A NATURAL TREASURE

THE ZAPALLAR FOREST

Alexander von Humboldt, 1809Friedrich Georg Weitsch

Charles Darwin

I FoRmERLyAdmIREd HUmboLdT,I NoWALmoST AdoRE HIm.Charles Darwin, letter written in 1832

TAbLE OF CONTENTS

07 TwO SOuTHERN ExPEDiTiONS A Visionary and His mentor

08 A COLD wATER RivER The Humboldt Current

10 uPwELLiNgS A Constant Source of Nourishment

13 A bOuNTiFuL OCEAN origin of biological Richness and diversity

14 FOg Nurturing the Forest

19 THE RELiCT FOREST A Witness of Change

20 CATCHiNg THE FOg Adaptation for Survival

23 THE uNDERSTOREy A minute Treasure

24 FLORA AND FAuNA Unique Species

38 THE PLACE Zapallar

40 EARLy CONSERvATiONiSTS Two Friends, a Visionary and his Teacher

42 bibLiOgRAPHy

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Although they each had their unique styles and different

personalities, the explorers Alexander Von Humboldt and

Charles darwin represent two influential figures of science.

both were gifted with the ability and willingness to understand

the natural world. overcoming enormous challenges in their

voyages, they reached profound and revolutionary conclusions

regarding the connectivity of natural phenomena. darwin

considered Humboldt one of the greatest scientific explorers

of his time, and frequently referred to him in his journals and

personal letters. Humboldt’s exploration of the landscape,

as well as his writing style, inspired darwin to embark on his

voyage on the beagle. He also provided him with the basic

guidelines on what and how to observe and record his findings.

Humboldt and darwin were naturalists whose influence can

be seen throughout the scope of science. It is interesting that

each of their respective works have, as their origin, a voyage of

discovery that took place during their youth.

Humboldt is often considered the father of ecology. He was the

first to take on the study of the relationship between organisms

and their environment. Humboldt’s travels were well thought

out and prepared while darwin encountered many unexpected

challenges and setbacks. In these voyages, the coast of Chile was

of key importance for providing evidence that supported their

future theories about the links between species distribution and

natural phenomena. Humboldt was one of the first naturalists

to relate the earth’s physical phenomena to species distribution

when he stated:

“In the study of physical phenomena we find the noblest

and most relevant result to be a knowledge of the chain

of life, by which all natural forces are interconnected and

mutually dependent.”

The Peruvian current was named after Humboldt, who described

its extraordinary importance for coastal ecosystems of South

America. This ocean current is the main subject of a fascinating

letter Humboldt wrote to Charles darwin in 1839:

“I would have liked to talk to you more about the cold water

ocean current that borders the coast, on which I pondered

so often, because I believe it modifies the climate of the

coast. A cold water river runs from the Southeast and hits

the coast of Chile going towards the south and north of the

Chonos along the Peruvian coast.”

TwO SOuTHERN ExPEDiTiONSA VISIoNARy ANd HIS mENToR

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The Humboldt current appeared millions of years ago, when,

flowing by inertia around Antarctica, the course of these waters

suffered a final disruption. As the South American continent

emerged, a deep ridge began to form on the ocean bottom along

the Pacific coast of South America that ended up deviating

the current northwards reaching the Galapagos Islands. The

marine bottom that borders the continent has many depth

variations, which generates a convection action that serves as

a double current, enabling the Humboldt current to be self-

sustained. When the current finally reaches the Galapagos, it

turns westwards, and ends up scattering its waters throughout

the Polynesian Islands.

The climate of the region of Valparaiso is influenced by the

current, which also decisively affects the climate of the entire

Chilean coastline. many specialized habitats throughout Chile

owe their existence to this phenomenon.

A COLD wATER RivERTHE HUmboLdT CURRENT

Las Docas beach, Region of valparaiso Photo: Rodrigo moraga Z.

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uPwELLiNgSA CoNSTANT SoURCE oF NoURISHmENT

Upwellings are ascending currents that carry water from the

depth of the ocean to the surface. The temperature and salinity

of ocean waters have an essential effect on its density and create

dense water bodies in specific places. These waters are rich in

nutrients, making them sink to the bottom of the ocean, to be

then extended towards other latitudes by ocean currents. In 1839,

Humboldt outlined an explanatory mechanism about the rise of

deep ocean floor water - the upwellings - which would basically

explain the way the Humboldt current operates on the western

coast of South America.

The Antarctic waters of the Humboldt current contain an

extraordinarily rich density of plankton, transforming these

waters into one of the most important fishing grounds on the

planet, thus making the current’s waters an important economic

resource for Chile, Ecuador and Peru.

JPL/

NAS

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bull KelpDurvillaea antarctica Photo: Karl yunis K.

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A bOuNTiFuL OCEANoRIGIN oF bIoLoGICAL RICHNESS ANd dIVERSITy

one of the most biologically rich areas of the Chilean ocean is

located between Valparaiso and Los molles. This is due mainly

to the influence of the Humboldt current and to the outstanding

topography of the ocean floor and the coastline in this part of

Chile. The main water bodies and the direction in which the

currents flow have a dramatic influence on the distribution of the

various marine species.

A broad range of living and non-living ocean resources interrelate

in various ecosystems along this coast. The waters, which are

rich in minerals and organic matter, allow the existence of a

diverse array of marine life.

The Humboldt current also brings with it the fogs that condense

over the sea and coastal hills. A few natural barriers along the

central coast of Chile allow these morning mists to precipitate.

The terrestrial communities of the coastal hills of the Valparaiso

region of Chile also owe their existence to the Humboldt current,

since it allows for the condensation of the sea mist against the

steep slopes of the Coastal mountain range.bottle-nosed Dolphin Tursiops truncatus Photo: Rodrigo moraga Z.

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FOgNURTURING THE FoREST

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Prevailing winds from the Pacific ocean move towards the coast,

precipitating as they pass over the cooler waters of the Humboldt

current, thus producing a dense layer of fog known as the

Camanchaca. These air masses, laden with moisture are forced

to ascend over the coastal terrain, which causes them to cool

at an altitude of approximately 400 meters above sea level. This

phenomenon creates a microclimate in the high coastal hills of

Zapallar due to an abrupt interruption of the thermal inversion levels

as they hit the coastal cliffs, resulting in condensation through

the forest’s “fog-catching” effect. This produces precipitation

similar in volume to those of the Southern temperate rainforest

regions, and would explain why dense forests are found at higher

elevations. Fog is different to rain water in that it contains nitrogen

compounds, sulfur, carbon and, of course, sea salt, producing

relict forests with hydrophilous characteristics – plant species with

a total dependence on the sea-mist.

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THE RELiCT FORESTA WITNESS oF CHANGE

In spite of scarce precipitation, the development and survival

of the coastal forests of Chile’s mediterranean ecoregion is

possible thanks to the contribution of moisture content from fog.

Coastal mist blown by the wind is trapped by the vegetation in

immense quantities, forming large drops on the foliage, which

then descend to the forest floor. This interrelation between the

foliage and the sea mist is what sustains the forest of Zapallar

and the associated biological diversity.

This unique ecosystem contains species that populated vast

areas of this ecoregion when rainfall was far more abundant. The

succession of glaciations that took place during the Pleistocene

and Pliocene separated the forests of Zapallar, Santa Inés in

Pichidangui, and Altos de Talinay in Fray Jorge, from the rest of

the forests of the Chilean southern zone. These forests are today

a living remnant of what a vast forest ecosystem used to look like

in the central parts of Chile thousands of years ago. Among the

tree species that have survived from pre-glacial times are the

olivillo (Aextoxicon punctatum), the Canelo (drimys winteri), the

Petra (myrceugenia exsucca), and various fern species. These

plants formed the botanical foundation of the primary forest

that subsequently underwent colonization by certain xerophyle

species like the Peumo (Crataegus monogyna), the belloto

(beilschmiedia miersii), and certain myrtaceae.

It was recently discovered that the olivillo is the only species

in its family, indicating that other members of the Aextoxicon

family existed in the past; hence the olivillo is a living fossil that

probably evolved in the central region of Chile.

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CATCHiNg THE FOgAdAPTATIoN FoR SURVIVAL

oasis fog-forest ecosystems only exist in a few select locations

in the world. These unique and fragile habitats contain flora and

fauna with high levels of endemism. The coastal forest of Zapallar

contains trees with large canopies and entwined branches,

allowing moisture to be trapped by foliage and moss covered

bark. The water droplets slide down the trunks and leaves and

fall to the ground, where the nutrient rich water is used by a

multitude of plants that live within this forest ecosystem.

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These moist forest ecosystems shelter a dense understorey

containing an abundance of vines and large variety of flowering

species, many of them endemic to Chile. The presence of epiphytes

covering tree trunks is one of the main differences between the

coastal fog forest and other drier types of forest habitat found in

the mediterranean ecoregion of Chile.

The Zapallar forest provides sustenance and shelter for diverse

species of insects, birds, mammals, and amphibians. Although

there is no evidence of its presence nowadays, a rare amphibian,

known as darwin’s Frog (Rhinoderma darwinii), existed in the

forest of Zapallar, and is now presumed locally extinct. Specimens

of this emblematic species of the temperate rainforests of the

southern region of Chile were collected in 1861 and now belong to

the Hamburg museum.

THE uNDERSTOREyA mINUTE TREASURE

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The particular ecosystem that survives in these moist forests of

central Chile is the ideal habitat for a diversity of extraordinary

species of flora and fauna. Among the birds that currently dwell

in coastal forests, there are many which are characteristic of the

Valdivian forest found in southern Chile, implying that both are very

similar as regards their feeding stocks, insects and wild fruits.

Several notable and endangered birds found in Zapallar include,

the Thorn-Tailed Rayadito (Spinicauda spinicauda), the des murs’

Wiretail (Sylviorthorhynchus desmursii), the Torcaza or Chilean

Pigeon (Zenaida auriculata), and the Rufous-Legged owl (Strix rufipes).The madre de la Culebra (Acanthinodera cummingi), one of the

world’s largest beetles, can also be found in these woods.

The Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti), a species found

only within the waters of the Humboldt current, inhabits the coasts

of Chile and Peru. Surrounded by cacti, the distinct characteristic

of the Humboldt Penguin is that it nests and reproduces in hot

mediterranean climate far from the Antarctic ice. They migrate to

the south during the “El Niño” phenomenon, when warm waters

divert the Humboldt current, forcing them to abandon their

reproductive colonies in Peru and the north of Chile in search

of food found in important colony sites in central Chile, this fact

exemplifies the importance of these southern reproductive sites

for their survival. one such site is the Island of the Penguins

located in front of Cachagua beach.

FLORA AND FAuNAUNIqUE SPECIES

Humboldt PenguinSpheniscus humboldtiPhoto: Rodrigo moraga Z.

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In 1920, Federico Johow described at least six plant species which

are now locally extinct in Zapallar. Today, among the species on the

endangered list we find the belloto del Norte, a species endemic

to the zone and which has been declared a Chilean Natural

monument. The decrease in distribution and genetic diversity of

adult specimens, along with external factors such as the removal

of organic matter from the forest floor, destruction of vegetation,

erosion, competition from introduced species and overgrazing,

have weakened the recovery of this important tree species. The

forest of Zapallar is one of the few places where you can find the

Northern belloto in Chile. It is distributed unevenly inhabiting

biotopes that are more humid due to the presence of ground water

and coastal fog.

Today, the morphology of the belloto fruit prevents its natural

dispersal. Some scientists believe that in prehistoric times it was

spread by extinct mega fauna such as megatheres, mastodons,

and pre-historic horses that fed on its fruit.

Another endemic species of central Chile’s coastal forests

is the passionflower (Passiflora pinnatistipula). In Chile, this

magnificently beautiful vine may only be found in Pichidangui’s

Santa Inés hills, as well as in the forests of Zapallar, preferring

areas where the forest canopy is more open. The passiflora is the

only Chilean species of tropical origin, with an edible berry similar

to that of the passion fruit.

Passiflora Passiflora pinnatistipula Photo: Karl yunis K.

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belloto del Norte Beilschmiedia miersii Photo: Karl yunis K.

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In the dry zones, many species of plants have developed the same

characteristics of plants associated with similar mediterranean

ecosystems throughout the world, producing leaves and trunks

covered with a layer of wax that prevent dehydration. The typical

aroma of the Zapallar forest comes mainly from the perfume of

the Peumo and boldo trees. This perfume can be found in the

oils and waxes in their leaves, which help to limit dehydration.

It is because of this feature that the general forest type of the

Zapallar area is known as a coastal esclerophylic forest. The

term esclerophylic comes from the Greek terms sclero (hard)

and phyllon (leaf). These dry habitats are also colonized by other

dry-stem plants such as the Chagual, (Puya chilensis), the Tebos

Cacti (Chloris chilensis), the boldo (Peumus boldus), and the

molle (Schinus latifolius).

Eriosyce subgibbosaPhoto: Karl yunis K.

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many plants adapt to droughts by storing water in their stems (cacti)

or within thick, fleshy leaves (succulents like the Cysthanches).

Cysthanches grandifloraPhoto: Karl yunis K.

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Another way to survive a drought is to store moisture in succulent

roots, as orchids and alstromerias do, or in underground stems

(bulbs), as the native wildflowers añañucas or audiles do. The

presence of these kinds of adaptations in local flora is a sign of

the presence of a mediterranean climate, meaning cold, rainy

winters, and hot, dry summers. Such conditions force plants to

deploy their growth and flowering in early springtime in order to

fend off mid-summer droughts.

It is in this season of plenty, flowering and renewal that the

Zapallar forest becomes vital for various species of migrating

birds such as the Giant Hummingbird. This beautiful bird, the

largest hummingbird in the world, is thought to migrate before

the winter months to the bolivian yungas.

OrchidChloraea lamellataPhoto: Karl yunis K.

Añañuca Rhodophiala chilensis Photo: Karl yunis K.

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giant HummingbirdPatagona gigas

Photo: Rodrigo moraga Z.

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The Chungungo or Lontra felina is the only species of the Lontra

genus found exclusively in marine habitats. It uses coastlines that

extend approximately 30 meters inland and 100 to 150 meters out

to sea. This animal inhabits marine areas exposed to strong tides

and winds. It prefers rocky coasts that contain caverns that remain

above sea level at high tide, and depends on large seaweed beds

that offer an abundant and vast diversity of prey species such as

mussels, clams and sea urchins. The Zapallar bay offers an ideal

habitat for the Chungungo, which can often be seen along the

rocky shores.

In order to eat the shellfish on which it mainly feeds, the Chungungo

takes a stone, swims on its back, and uses its paws to break open

the shells by hitting them with the stone.

ChungungoLontra felina Photo: Rodrigo moraga Z.

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In 1846, Francisco Javier ovalle acquired the Catapilco estate via

a family auction. back then, the estate boasted the same surface

that Zapallar County has today. ovalle was married to Isabel Vicuña

Aguirre, the eldest daughter of the estate’s former owner, liberal

politician and President of Chile, Francisco Ramón Vicuña.

The new owner contributed great dynamism and progress to the

estate, building the Catapilco dam, among many other works. The

reservoir was the first of its kind in South America, and enabled

the irrigation of large tracks of farmland. To transport the ever-

increasing production of grains out of the zone, ovalle purchased

a small steamship and built a mule-trail connecting the remote

cove of Zapallar to agricultural lands located several miles inland,

transforming Zapallar bay into a small port used exclusively for the

estate’s production.

one of those roads, designed in 1860 by the German engineer

Teodoro Schmidt, was labeled “El Sello.” It began in the farmlands

of Catapilco, near the reservoir, continuing due West through the

area known as “La Ceniza,“ till it reached Zapallar bay. This trail

was used for many years as a transport route by means of droves

of mules that crossed Zapallar forest, up until then, an unspoiled

wilderness. Coal was later extracted from the forest by slow-

burning the wood of the forest in large brick ovens, and many hills

that surrounded the beach were sown, thus replacing fragile native

habitat with agricultural fields.

one of the owner’s 14 offspring, don olegario ovalle Vicuña,

was Zapallar’s founder. Since his early childhood, olegario had

fallen in love with the Catapilco Estate. Upon the death of his

parents, he inherited an important part of the original estate

called “Cachagua.” After a trip to Europe, olegario decided to

establish a coastal resort town and selected the beautiful cove

of Zapallar for this township. Up until then, Zapallar had only

been enjoyed by his family and the estate workers. His original

design, which still exists, sprang from his mind. His original

plan preserved the ravines, conserving them as public parkways

and established walking paths in these areas so that the houses

of the township had access to the seaside and beaches.

The first summerhouse was built in 1892, and the following year

many families of German origin, including olegario’s acquaintance

dr. Federico Johow, became the first residents. All of these founding

families were instantly bewitched by the beauty of the new village.

It was in this period that the profound friendship between olegario

and Federico began.

THE PLACEZAPALLAR

Historic Zapallar, circa 1896 Gabriel Rodríguez - Zapallar County Archive

Don Federico Johow and others leaving for an excursion on horsebackGabriel Rodríguez - Zapallar County Archive

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EARLy CONSERvATiONiSTSTWo FRIENdS, A VISIoNARy ANd HIS TEACHER

Federico Johow von bielher was born in Germany in 1859,

and later hired by the Government of Chilean President José

manuel balmaceda in 1888, due to his excellence as a teacher

of chemistry, botany and zoology. Federico was a wise naturalist,

and a renowned professor and scientist. Chile is indebted to him

for the creation of the Pedagogical Institute, which offered its

teachings to hundreds of future professors, as well as executing

a vast portfolio of valuable scientific research.

The friendship of these two men and their shared love for

Zapallar gave rise to the first conservation initiative involving the

magnificent forest of Zapallar. Worried by the visible devastation

of the surrounding hills, olegario asked Federico what could

be done to restore the natural landscape. Johow told him to do

nothing at all, save for taking his herds away from them, so that

the natural vegetation could flourish.

once olegario passed away, Federico dedicated an important

part of his last years to an exhaustive research of the Cachagua

Estate’s flora, a task that later became his posthumous work:

“Flora de las plantas vasculares de Zapallar” (diversity of

Vascular Plants in Zapallar.) The book was re-edited in 2007, with

the help of his grandson, dr. Juan Carlos Johow. Today there is a

new generation of conservationists and residents inspired by the

work olegario and Federico. The forests of Zapallar, their flora

and fauna, are a natural treasure that many aspire to preserve.

This project is committed to the establishment of scientific and

technical research benefiting the conservation of the Zapallar

forest, and fosters the participation of experts capable of sustaining

efforts aimed at awakening in children, youngsters, and adults an

awareness, respect and harmonious coexistence with our natural

world. Actions such as avoiding over-grazing, as Federico Johow

suggested over a hundred years ago, as well as restoring native

habitat, controlling exotic species, implementing erosion control,

preventing forest fires, designing and maintaining appropriate

hiking trails and fostering an understanding of the value of the

local landscape, can ensure that future generations enjoy our

shared treasure. It is our hope that our collective actions will

enable the Zapallar forest conservation project to serve as an

example of effective private land conservation in Chile.

Olegario Ovalle and Federico JohowArchive of Juan Carlos Johow and the Zapallar County Archive

Zapallar in the old days Gabriel Rodríguez - the Zapallar County Archive

4140

Alexander von Humboldt in the Works of Charles darwin, http://www.avhumboldt.net/index.php?page=154, retrieved June 2009.

CAPoNI, Gustavo. de Humboldt a darwin: una inflexión clave en la historia de la biogeografíadepartamento de Filosofia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina

Council for Science and the Environment. [Published in the Encyclopedia of Earth october 8, 2008; Retrieved June 21, 2009].

Flora de las Plantas Vasculares de Zapallar, Revisión ampliada e ilustrada de la obra de Federico Johow. Editores: Carolina Villagrán, Clodomiro marticorena y Juan J. Armesto. Septiembre 2007.

FUENTES ER (1988) Sinopsis de paisajes de Chile Central. En: ER Fuentes & S Prenafeta (eds) Ecología del paisaje en Chile central. Estudios sobre sus espacios montañosos: 17-27. Ediciones Universidad Católica, Santiago, 125 pp.

mILLER A (1976) The climate of Chile. En: W Schwerdtfeger (ed.) Climate of Central and South America. Elsevier Scientific, World Survey of Climatology: 113-145.

Schemenauer, R.S., Cereceda, P., 1994. A proposed standard fog collector for use in high elevation regions. Journal of Applied meteorology 33 (11), 1113–1322.

mUÑoZ C & E PISANo (1947) “Estudio de la Vegetación y Flora de los Parques Nacionales de Fray Jorge y Talinay”, Agricultura Técnica, año VII , N° 2, ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago, 71 – 190.

muñoz-Schick m., R. Pinto and A. moreira (2001) “oasis de neblina” en los cerros costeros del sur de Iquique, Región de Tarapacá, durante el evento El Niño 1997-1998. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, vol 74 389-405

myers, N. et al. Nature 403, 853–858 (2000)

National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Content source); mark mcGinley (Topic Editor). 2008. “Humboldt Current large marine ecosystem.” In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, d.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National)

Pinto, R., Larrain, H., Cereceda, P., Lázaro, P., osses, P., Schemenauer, R.S., 2001. monitoring fog-vegetation communities at fog sites in Alto Patache south of Iquique, northern Chile during “El Niño” and “La Niña” events (1997–2000). Proceedings of Second International Conference on Fog and Fog Collection. St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, pp. 293–296. July 15–20, 2001.

SqUEo, F. A., J.R. Gutiérrez & I.R. Hernández, Eds., Historia Natural del Parque Nacional bosque Fray Jorge Ediciones Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile (2004) 2: 45 – 60

bibLiOgRAPHy

CAST AwAy THE EviL iDEA

OF bECOmiNg A POmPOuS viLLA

uNDER NO CiRCumSTANCE ACCEPT THiS

TO PuRSuE bEAuTy TiLL TuRNiNg ugLy

LET THE NEwCOmER ALwAyS SEE

THiS mOuNTAiN CORNER

wHOSE FEET ARE bATHED by THE SEA

wHOSE HAiR iS mADE OF FORESTS

AND LET iT bE wHAT iS AND wAS

PART bOAT, PART REFugE.

Javier Pérez ovalle, 1930

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The forests of Zapallar, Cachagua, and Catapilco make up the most valuable reserve of native flora in Chile’s central coastline. Their vast biodiversity constitutes a global patrimony classified as a biodiversity hotspot by Conservation international (myers), and thus adopted by the Chilean government as one of its priority sites for domestic conservationist efforts.

Corporación bosques de Zapallar aims to involve neighbors and future generations in the care and preservation of these valuable examples of mediterranean ecosystems, working gratefully and respectfully with its owners and enjoying the benefits that the zone’s biological and scenic biodiversity offers its citizens.

its first board is made up by Juan Carlos Johow, Denise Astoreca, LuisaEyzaguirre, Rodrigo Cruz, José miguel Torrico, Federico Ringeling and Diego Larraín.

The publication of this book was made possible thanks to the sponsorship of The Nature Conservancy, Corporación Parques para Chile and Corporación bosques de Zapallar.

Text written by Karl yunis Kretschmer, Juan Carlos Johow, Federico Ringeling and Victoria Alonso Design, production and printing: Carmen montt and Coca LyonTranslation: macarena Palominos and Karl yunis KretschmerCorrección de estilo: Eugenia FernándezPrinted by oGRAmA

© 2009 The Nature ConservancyPrinted in Chile-ISbN 978-956-332-086-2

www.bosquesdezapallar.cl

Thank you to dr. Juan Carlos Johow, Federico Ringeling, José Antonio Varas and the community of Zapallar for their support in the preservation of their natural treasure.Corporación bosques de Zapallar seeks to involve neighbors and future generations in caring for and preserving this valuable mediterranean ecosystem in Chile, working with gratitude and respect in conjunction with the landowners.