THE WRITING PROESS Follow the links for some advice about ... · Follow the links for some advice...
Transcript of THE WRITING PROESS Follow the links for some advice about ... · Follow the links for some advice...
WHY WRITING IS IMPORTANT
Follow the links for some
advice about various
stages in the writing
process
Being able to write is one of the most important communication
skills. While writing is essential for success in education at all
levels, it is also important beyond formal schooling in careers,
for citizenship and for general living.
Writing is an organizational tool that is useful for recording expe-
riences, creating memos and lists, leaving messages and so on.
Every time we write an email or text someone, we are using
written language. However, writing is also an important way to
develop or explore ideas, provide information, express
opinions ,persuade others or construct imaginative texts. These
days the ability to write is also important in constructing
multimodal texts.
THE WRITING PROCESS
Thebarton Senior College
40 Ashley Street
Torrensville
SA 5031
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
stjschools.org
dailywritingtips.com
pctipstricks.com
PRE-WRITING STRATEGIES Pre-writing strategies
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Drafting
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Getting started:
Sometimes just getting started is the difficult part. Here are
some ideas and strategies that might help.
Understanding the task
If you are not clear about what is expected of you in the task,
the first thing you need to do is CLARIFY what is required.
UNDERLINE or HIGHLIGHT key words.
Write down what you think the FOCUS is. For example:
In this task I will… OR The focus for this task is…
Brainstorming
Brainstorming involves putting down all the thoughts and ideas
relating to the topic or task. They don’t need to be ordered
initially but you can cluster or categorise them later.
Using web resources / active search programs:
for example: http://www.eslflow.com
How to improve your writing:
Write something everyday —preferably in
connected prose
Read lots and write about what you read
Share your writing with others
Read your writing aloud and try to fix parts
that don’t work so well
Deliberately set out to write in different
forms and genres
Keep a folio of everything you write and re-
read it every now and then to see how you
are developing.
Free writing
Set yourself five minutes and start writing. You need to
write continuously. At the end of the five minutes re-
read what you have written and use a pen or highlighter
to underline, highlight or circle key ideas, parts that flow
or aspects that really strike home for you. This is particu-
larly useful for narrative, expository or persuasive
writing.
Making lists
This is a variation of brainstorming and free writing
Using a graphic organiser
There are lots of graphic organisers around . These are
really useful for creating pictures of key points and how
they connect. Try Inspiration, Lotus diagrams etc.
Collaboration, research and observation
Talk over possible ideas with others, do some research
or do some observation where appropriate.
Cubing Write notes to the six questions—Who?
What? When? Where? Why? How?—great tool for
narrative and recount writing.
ASSESSING AUDIENCE & PURPOSE Pre-writing strategies
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How audience influences how and what we write
In most educational situations, when we are asked to write something
we generally think of the teacher, tutor or lecturer as the audience.
However, our writing is often stronger and better directed if we think
of the authentic audience for which the writing is or might be intend-
ed.
Thinking about the audience helps us to make informed decisions
about the appropriate form or genre and the level of formality re-
quired. It will also influence the language or register we use and
whether it is written in the first or third person or using active or
passive voice.
An example of this might be writing a job application. Here ,the
language would be formal but you would use the first person ‘I’. In an
essay, though, you would use formal language and third
person voice. In a personal letter, however, you would
most likely use informal language and the first person.
Some common school text types and their purposeSome common school text types and their purposeSome common school text types and their purpose
Procedure—To instruct how a task is done
Personal recount—To retell important personal events
Narrative—To entertain
Report—To describe or classify living or non-living worlds
Choosing the right text type or form
Your choice of form will be determined largely by
why you are writing whatever you are writing. That
is, you need to be clear about your purpose. Are
you writing to inform someone, persuade them,
entertain them or to show someone else what you
know or understand? There may be other reasons
as well but what you answer to the why am I
writing? question will determine what form you will
use to convey what you want.
More common school text types and their purposeMore common school text types and their purposeMore common school text types and their purpose
Explanation—To explain how or why processes occur
Argument—To persuade using one side of an issue
Discussion—To persuade by presenting opposing points
Review—To present a personal response to a text
Adapted from Literacy Secretariat Draft Resource Paper 2010
teacher-of-english.com
PURPOSE, AUDIENCE & FORM Pre-writing strategies
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The writer’s purpose
Common purposes used by
students are to:
inform
persuade
argue
narrate
describe
report
reflect
explain
instruct
analyse
imagine
compare
contrast
Share
More text types
descriptions
dialogues
web pages
Possible audiences
Popular audiences that
students frequently write
to—usually implied rather
than real—include:
peers
employers
editors
general public
politicians
parents
teachers
professionals
business people
advisers
writers
experts
Range of text types or forms
Common text types or forms
used by students—include:
reports
letters
essays
journals
stories & poems
news stories
magazine articles
biographies
autobiographies
brochures
advertisements
directions
instructions
reviews more text types
MORE TEXT TYPES Pre-writing strategies
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Here’s a useful link that will give you lots of examples of
different text types and what they are used for. It says it is for
primary students but the Writing Activities link has some useful
planning sheets:
http://www.inetword.com/mc10617316/Grammar%
20Website_files/page0006.htm
Here is another website that gives you lots of information about
different text types, what they are used for, how they are struc-
tured and the language used.
http://www.grchurstville.bmcc.education.nsw.gov.au/
english_text_types.htm
This website does much the same as the previous one but you
have to scroll down to page two to get the detail.
csusap.csu.edu.au/~cburge10/docs/currev1.doc
Try this one:
For more help writing different text types follow this link to
Writing Tasks
What text type will I use?
PLANNING Pre-writing strategies
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Planning
Drafting
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Is planning necessary?
For some kinds of writing, narrative or imaginative writing, for
instance, the text should be allowed to evolve to some degree.
However, for most academic writing used in schools, there are
features of common text types that define that form. In order to
meet the requirements of a particular text type, you do need to
plan your work. Furthermore, if you are writing an academic
essay, developing an argument, preparing a recount or writing
an evaluation, for instance, it is essential to ‘nut out’ what you
are going to say and the order in which you might put it. This is
what planning is all about.
Go to Planning Details
The informal to formal continuum
Where does your writing fit on this continuum? Think about audience, purpose and text type.
Informal and
familiar language
Formal and
technical language
Most writing has the following components:
Orientation or Introduction This is where you introduce the setting and the main characters or
refer to the key ideas and definitions that will shape the text.
Main body of the text or argument What are the main points, ideas or arguments to include and how
might they be sequenced? What are the topic sentences?
Resolution or Conclusion This is more than a summary. It emphasises the main point(s).
See Writing Tasks for
details about planning
for particular text types.
aate.org.com
PLANNING DETAILS Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
Questions to think about in the planning process:
Be clear about the task.
Ask yourself: What am I being asked to do?
If you have a question to answer use your hi-lighter to high-
light, underline or circle the key words.
Ask yourself: Am I being asked to describe, explain, report,
analyse, narrate etc.?
Think about the appropriate text type for the task.
Ask yourself: Is the text type more towards the narrative
and imaginative end of the scale or is it closer to the more
formal, academic end?
If the piece of writing uses factual information…
Ask yourself: What facts might be useful and how do they
relate to the question or topic?
Consider how you might make the piece flow.
Ask yourself: What information do I need to put into each
topic sentence to help make the piece of writing cohere?
Draw up a plan and get started.
Ask yourself: What do I need to put into my introduction?
Then write it!
Note:
You can always go back and revise your opening paragraph
later.
Remember, your first draft does not have to be perfect—see it
as a work-in-progress.
Adjust the plan according to the text type to be used—the plan
opposite is for a formal essay (or use a graphic organiser
instead.)
What does an essay PLAN look like?
Opening (Introduction/Orientation)
Include central theme or thesis, key ideas
and appropriate definitions.
Body of the essay (main content)
Para1. Work out topic sentences
Para 2. Look for how to sequence
Para 3. the information/argument
etc.
Para 4. Include relevant evidence
Add paragraphs as needed.
Ending (Conclusion/Resolution)
Re-emphasise main points or argument(s)
Assert your conclusion based on evidence.
DRAFTING
Pre-writing strategies
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Planning
Drafting
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Advice about grammar
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Getting something down
Once you have done your plan, it is time to try putting together
your first draft. Getting started is often the hardest thing. You
just have to do it.
Here’s a useful link by a guy called John Tagg who provides five
hints about writing an effective draft.
http://daphne.palomar.edu/handbook/firstdraft.htm
Interestingly, he suggests not writing the introduction
immediately but generally it is a good idea to have something
down as an introduction even if you go back and change it
radically at the end—lots of writers do that.
Writing your draft
Your first paragraph
Introduce the topic; entice the reader (remember: audi-ence)
Establish perspective and/or point of view!
Focus on at least three main points to develop.
Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph
Topic sentences of each paragraph define their place in the overall scheme
Transition sentences, clauses, or words at the beginning of paragraph connect one idea to the next. Avoid one and two sentence paragraphs which may reflect lack of develop-ment of your point
Continually prove your point of view throughout the essay
Don't drift or leave the focus of the essay
Don't lapse into summary in developing paragraphs--wait until it’s time, at the conclusion
Keep your voice active— "The Academic Committee decided..." not "It was decided by..."
Avoid the verb "to be" for clear, dynamic and effective presentation (Avoid the verb "to be" and your presentation will be effective, clear, and dynamic)
Avoiding "to be" will also avoid the passive voice
Support interpretations with quotes, data, etc.
Properly introduce, explain, and cite each quote
Block (indented) quotes should be used sparingly; they can break up the flow of your argument
Conclusion
Read your first paragraph, the development, and set it aside
Summarize, then conclude, your argument
Refer back (once again) to the first paragraph(s) as well as the development
Ask, ‘Do the last paragraphs briefly restate the main ideas?’
Reflect on the succession and importance of the arguments—do they lead logically to a conclusion?
Edit/rewrite the first paragraph to better set your development
and conclusion.
This is what the Study Guides and Strategies Centre suggest
http://www.studygs.net/writing/roughdrafts.htm
REVIEWING & EDITING
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
Strategies Procedures
Reread and ask yourself if you Revisit the question and
have answered the question or the key words that you
dealt with the topic. highlighted or underlined.
Look for poor organisation or Reorganise or restructure
lack of logical progression. the essay and check topic
sentences for clear
cohesive links.
Check for evidence and Add facts, details, quotes,
supporting detail. in-text references etc.
Check for ambiguity, Delete unnecessary
unnecessary or irrelevant details and contradictions
detail and contradictions. and rewrite for clarity.
Check that you have used the appropriate register.
The reviewing, editing and/or rewriting stage is the critical
shaping stage of the writing. It is here that you take your ini-
tial draft and make it into a refined and polished piece. This
is where you need to be a little detached and self-critical and
be prepared to make some tough decisions.
Sometimes you will find that you have to discard whole
sections of what you have written or you will need to rewrite
parts to make things clearer. At times you may find that a
draft needs to be totally reorganised. If you have prepared a
good plan in the first place, this is likely to be rare.
It is worth spending time on this process—and it is often
good to leave a draft for a day or so and come back to it with
fresh eyes.
Have you checked your introduction & conclusion?
Rewrite your introduction if it no longer quite fits what you have written in your
paper.
zazzle.com
PROOFREADING
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
Is proofreading important?
While proofreading isn’t the most important part of the writing pro-
cess, it is a significant part of polishing and preparing a text for
publication or assessment.
A text with grammatical mistakes, problems with the use of
conventions (such as capitalisation) or spelling errors are what
many readers notice first. These kinds of errors are a distraction
and need to be fixed before submitting work for whatever purpose.
Some writers proofread each paragraph as they go or while they
are re-reading during the composing process but many others leave
it until the end, after the hard work of writing and re-writing has
been done.
There is more than one way, but it has to be done. No writer worth
his or her salt likes to see errors in their published work—and
examiners also notice when students have not checked their work
too and, believe me, they take off marks.
Correcting and Proofreading
Checklist
Spelling
technical words
difficult or confusing words
check spelling demons
using dictionaries and thesauruses
Punctuation
sentences that start with a clause or phrase
using colons & semi-colons
using the dash
apostrophes
Capitalization
sentence beginnings
proper names etc.
Usage
check for ambiguity & verbosity
run-on sentences
paragraph structure & topic sentences
avoiding clichés & idioms
Grammar
tense consistency
noun/verb agreement
conjunctions and linking words
betterwritinghabits.com
PROOFREADING—Spelling
Pre-writing strategies
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Proofreading for spelling
Technical words
Technical or specialist words just have to be learnt. Here are some
clues to help.
Put the words into a sentence and highlight or bold the word
you want to learn. Think of it in the context of the sentence.
If a word is part of a system or concrete object, draw a diagram
and label it. Try and reproduce the diagram regularly until you
get the spelling right.
Say the words and spell them out on your iPod, iPad or other
electronic device and play them over regularly. Write each
word down as you listen to it.
Make up a crossword or word game where you need to put the
words to be learnt into the allocated spaces–you will soon see
where you have made mistakes.
Use the words to be learnt as often as you can–just as you
would when learning a new language. PRACTICE!!
Difficult or confusing words
There are too many of these to make a comprehensive list here
but following are some of the common ones to check carefully for.
there, their, they’re
its, it’s
your, you’re
then, than
brought, bought
Go to the Usage link for examples of how and where these words
(and lots more) should be used. It’s important to use these words
correctly!
to, too, two
our, are
discreet, discrete
desert, dessert
whether, weather, wether
More hints on
proofreading spelling
PROOFREADING— More on Spelling
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
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Back to The Writing Process
Proofreading for spelling
Word processing and modern usage has created some difficulties
with what we once accepted as standard spellings. In most word
processing programs you have a choice about using American,
English or Australian English dictionaries.
Many of the differences relate to the use of double consonants
when adding suffixes. e.g. enrolment or enrollment. Other issues
relate to the representation of phonemes e.g. colour or color.
Many words in English actually sound the same but are spelled
differently. Then there are some words with silent letters and oth-
ers with pronunciations that don’t quite sound the way they are-
spelt e.g. rendezvous, restaurant, epitome etc.
There are many lists of so called spelling demons and it is useful to
have your own check list. What follows are some links to various
websites that provide lists of commonly misspelled words. Of
course, you can always use your spellchecker on the computer but
make sure that you select the right word for the right context or
purpose.
Using dictionaries and thesauruses
It is a good idea to have a good diction-ary and thesaurus.
The following are recommended for school use:
Australian Macquarie Dictionary
Australian Oxford Dictionary
Collins Australian Concise Dictionary
Heinemann Australian Student Dictionary
Here is a link to the dictionaries recom-mended by the SACE Board
http://www.sace.sa.edu.au/the-sace/students-families/
assessment-and-exams/approved-dictionaries
When you use a Thesaurus—make
sure the alternative word you use is
appropriate for the purpose.
Some spelling demons
Here’s a useful site that you can go to to check some of the most
commonly misspelt words:
http://classroom.jc-schools.net/read/spelldemons.htm
http://www.esldesk.com/vocabulary/misspelled-words
http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/misspelled200.htm
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0862708.html
A really useful thing to do is to develop your own list of spelling
demons that you know are a problem for you. For instance, if you
have a problem remembering if accommodation has a single or
double mm or not or if signalled has one l or a double ll, add the
problem words to your list. Back to Proofreading
PUNCTUATION
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
Why punctuation is important.
There are two main reasons for punctuation.
To help the reader create the meaning that the writer intend-
ed.
To help a reader reading a text aloud to give the appropriate
emphasis to the words and phrasing.
As you can see in the bottom right corner there are at least ten
different kinds of punctuation marks–and some have sub-sets.
Following is advice about a number of areas where there are
common punctuation problems.
Commas: Sentences that start with a clause or phrase
These sentences are very common in English. They start with a
dependent clause and lead into an independent sentence. For
instance:
“When I get through university,, I will start my career as a
dentist.”
“Because of the flooding, the train was delayed twenty four
hours.”
The words in orange are dependent clauses. The remainder of the
sentence is independent and could stand alone as a sentence. When
you have a sentence construction like this, you separate the two
parts with a comma.
Here are two sites that will give you detailed information (with
examples) about how to use punctuation properly. Interestingly,
the first link numbers the punctuation marks from 10 to 1.
http://listverse.com/2007/10/12/top-10-rules-of-punctuation/
http://www.grammarbook.com/english_rules.asp
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
Back to Proofreading
More on Punctuation
PUNCTUATION
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
Commas: more examples of sentences that start with a clause or
phrase
In the afternoon, time will be given for a rest break.
When the scooter is moving, you will need to balance.
On arriving at the stadium, we purchased a program.
Because of the mechanical failure, we were unable to race.
Without the help of her friend, Julie would not have coped.
Rising from the ashes, the ruin appeared surreal.
Commas in sentences with beginning words
However, there is a belief that the exception proves the rule.
Rather, the practice is different from what is expected.
Commas used to separate out phrases within a sentence
The grandfather, a rather taciturn man with old-fashioned views,
could not accept the freedom given to his young grandchildren.
The building, perched precariously on the edge of a sheer drop,
seemed more like an eagle’s nest than a home.
Commas used to separate more than one item in a series in a
sentence
The country was barren—rusty, gibber-strewn and uninterestingly
flat.
Sometimes a comma is inserted after the second-to-last descriptor
where emphasis is needed or to make meaning clear. For example;
I was devastated by the sheer poverty, desolation, and the abso-
lute sense of hopelessness.
Other uses of Commas
Commas are also used in special ways in correspondence, direct
speech and numbers.
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
Back to Proofreading
More on Punctuation
PUNCTUATION
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
End Marks: Full stop
Full stops are used most commonly to end a sentence.
Examples:
“Yesterday was World Peace Day.”
“I didn’t have the heart to tell him. He was so proud of what he
had done, it would have shattered him to know. I don’t know why I
couldn’t tell him, cowardice maybe.”
NOTE: The placement of full stops in direct speech and where
brackets are used is important. If it is the end of a sentence en-
closed between brackets or the end inverted commas, the full stop
goes inside, not after. This also applies to exclamation marks and
question marks.
Full stops also are put in place when there is an abbreviation e.g.
B.C. which refers to ‘before Christ’ or P.S. which means
‘postscript’.
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
Back to Proofreading
More on Punctuation
PUNCTUATION
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
End Marks: Exclamation mark
This mark is a widely used mark and is useful for many writing
purposes. It is used to show a reader how to read a particular
sentence. Exclamation marks are used for the following:
Commands (orders or directives)
Examples: “Stop!” “Look to the front!” “Ready, set go!”
Exclamations (showing fear, surprise or to emphasise a point.)
Examples: “Oh, wow!” “No way!” “Over there?!” “Oh no!”
Greetings (showing slight animation or enthusiasm)
Example: “Hello! What a great day!”
Humour: (sometimes to emphasise a joke, punch-line or
humorous point)
Example: With that, the little dog laughed, the cow jumped like
a loon and the spoon ran away to her room!” (End of
story!)
Interjections (where someone has been dramatically cut off or
where the sentence has been interrupted.)
Example: “He marched proudly around the corner, aware of
the honour bestowed on him, when Bang! Bang!, the corridor
resounded with two loud explosions and he was dead.”
Irony or sarcasm (to put someone or something down or draw
attention to the unexpected.)
Example: “If we all had friends like you, we’d be in World War
3!”
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
Back to Proofreading
More on Punctuation
PUNCTUATION
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
End Marks: Question mark
The most obvious use of the question mark is when asking a question but question marks are used in a variety of other contexts as well: Rhetorical questions—questions that do not need to be
answered e.g. We need to get going. Remember the map they showed us? I think we go East.
Tag questions—questions that are added onto a statement to turn it into a question eg. If we connect the positive wire here and the negative wire there and press the button, the motor should start, shouldn’t it?
Direct speech—e.g. ”Are you ready yet?” she called. A question within a sentence—sometimes there is a question
as part of a longer sentence. This means that the question mark goes at the end of the question rather than the end of the sentence e.g. What would happen if a car careered out of control down that steep hill? He thought, pondering the potential disaster.
To indicate a doubt—a doubt can be inferred in several ways using a question mark e.g. Is that right? or I was really excited (?) about the possibility.
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
Back to Proofreading
More on Punctuation
PUNCTUATION—more advice
Pre-writing strategies
Assessing audience and purpose
Planning
Drafting
Reviewing/editing
Proofreading
Advice about grammar
Using resources/references
References and bibliographies
Back to The Writing Process
Using colons (:)
Colons can be tricky at times but their main functions in texts are
fairly clear.
Colons are commonly used to provide a link between one part of a
sentence and another, that is, it signals that what follows is an
expansion of what has gone before.
Example: I experienced a great sense of fulfilment: I had achieved
the A grade I had set my self a goal for in spite of extended
absences.
However, colons are also used in lists, for indicating speakers in
film/drama scripts and in transcripts and at the end of titles and
subtitles.
Example used in lists:
Products from the garden centre include:
vegetable plants
seeds
tomato stakes
fertilizer
Note: Each dot point begins in lower case because the list is in sin-
gle words or phrases. Where the listed items are full sentences, the
dot point listings are introduced with a capital letter.
Example used in a script:
Thomas: (Rather belligerently) I didn’t ask you to do that!
Jane: (Calmly) I know, but I thought I could be helpful and you
seemed so busy.
Thomas: (Still annoyed) That’s all very well, but it’s my job and I
prefer to do it my way. (Long pause) Okay, thanks anyway.
Example used in introducing a quotation:
As Charles Dickens once wrote: “It was the best of times and the
worst of times…”
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
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Using semicolons (;)
Semicolons are used for various purposes to create a break in a
sentence, to make a comment more dramatic or to more strongly
link ideas than might be possible using a comma.
Example of a semicolon used to link ideas but create an emphatic
pause:
The first wave picked them up and tumbled them towards the
shore; the next one was more ferocious and smashed them heavily
into the sharp sand.
Example of a semicolon used dramatic purpose:
He watched with a growing sense of fear; hundreds of insurgents
burst into the square cutting off all retreat.
Example of a semicolon used to separate items in a complex
sentence:
She wondered about the next move; to follow her instinct and re-
treat behind closed doors; to merge with a group and sidle away in
the shadows that might provide her with a degree of cover; or, to
surrender to the invaders knowing with a high degree of certainty
that she would be raped, tortured and killed.
Semicolons are used in other ways as well; lists where the items in
the list are linked to a key topic, in dictionary definitions and to sep-
arate series.
Example of a semicolon used to separate items in list:
For example, the chance of burglary is increased by:
leaving doors unlocked;
leaving windows ajar;
and, making it obvious that you are not at home.
Here is a useful link for The Writer’s Handbook published by the
University of Wisconsin.
http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Semicolons.html
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
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Using the dash; em dash and en dash
A dash is quite a useful tool to show a break in a sentence or create
a pause but it can be overused. There are two kinds of dashes:
The em dash is called this because it is the width of the letter M.
It fills the whole space between two words.
The en is half an M and has a space each side of it.
Often the dash can be used in the place of a comma, particularly
when you want the reader to pause.
Examples of the use of the dash:
When the Kingscote Show was over, the organisers began to pack
up—taking down the stalls, removing the tents, packing away the
horse jumps and generally tiding the arena for the coming cricket
season.
The great white shark—prevalent in the waters of the Southern
Ocean—are now a protected species.
Dashes can also be used for other purposes; for example:
To show a change of thought or an interruption by a speaker or
writer in a sentence.
Example of a change of thought:
Hurry up or we will be late for school!—and , by the way, did you
give the note to your teacher yesterday?
In place of a colon when introducing a list.
To include additional information in a sentence:
Example of including additional information:
Every evening he dons his coat and trudges through the snow to
watch the children sledding—the brash boys, the excited girls, the
timid newcomers, and his favourite disabled boy—then, when dark-
ness falls, retires to the local hotel for his warming pint of ale.
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
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The hyphen
The hyphen is not a dash. It is used to :
connect two words to create a new compound word e.g.
sister-in-law
add a prefix e.g. re-emphasise
or, to indicate that a word is split at the end of a line e.g. after-
wards
Brackets
There are several different kinds of brackets—here we look at two
of the most common.
The round bracket ( ): This is used to:
Indicate where information has been added in a sentence.
Example: The crowd was made up of activists (mostly Greenies)
protesting about the extended logging leases.
Show who is responsible for a quotation
Example: “It was the best of times; it was the worst of
times.” (Charles Dickens)
Indicate sub headings e.g. a), b), c) etc. or 1), 2), 3), etc
The square bracket * +: This is used to :
show that the words enclosed are not that of the original speak-
er or writer or have been added in explanation in a quote or to
clarify a reference.
Example: “She absolutely adored his *Tom’s+ shock of black,
curly hair.”
Other brackets include
the curly brackets , -
the slash / /
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
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Apostrophes
This is one of the most abused punctuation marks in English.
However, the basic rules are quite simple. There are three types of
apostrophe.
Possession
Contractions and abbreviations
Elision
Possession
Apostrophes for possession indicate that something belongs to
someone or something else—it’s a relationship thing—and the
placement of the apostrophe depends on whether the owner is
singular or plural.
Singular example: The husband’s wife was very beautiful.
The apostrophe goes before the ‘s’ because the husband is singular
Plural example : The houses’ verandas were all blown down in the
storm.
The apostrophe goes after the ‘s’ because there is more than one
house.
Some apostrophes to watch out for:
e.g. children’s, people’s (already plural words) and where a word
ends in an ‘s’ e.g. Jesus’ cross (not Jesus’s), Klaus’ wife (not Klaus’s
wife.)
Contractions and abbreviation
This relates to words or phrases where something has been left out
and what is left behind is an abbreviation e.g. don’t, they’re, we’re,
she’s, hasn’t, I’ll etc. An apostrophe is also used with some abbre-
viations such as “The TV’s signal was weak” or “The DVD’s surface
was scratched.”
Elision
This applies to speech where a vowel, consonant or syllable is
dropped e.g. ‘ello (hello), ‘right (alright), ‘tis (it is), g’day (good day)
A list of punctuation marks:
Apostrophes
Brackets
Colons (colon & semi-colon)
Commas
Dashes
Exclamation marks
Full stops
Hyphens
Question marks
Quotation marks (direct speech &
quotation)
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More on Punctuation
CAPITALIZATION
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Capitals have a number of very special functions in written English.
Most commonly capitals are used at the beginnings of sentences or
dialogue/conversations.
Note: Sometimes for artistic reasons, poets for instance, break the
rules for artistic reasons.
Capitals are used in the following ways:
At the start of sentences
At the opening of dialogue or conversation
In drama scripts to indicate who is speaking next
For some abbreviations e.g. ACT (Australian Capital Territory),
ANZ (Australian & New Zealand Bank)
In titles of books, films, articles, poems, magazine or journal
names, newspapers etc.
For proper names—people, places and things. This includes:
people’s real names e.g Ralph Smith, organisations (see ANZ
above), names of countries e.g. Argentina, geographical names
e.g. Victor Harbor, Uluru etc., days and months e.g. Wednesday,
April etc., historical events or eras e.g. World War 1, the
Industrial Age, the Age of Reason etc.
In many fields of government e.g. The Legislative Council, the
Prime Minister, the Governor General etc.
Addresses, that is, the first letter of street names, suburb and
state e.g. 20 Ashley Street, Torrensville, SA 5031
For the personal pronoun ‘I’
For special days and celebrations e.g. Ramadan, Christmas,
Easter, Mayday, Halloween etc.
In the greetings and close of letters e.g. Dear Mary and Yours
faithfully, David.
USAGE
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Here’s a useful site to check the spelling demons
http://www.spelling-words-well.com/spelling-demons.html
Check for ambiguity & verbosity
Example of verbosity: "Our national tendency is to inflate and thereby
sound important. The airline pilot who announces that he is presently
anticipating experiencing considerable precipitation wouldn't think of
saying ‘it may rain. ‘ The sentence is too simple--there must be some-
thing wrong with it.”
from grammar.about.com/od/tz/g/verbosityterm.htm
Examples of ambiguity: “We saw her duck.” “ I can’t recommend this
tool too highly.”
Run-on sentences
A run on sentence occurs when two independent sentences that should be separated or linked in some way are allowed to continue as if it were a single sentence. This is an incorrect construction.
Example of a run on sentence:
The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week it is a long journey of over nine hours.
How to fix it::
1. Make two sentences
The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week. It is a long journey of over nine hours.
2. Join the two sentences using a semicolon if the two clauses are
related.
The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week; it is a long journey of over nine hours.
3. Use a comma and a conjunction or connector
The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week, but it is a long journey of over nine hours.
4. Use a semicolon and a linking word
The passenger train to Melbourne runs three times a week; however, it is a long journey of over nine hours.
Paragraph structure & topic sentences Check that each paragraph has a clear
topic sentence and that everything in
the paragraph relates to that topic
sentence.
Make sure that the paragraphs follow
logically and are linked to make a well
ordered text.
See Writing tasks and processes for
advice.
Avoiding clichés & idioms
Try this website for advice: http://www.englishcafe.com/blog/cliche-
or-idiom-11565
GRAMMAR
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Proofreading for Grammar
When you are editing, you are looking very much for meaning and
you are in the process of reshaping your writing or making sure that
what you have to say is clear for the reader. When you are proof-
reading, you are checking your spelling, punctuation and grammar.
From time to time, this may require some rewording but generally
you will just be focussing on making sure your writing is correct.
Here are some aspects of grammar to check:
Tense consistency with verbs—try not to swap between tens-
es, that is, past, present or future. We will not go into the dis-
tinctions between past perfect, present perfect or continuous
present etc. here.
The general rule is: If you start writing in one tense, unless you
move into a flashback or incorporate a quoted piece of conver-
sation in a different tense, you need to continue to write in the
tense you started with.
Noun/verb agreement—this is very important. If you have a
singular noun, you need a singular verb. If you have a plural
noun you need to have a plural verb, although many verbs can
be singular or plural e.g. ‘He (singular) went to the circus’ and
‘They (plural) went to the circus.’ Compare this to—’She is lucky
to be alive’ and ‘They are lucky to be alive.’
Here’s a useful site from GrammarBook.com that sums up all
the variations.
http://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp
Pronouns—these seem so simple but there are traps, mostly to
do with the personal pronouns “I” and “Me”. If the pronoun is in
the subject position in the sentence it is “I”. If it is in the object
position you use “ME”. e.g. ‘They will cater for you and
me.’ (object) compared to ‘You and I (subject) will cater for
them.’
Main types of Pronouns
personal
possessive
interrogative
reflexive
relative
indefinite
Here’s a great site that shows you
all the pronouns for 1st, 2nd, and
3rd voice.
http://www.speakwrite.net/
pronoun_charts.htm
...more on Grammar
...more on GRAMMAR
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Articles—these can be either definite or indefinite. The definite
article is the, so, we can talk about the house or the boat or the
big, friendly giant etc. In these cases , the article the refers to a
specific boat, house or giant .
However, if we talk about a boat, a house or a big, friendly
giant, we are referring to no particular boat, house, or giant.
‘a’ is an indefinite article used for general purposes.
When proofreading, check to see whether you need the defi-
nite article or the indefinite article.
Prepositions—A preposition is a word which shows relation-
ships among other words in the sentence. The relationships in-
clude direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the
sentence, ‘She went to the store,’ to is a preposition which
shows direction. In the sentence, ‘He came by bus,’ by is a prep-
osition which shows manner. In the sentence, ‘They will be here
at three o'clock,’ at is a preposition which shows time and in the
sentence, ‘It is under the table,’ under is a preposition which
shows place.
A preposition always goes with a noun or pronoun which is
called the object of the preposition. The preposition is almost
always before the noun or pronoun and that is why it is called a
preposition. The preposition and the object of the preposition
together are called a prepositional phrase.
Follow this link to list of the most commonly used prepositions.
http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions-list.htm
Conjunctions –these are words that join one sentence to
another. There are many of them in the English language.
See the following link for the three types of joiners.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm
Other Hints
Adverbs:
Adverbs are words that qualify or
add to the meaning of a verb. They
can be placed before or after de-
pending mainly on how the sen-
tence sounds.
Adjectives:
Adjectives are words that qualify a
noun. These are placed before the
noun.
References and Bibliographies
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Using Resources and References
The resources you might use to develop a response to a task are
many and varied. Some typical resources include:
the web interviews books discussions magazines & journals surveys CDs and DVDs questionnaires live programs forums broadcasts lectures films & documentaries brochures & pamphlets pictures & cartoons tables, graphs & diagrams observation personal experience reports etc.
General Advice:
Check that the material is from a credible source
Ensure that the resource is relevant and at an appropriate
standard for your purpose
Always note down the details of the resource e.g. the website
URL and when it was accessed; the author, year, title, publisher
of books, magazines and journals; the place and time for obser-
vations, discussions, interviews etc.
When you note from texts use summaries and dot points. If you
copy down quotes, always put the quotes between inverted
commas and also provide the page number. This is helpful
when you use the quote in an assignment and you need to
reference it
Information from any of the above sources can provide
evidence for your responses and support for your own views
Always acknowledge you sources if you are paraphrasing, citing
or quoting someone else’s work or ideas.
References and Bibliographies
Go to the following site and access the Bibliography Builder to guide
you through the process of constructing a reference list.
http://www.slasa.asn.au/org1/org4FFB24c6j33W/
http://pocklingtonepq.wikispaces.com/Referencing+and+bibliographies
The Harvard
Referencing System