the actor is likely to stand, are painted lighter than the top areas . The darker upper reaches help prevent the eye from drifting upward and pulling focus away from the players. As the stage lights can flatten three-dimensional shapes, recessed corners of the inte-rior setting are also painted with darker tones so as to reinforce the setti ng's shape. This theory is not at all unlike one of the main reasons an actor applies make-up: to accentuate facial shape and features so as to be read as being dimensional under the effects of stage lighting.

Unimportant areas of scenery should be made to fade away into shadows, particularly those areas high above the actors' heads. Extensive, brightly lit detail in insignificant places is most distracting and does not adhere to the fundamental purpose of scenery: to focus on the action, not d istract from it. The scene pa inter must be aware of this general rule: "darker at the top, lighter at the bottom.~ Many stage settings, regardless of the quality of the deSign, may be made or broken by the merit of its scene painting and adherence to its role of a supporting, albeit important, element in the production .

The initial step of painting is the laying in of color to tone or texture the scenery. Tonillg is the process of applying a base color with its correspond ing shade and tint in order to reinforce the shape of the scenic unit and maintain focus to a specified area. Moreover, toning is a term used synonymously with breaking dlJWn, or taming a visually distracting clement or characteristic of the scenery. Texturing shares the responsibilities of focus and combating of light glare with toning but takes a step further to simulate three-dimensionally tex-tured surfaces. While individual painters discard, adapt, or conceive numerous methods of rendering texture on scenery, twelve common methods of painting texture serve as the foundation for all variations.

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graded wet blend scumbling spattering (and spatter and drag) sponging stippling rag rolling rolling flogging puddling dry brushing (also graining and combing) stenci ling (and stamping) spraying

As illustrated in part 2 of this book, it is certainly not uncommon to employ more than one, if not several, of the above techniques on the same scenic unit. Even the names of some of the following examples may change, depending on the exposure of the painter to various theater companies, coun-nics, or methods of practice; for example, 5eumbling is sometimes referred to as 5crumbling. Study and observation will prove that some techniques arc enhanced when used in combination. Observing the work of other painters is invaluable. When seeing a show painted by someone else, it is invaluable for the beginning painter if he or she can view that same scenery under work lights. Often, one may be pleasantly surprised and enHghtened by how a com-pelling illusion seen under stage lighting has been achieved by a relatively simple painting method .

Procedural~ethods Before embarking on the following techniques of texture, a word about

painting method is in order. Although all of the methods illustrated below use simply a base, tint, and shade, the three colors are opaque in nature, mean-ing the paint is intended as a covering agent and cannot be seen through . lhe painting of scenery from initial lay-in stages to final touch-ups may be performed in what can be distinguished as three different procedural methods: (1) opaque; (2) wash; and (3) textural. Experienced painters are not likely to think of these approaches as separate entities, as the th ree constitute standard tools that are combined, discarded, or used alone as the finished product will demand. For the novice paimer, however, it is wise to be aware of these three

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approaches and appreciate theif individual pros and cons. 111erefore, although the following are illustrated only using opaque paims, all examples can be suc-cessfully performed using wash or textural approaches. It is simply a matter of painting style, preference, and the painter's decision to elect the most appro-priate procedure according to the designer's image as provided on the painter's elevation (see also part 2, section 10, "Rendering Methods").

Lastly, another important consideration is holding the paintbrush. Most people will paint with the same grip that tenn is players use for a forehand shot. Young players are taught how to hold a racket by first placing it flat on the floo r and then picking it up. Accordingly, place the paintbrush fiat on the floor. Wrap the fingers around the handle and lift up the brush.1ts handle will fit diagonally across the palm of the hand (see fig.15a).

Figure 15a

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Figure 15b

While this grip is common, it is also limiting, and the wrist may get tired quickly. An alternate grip that allows for more pivoting of the wrist and will not tire as easily is one with the brush handle outside of the palm grip. The fingers are almost Rat and rest diagonally across the fer rule, with the thumb supporting from the other side (see fig. I5b). (The textural technique of scu m-bling is much easier to accomplish with this grip.) Both grips should be tried and alternated if need be.

Graded Wet Blend This method accomplishes a soft, linear blend ing of color values. Although

the term wet blend may refer to any number or method of brush-stroke proce-

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dures, the intention with the graded wet blend is to produce an even progression of tone from light to dark. The tones should progress in a seamless fash ion without distinction or a strata separating them. Although this procedure can be achieved with a brush, using a sprayer and applying the paint continentally may be easier if available space permits.

Roughly divide the area to be painted into three horizontal sections, the middle of which is slightly la rger than the other two. Lay in a top band of shade fairly heavily and quickly. Be generous with the amount of paint applied, as it will be blended later and must still be wet. Below this, lay in the larger band of base color, again quickly and heavily. FinaUy, paint in the remaining band with the tint color (see fig. 16).

Figure 16

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Go back with a clean, moist brush, and gently feather the edges of one color band into another (see fig. 17). With a wide lay~in or primer brush slightly charged with water and pressing firmly, start at the shade end, and paint strokes in a horizontal direction. Proceed quickJy through the base area with continuous strokes, not lifting the brush from the surface until you work your way off the tint color of the flat (see fig. 18). If necessary, repeat this procedure with a clean brush and work from the opposite direction of the flat. Never work from the middle band out. A slight variation would be to paint the shade band, then the base band, and immediately feather and blend the con~ necting edges together. Recharge the bottom area of the uncontaminated base band with the base color, and proceed with the tint band, followed by its feath~

Figure 17

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Figure 18

ering and blending. When working on a very wide fiat, it may prove easier to grade two colors at a time rather than three. To paint a flat whose edge will form a recessed corner, simply vary the shape of the top band of shade and arc the following bands of color (see fig. 19). The common follow-up texturc for the graded wct blend is normally a fine spattering or spraying.

Scumbling Scumbling is used to simulate rough textures, such as plaster or stucco.

With less gradation between the hues of the base, tim, and shade, an attractive and lightly textured background for wallpaper stencil ing may be ach ieved . With scumbling especia lly, the extent of the textural illusion is

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Figure 19

directly related to the contrast in hue of the three colors and the amount of blending performed. That is, if one mixes the tint and shade colors toward their respective extreme ends of the mixture table, the impression of rough texture is intensified . (Interior decorators and painters use this and many of the following techniques with semi-transparent and transparent glazes, sometimes referred to as wall washes. The use of washes/glazes is more appro-priate to homes and businesses as the nature of a transparent medium creates a softer ambience than opaque counterparts. And, the lighting is softer and often indirect in nature.)

Though the rule "dark at the top, lighter at the bottom~ still applies, the scu mbling painting stroke varies greatly from the long, continuous strokes of the graded wet blend . Using a brush fo r each of the three colors is a necessity to

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) Figure 20

assure clarity of color hue. Lay in the shade area, leaving an irregularly shaped edge toward the base color area (sec fig. 20). With another brush, immediately lay in the base color area without overlapping the two colors; leave the bottom of the base color section irregular toward the tint color area. Next, paint strokes of the shade into the base and the base into the shade (see fig. 21). ll1cse strokes are achieved by quickly twisting the wrist and flicking the brush while lifting it ojfthc painting surface between every stroke. Leaving the brush on the sur-face between strokes will not produce the crisp stroke pattern indicat