THE WATER FOOTPRINT OF INDONESIAN PROVINCES

THE WATER FOOTPRINT OF INDONESIAN PROVINCES RELATED TO THE CONSUMPTION OF CROP PRODUCTS

F. BULSINK*

A.Y. HOEKSTRA*

M.J. BOOIJ *

MAY 2009

VALUE OF WATER RESEARCH REPORT SERIES NO. 37

* University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

Contact author: Arjen Hoekstra, e-mail: [email protected]

The Value of Water Research Report Series is published by UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, the Netherlands

in collaboration with University of Twente, Enschede, the Netherlands, and Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands

Contents

Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. 5

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 7

2. Method ........................................................................................................................................................... 9

3. Study area and data ...................................................................................................................................... 11

3.1 Schematization of Indonesia................................................................................................................ 11

3.2 Crop selection...................................................................................................................................... 11

3.3 Data ..................................................................................................................................................... 11

4. Water footprint of crops per province .......................................................................................................... 15

5. Virtual water flows related to trade in crop products ................................................................................... 17

5.1 Virtual water flows between provinces ............................................................................................... 17

5.2 International virtual water flows.......................................................................................................... 17

5.3 Virtual water flows by product ............................................................................................................ 18

6. Water footprint of Indonesian provinces ...................................................................................................... 21

7. Conclusions .................................................................................................................................................. 25

Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................................................ 27

References............................................................................................................................................................. 29

Appendix I. Population per province in 2000 ....................................................................................................... 31

Appendix II. Weather stations per province.......................................................................................................... 32

Appendix III. Crop parameters ............................................................................................................................ 33

Appendix IV. Irrigated area fraction of crops per province .................................................................................. 34

Appendix V. Fertilizer use per crop ...................................................................................................................... 35

Appendix VI. Production quantity of crops per province ..................................................................................... 36

Appendix VII. Harvested area of crops per province............................................................................................ 38

Appendix VIII. Product and value fraction per crop............................................................................................. 40

Appendix IX. National food balance per crop ...................................................................................................... 41

Appendix X. Daily consumption of protein per capita per province..................................................................... 42

Appendix XI. International virtual water import per crop .................................................................................... 43

Appendix XII. Water footprint of crops per province........................................................................................... 44

Appendix XIII. Gross virtual water flows between provinces .............................................................................. 48

Summary

Community welfare and food security in Indonesia partly depend on developments in the agricultural sector.

This sector increasingly faces the problem of water scarcity caused by declining water resources and increasing

competition over water with households and industries. To overcome these problems and to ensure stability,

economic growth and food security, it has been recognised that the government has to reform the water policy in

Indonesia. Water policies are most of the time based on the water withdrawal per sector. A useful addition to this

are the concepts of water footprint and virtual water trade. The water footprint is an indicator of water use that

looks at both direct and indirect water use. The water footprint of the people in a province is defined as the total

amount of water that is used to produce the goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the province. This

water footprint is partly inside the province itself (the internal footprint) and partly presses somewhere else

(external footprint). Virtual-water trade refers to the transfer of water in virtual form from one place to another as

a result of product trade. Virtual water refers to the volume of freshwater embedded in a product, not in real but

virtual sense; it refers to the water that was used to make the product. Quantitative information about the water

footprint per province and interprovincial virtual water flows can feed a discussion on the role of trade in water

resources management. The aim of this report is to quantify interprovincial virtual water flows related to trade in

crop products and determine the water footprint related to the consumption of crop products per Indonesian

province.

The study follows the method for calculating virtual water flows and water footprints as developed by Hoekstra

and Chapagain (2007; 2008). The first step in the method is to calculate the water footprint of crops, which

depends on crop water requirements, rainfall and irrigation. Crop water requirements depend on crop type and

climate and can be supplied from either rainfall or irrigation water. The amount of rainwater that contributes to

the evapotranspiration is called the green water use and will determine the green component of the water

footprint of a crop. The amount of irrigation water that contributes to the evapotranspiration is called the blue

water use and will determine the blue component of the water footprint of a crop. The last component that

contributes to the water footprint of a crop is the grey component. This is the volume of water polluted,

quantified as the amount of water required to dilute pollutants to an acceptable level. The second step is to

calculate interprovincial virtual water flows, which result from crop trade between provinces. The flow will

occur from provinces with surpluses to provinces with deficits. A surplus occurs when the consumption of a crop

in a province is lower than the production of it. A deficit occurs when the consumption of a crop is higher than

the production in a province. Finally, the water footprint of a province related to the consumption of crop

products is the total amount of water used for the production of these products. This water can originate either

from internal or external water resources. Data for the calculation have been taken mainly for the years 2000 till

2004.

The water footprints of crops largely vary among provinces. Rice produced on Java has the lowest water

footprint of all rice in Indonesia. The green water component is relatively high for all crops; only for rice and

soybeans the contribution of irrigation water is relatively high compared with other crops. The green component

6 / The water footprint of Indonesian provinces related to the consumption of crop products

gives the largest contribution to the water footprint related to the consumption of crop products. The

interprovincial virtual water flows are primarily caused by trade in rice. The products cassava, coconut, bananas

and coffee have the largest interprovincial water flows relative to the water use for production. The biggest

amount of virtual water from provinces or countries goes to Java, a densely populated island where the

production of crops is not sufficient to satisfy the total consumption. Sumatra has the largest contribution in the

virtual water export.

The average water footprint in Indonesia insofar related to consumption of crop products is 1131 m3/cap/yr, but

there are large regional differences. The provincial water footprint varies between 859 and 1895 m3/cap/yr. The

average provincial water footprint consists for 84% of internal water resources. The remaining 16% comes from

other provinces (14%) or countries (2%). All island groups except Java have a net export of water in virtual

form. Java, the most water-scarce island, has a net virtual water import and the most significant external water

footprint. This large external water footprint is releasing the water scarcity on this island.

There are two alternative routes to reduce the overall water footprint of Indonesia. On the one hand, it may be

reduced by promoting wise crop trade between provinces – i.e. trade from places with high to places with low

water efficiency. On the other hand, the water footprint can be reduced by improving water efficiency in those

places that currently have relatively low efficiency, which equalises production efficiencies and thus reduces the

need for imports and enhances the opportunities for exports. In any case, trade will remain necessary to supply

food to the most densely populated areas where water scarcity is highest (Java).

1. Introduction

Agriculture is of great importance to Indonesia. The agricultural sector contributed only 11% to the GDP in

2002, but 44% of the labour force is working in this sector, making it the largest sector in terms of employment.

Developments in the agricultural sector can lead to a reduction of poverty and the generation of broad-based

economic growth (ADB, 2006). The sector has a strategic role concerning stability, economic growth and food

security. To emphasize the important role of agriculture the Ministry of Agriculture (2006) developed the

following vision for the years 2005-2025: realizing a competitive, fair and sustainable industrial agricultural

system to guarantee food security and community welfare.

To develop the agricultural sector and achieve the abovementioned vision of the ministry, there are some

challenges and problems to overcome. The sector faces an increasing demand for agricultural products, caused

by an increasing population and hence a higher consumption. Water resources for agricultural activities are

getting scarcer due to the impact of declining land and water resources. Moreover, competition over water is

growing due to an increasing use of water for households and industries (Ministry of Agriculture, 2006). The

water use is already highly constrained by unbalanced conditions of demands and the potential availability,

particularly during the dry season. The water resources conditions in Indonesia have come to the stage where

integrated action is needed to reverse the present trends of overconsumption, pollution and the increasing threat

of drought and floods (World Water Council, 2003). Therefore, measures to ensure food security and community

welfare must be taken by the government.

These measures are most often based on analysis of the water withdrawal in the domestic, agricultural and

industrial sector. However, these indicators do not give information about the actual need of water by the people

in a country in relation to their consumption. A useful addition to the water-withdrawal indicator are the

indicators of ‘water footprint’ and ‘virtual water trade’. The water footprint is a consumption-based indicator of

water use introduced seven years ago by Hoekstra (2003). This indicator shows the water use of inhabitants of a

country or province in relation to their consumption pattern. It looks at both direct and indirect water use. The

water footprint of the people in a province is defined as the total amount of water that is used to produce the

goods and services consumed by the inhabitants of the province. This water footprint is partly inside the

province itself (the internal footprint) and partly presses somewhere else (external footprint). Virtual-water trade

refers to the transfer of water in virtual form from one place to another as a result of product trade. Virtual water

refers to the volume of freshwater embedded in a product, not in real but virtual sense; it refers to the water that

was used to make the product. Quantitative information about the water footprint per province and

interprovincial virtual water flows can feed a discussion on the role of trade in water resources management.

The water footprint has already been calculated for different countries by Hoekstra and Chapagain (2007, 2008).

Indonesia as a whole is also included in their study. Further research on a more detailed scale has already been

done for some countries, such as China (Ma et al., 2006), India (Kampman et al., 2008), the Netherlands (Van

Oel et al., 2008) and the UK (Chapagain and Orr, 2008). These national studies give a more detailed view of the

water flows, water use for crop production and water consumption by the population within a country than the

global study of Hoekstra and Chapagain could do.

The aim of this report is to quantify interprovincial virtual water flows related to trade in crop products and

determine the water footprint related to the consumption of crop products per Indonesian province. The water

footprint will be calculated as an average for the years 2000 to 2004. The first part of the report is about the

method (Chapter 2) and used data (Chapter 3). Thereafter the water footprint of crop products is presented

(Chapter 4). Subsequently, interprovincial virtual water flows within Indonesia are shown in Chapter 5. The

water footprint of Indonesian provinces related to crop products is presented in Chapter 6. Finally, in Chapter 7

conclusions are drawn.

2. Method

For the calculation of water footprints and virtual water flows, the methodology described in Hoekstra and

Chapagain (2007, 2008) has been used. The water footprint of consumers can be divided into direct water use on

the one hand and the consumption of agricultural and industrial products on the other hand. For this study only

the consumption of agricultural products has been taken into account, because the direct water use and the

consumption of industrial products account for only about 3% of the water footprint of Indonesia (Hoekstra and

Chapagain, 2007).

Agricultural products can be divided in crops and livestock products. The focus in this study will be on crops.

The first step in the calculation of the water footprint of a crop product is the determination of the

evapotranspiration. The FAO Penman-Monteith method has been used to calculate the reference

evapotranspiration, which is the evapotranspiration of reference grass in the situation with an abundance of water

(Allen et al, 1998). Subsequently, the reference evapotranspiration is multiplied with a crop parameter, to

calculate the evapotranspiration of a crop. The crop water requirement is the summation of this potential crop

evapotranspiration over the growth period. The water footprint of a crop depends on the crop water requirement

and the availability of water in the soil. This water can originate from either rainwater or irrigation. The water

originating from rainfall that contributes to crop growth is called green water use. The green water use is the

minimum of the potential crop evapotranspiration and the effective rainfall. The effective rainfall is the part of

the rainwater that will be available in the soil for crop growth. Irrigation water that is used for crop growth is

called blue water use. The blue water use is equal to the irrigation water requirement multiplied with the fraction

of the total area of a crop that is irrigated. The irrigation water requirement is the potential crop

evapotranspiration minus the green water use. Finally, the grey water footprint is the amount of water required to

dilute pollutants to agreed acceptable levels. We have restricted the analysis to the effect of nitrates used as

artificial fertilisers in agriculture. The grey water footprint is calculated as the amount of nitrate that has leached

into the groundwater multiplied with a dilution factor. The amount of nitrate that has leached into the

groundwater is equal to the amount of nitrate supplied to the field times the leaching factor. This leaching factor

is the fraction of the total supplied amount of nitrate to the field that eventually leaches to the groundwater. The

dilution factor is the inverse of the maximum acceptable level of nitrogen in the ambient water system. The total

water footprint of a product is the sum of the green, blue and grey water footprint of a product. These

components are calculated by dividing the water use of the concerning component by the yield.

The primary crops can be processed into other products. This will lead to a distribution of the water footprint of

the crop over the processed products. The water footprint of a processed crop product is the water footprint of

the primary crop multiplied with the value fraction and divided by the product fraction. The value fraction of a

processed crop product is the value of that crop product divided by the total value of all crop products. The

product fraction is the weight of the processed crop divided by the total weight of the primary crop.


Virtual water flows are the result of trade between regions. For the calculation of the virtual water flows between

Indonesian provinces the methodology described in Ma et al. (2006) has been used. The method is based on

surpluses and deficits in regions. If the production is larger than the consumption of a crop there is a surplus in a

province. A deficit occurs when the consumption is larger than the production. Trade will occur from regions

with surpluses to regions with deficits. In this study the assumption is made that trade will first start between

provinces within an island group. After this first distribution trade will occur between the remaining provinces in

Indonesia. Interprovincial virtual water flows are calculated by multiplying product trade volumes by the water

footprints of the traded products.

The water footprint of a province consists of an internal and external part. The internal water footprint is defined

as the annual volume of provincial water resources used to produce crops consumed by inhabitants of a province.

The external water footprint is defined as the annual volume of water resources used in other countries or

provinces to produce crops consumed by inhabitants of the province concerned (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007).

The internal and external water footprints of a province are calculated following the accounting framework as

shown in Figure 2.1. Re-export of virtual water from a province is assumed to be zero.

Re-export of virtual water

Water use within a province for export

products

Provincial virtual water export

Provincial virtual water import

Provincial water footprint

Internal water footprint

External water footprint

Water use within the province

Virtual water budget of the province

=

=

=

===

+

+

+

+++

Figure 2.1. The accounting framework to calculate the water footprint, virtual water import and virtual water export of a province (based on Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2008).

3. Study area and data

3.1 Schematization of Indonesia

In the period considered in this study (2000-2004), Indonesia consisted of 30 provinces. These have been used as

the basis of the analysis.

3.2 Crop selection

According to the FAOSTAT database (FAO, 2008a) more than 56 crops were cultivated in Indonesia in the

period 2000-2004. For this study the most important crops have been selected, based on estimated and reported

water use, production value and land use. For each crop the production quantity, production value and harvested

area are derived from FAOSTAT. The averages over the period 2000-2004 have been used for the calculation.

The water use of a crop has been estimated by multiplying the production quantity with the water footprint of the

crop as estimated in an earlier study (Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2004). The criterion for selection is that a crop

should contribute more than 1% of the total water use. If an excluded crop has a production value above 5% of

the total crop production value or the land use exceeds 2% of the total crop land area, it will also be selected.

This selection resulted in the following list of crops: rice, maize, cassava, soybeans, groundnuts, coconuts, oil

palm, bananas, coffee and cocoa. The selected crops represent 86% of the total water use, 71% of the production

value and 86% of the total agricultural land.

3.3 Data

3.3.1 Population

The population by province is taken from BPS (2008a). The data apply to the year 2000 and are shown in

Appendix I.

3.3.2 Climatic parameters

The data for the calculation of the reference evapotranspiration and effective rainfall are taken from CLIMWAT

(FAO, 2008b). In this database information is available from 33 weather stations across Indonesia. The data

include humidity, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature, wind speed, daily sunshine, rainfall and

location (altitude, latitude and longitude) of the weather station. The average data are given for each month in the

year. The weather stations per province are listed in Appendix II.

CLIMWAT does not provide enough weather stations; in some provinces there are no weather stations or there

are only data from one weather station available. To get a reliable value of the reference evapotranspiration and


effective rainfall in all provinces, supplementary data have been used. These data are available from Badan

Meteorologi dan Geofisika (BMG), the national weather institute of Indonesia. Appendix II also lists the

supplementary weather stations. The reference evapotranspiration and effective rainfall in a province have been

estimated by taking averages of the weather stations from BMG and FAO in a province.

For the weather stations Belwan, Yogyakarta, Kendari, Mengalla, Tahuna and Telukbentung, no data about the

sunshine hours are available. The sunshine hours of nearby located weather stations have been used as

replacement. Furthermore, no weather stations are located in the province of Jambi. For Jambi the reference

evapotranspiration is calculated as an average from the reference evapotranspiration in Riau and Sumatra

Selatan, since those are the two nearest provinces.

3.3.3 Crop parameters

The crop parameter (Kc) is different per crop and changes over the crop development stages. The crop

parameters have been taken from Allen et al. (1998) and Chapagain and Hoekstra (2004). The assumption has

been made that a year has two seasons in Indonesia: a wet and a dry season. The wet season is from November

till April and the dry season from May till October. In Appendix III the crop parameters and growing periods are

listed.

3.3.4 Irrigated area fraction

Data about the irrigated area fraction of a crop in a province were not available, so assumptions had to be made.

For every province data about land utilization, including the amount of wetland and dryland, are available (BPS,

2008b). Wetland is agricultural land that is irrigated, dryland is not irrigated and planted with seasonal crops.

Estate crops like oil palm, coconut, banana, coffee and cocoa, do not belong to these categories. Irrigation of

these crops is not common (FAO, 1999) and information about irrigation of these crops is not available.

To allocate the fraction of irrigated land over the seasonal crops in a province, the following method is applied.

First of all, the irrigated area of rice is subtracted from the total wetland area. Information about the harvested

area of wetland rice is taken from the Ministry of Agriculture (2008). Because it is possible to harvest rice at

least two times a year, this area is divided by two. The surplus of land is distributed over the other crops based

on the relative area of these remaining crops, including the crops that are not taken into account for this study.

For rice the irrigated area fraction is determined by dividing the area of wetland rice by the total area of rice, the

sum of the area of wetland and dryland rice. The irrigated area fraction per crop and province is given in

Appendix IV.

For the provinces Maluku, Maluku Utara and Papua data about dryland and wetland area are not available. For

rice, data on irrigated area fractions are available, but for the other crops the assumption is made that the

irrigated area fraction is zero for these provinces.

The water footprint of Indonesian provinces related to the consumption of crop products / 13

3.3.5 Dilution water requirement

Data about fertilizer use have been taken from FAO (2008c; 2005). The data on fertilizer use per hectare are not

specified by province; therefore it is assumed that fertilizer use is the same in every province. Because of

differences in yields, the grey water footprint of a crop will vary between provinces. The fertilizer use per crop is

shown in Appendix V. The leaching factor is assumed to be 10%, following Chapagain et al. (2006). The

recommended maximum level of nitrogen has been taken as 10 mg/l, as recommended by EPA (2005) for

nitrogen in drinking water and as applied also in Chapagain et al. (2006).

3.3.6 Production quantity and harvested area

The production quantity and harvested area are taken from the Ministry of Agriculture (2008). Data are taken

from 2000 to 2004. The figures are compared with the figures from FAOSTAT (FAO, 2008a) and BPS (2008c).

Because for some crops the data from the Ministry of Agriculture strongly differ with FAOSTAT en BPS, the

numbers are corrected. This is the case for the production quantity of coconut and oil palm and the harvested

area of oil palm, banana and cocoa. The production quantity of these crops in the database from the Ministry of

Agriculture represents processed crops and not the primary crops. The high harvested areas of the perennial

crops were caused by the fact that these crops can be harvested several times a year. Production quantities per

crop and province are shown in Appendix VI; harvested areas are shown in Appendix VII.

3.3.7 Product and value fraction of processed crops

The product tree of a crop is taken from FAO (2008d). Product fractions are also derived from this source. The

data about the product fractions are based on the years 1992 to 1996. For this study it is assumed that these data

are still reliable and accurate. Value fractions are taken from Chapagain and Hoekstra (2004). Appendix VIII

shows the product and value fractions of the crops.

3.3.8 Consumption

Consumption data have been taken from the national food balance sheet available in the FAOSTAT database

(FAO, 2008a). This balance consists of domestic supply and domestic utilization. Domestic supply consists of

production quantity, import quantity, stock change and export quantity. Domestic utilization is the sum of feed

quantity, seed quantity, food manufacture, waste quantity, other uses quantity and food quantity. For these

quantities we have taken the average for the years 2000 till 2003. The food balance is taken for the following

products: rice (milled equivalent), maize, cassava, soybeans, groundnut (shelled equivalent), coconuts (incl.

copra), palm kernels, soybean oil, groundnut oil, palm kernel oil, palm oil, coconut oil, bananas, coffee and

cocoa beans. Appendix IX shows the Indonesian food balance per crop.


The consumption rate is based on the daily consumption per capita of protein by province. The data are derived

from BPS (2008d) for the year 2005. The data about protein consumption by province are given in Appendix X.

The diet is assumed to be equal in all provinces and is derived from the national food balance.

3.3.9 Virtual water import

The international virtual water flow coming into Indonesia is taken from Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2009). The

virtual water import is an average for the years 2000 to 2003. The virtual water import of the products oil palm

and coconut oil consists of the crude products and refined products. The virtual water import is shown in

Appendix XI.

4. Water footprint of crops per province

The water use for production divided by the production determines the water footprint of a crop. The water

footprints of the most important crops averaged for Indonesia are listed in Table 4.1. Cassava has the lowest

water footprint of the crops considered, namely about 500 m3/ton, and coffee the highest, about 22900 m3/ton. In

total terms, rice is the largest water user compared with the water use for other crops. This is caused by the high

production quantity and the high water footprint per kilogram of rice produced. Rice is the most important crop

in the diet of Indonesian people. The water footprint of the crops per province are shown in Appendix XII. The

regional differences in the water footprint of crops are in some cases relatively large. These differences are

caused by differences in climate and agricultural practice. Climate determines the evapotranspiration and thus

influences the water footprint of crops. The average evapotranspiration varies within Indonesia between the 3.5

and 5.8 mm/day. Agricultural practice determines yields; a high crop yield results in relatively low water

footprint of the crop.

Table 4.1. The average green, blue and grey water footprint for primary crops in Indonesia (2000-2004).

Water footprint [m3/ton]

Green Blue Grey Total

Rice 2527 735 212 3473

Maize 2395 75 13 2483

Cassava 487 8 19 514

Soybeans 1644 314 0 1958

Groundnut 2962 162 0 3124

Coconut 2881 0 16 2896

Oil palm 802 0 51 853

Banana 875 0 0 875

Coffee 21904 0 1003 22907

Cocoa 8895 0 519 9414

The green component has the largest contribution to the water footprint of crops. For rice, the green component

contributes 73% to the total water footprint. The blue component is 21% for rice, 16% for soybean and 5% for

groundnut; for the other crops the contribution of the blue component to the water footprint is marginal. Most

crops are thus mainly grown with rainwater. Because blue water originates from groundwater or surface water,

this component has a larger effect on the environment than the green water use. The crops rice, oil palm and

cocoa have the largest grey component, because of the relatively large amount of fertilizer application. This

component accounts for 6% of the water footprint for these crops. For some crops irrigation or fertilizer use is

not common yet. Due to the increasing crop demand and spread of technology, this may become more common

in the future, in which case the pressure on the blue water resources will increase.

Rice is an important and strategic crop in Indonesia. The water footprint of rice is about 3500 m3/ton, but there

are large differences between provinces as illustrated in Figure 4.2. 56% of the total rice production takes place

on Java. Beside Java, large producing areas are Sulawesi Selatan and Sumatra Utara. In these provinces the

water footprint of rice is about 3800 and 3900 m3/ton respectively. This is higher than the average water


footprint of rice on Java, which is 2800 m3/ton. The reason for the low water footprint of rice on Java is the

combination of relatively high yields (5.3 ton/ha) and moderate evapotranspiration (4.6 mm/day). The other two

regions do not have this combination of high yield and moderate evapotranspiration.

Figure 4.1. Water footprint related to rice production per province for the period 2000-2004.

5. Virtual water flows related to trade in crop products

5.1 Virtual water flows between provinces

The virtual water flows between provinces are shown in Appendix XIII. The province that has the largest virtual

water outflow to other provinces is Sulawesi Selatan. This is mainly caused by the export of rice to other areas

within Indonesia, most importantly Jakarta and the rest of Java. Other large exporting provinces are Kalimantan

Selatan, Sumatera Barat and Nanggroe Aceh D. These provinces account for 82% of the total virtual water flow

within Indonesia. These provinces have a large production and consequently a large surplus of one or more

crops, so there is a large outflow of products to other provinces with deficits. The provinces that import most

water in virtual form from other provinces are Jakarta, Java Barat, Riau and Banten. These provinces account

for 55% of the total interprovincial virtual water import. Because of the high consumption quantity and/or the

low production of crops, these provinces have a high virtual water import. The province Riau is a large exporting

and a large importing province. This is caused by the fact that the surplus of certain crops is high and the deficit

of other crops is relatively large. Riau imports a lot of rice and cassava and it has a large surplus of coconut and

palm oil.

Figure 5.1 shows that the largest virtual water flows between provinces all go to Java. Java is an extremely

densely populated island on which natural resources are not sufficient to feed all inhabitants. To release the

pressure on the water resources on Java, water is imported in virtual form from provinces with a lower scarcity

of water. This is in contrast with the situation in India and China, where studies have shown that virtual water is

exported out of water-scarce regions, putting extra pressure on the water resources in these regions (Ma et al.,

2006; Kampman et al., 2008).

5.2 International virtual water flows

The island group that exports most virtual water to other countries is Sumatra (Table 5.1). The large flow of

virtual water out of Sumatra exists mainly of oil palm, coffee and coconut oil. Oil palm contributes more than

60% to the total virtual water export of Indonesia. Indonesia is the world’s largest producer of oil palm and the

largest part of the production is meant for the world market. Java is the only region in Indonesia with a net

virtual water inflow (Table 5.1). In total, Indonesia exports more virtual water to other countries than it imports,

resulting in a net outflow of virtual water from Indonesia.

5.3 Virtual water flows by product

Table 5.2 shows the interprovincial and international virtual water flows that can be associated with trade in

various crops. Crops causing relatively large interprovincial flows of water are cassava, groundnuts, bananas and

coffee. Bananas are the crop with by far the largest interprovincial water flow relative to the water use for

production. Soybean is the product with the highest international import of virtual water. The crops with a

relatively large amount of virtual water that will leave the country are oil palm, coffee, coconuts and cocoa.


Figure 5.1. Virtual water import per province with the largest net virtual water flows between island groups. Only the largest flows (>1000*106 m3/yr) are shown.

Table 5.1. International virtual water flow per island group as an average over the years 2000-2004.

International virtual water flows [106 m3/yr]

Water use for production1

[109 m3/yr] Gross virtualwater export

Gross virtual water import

Net virtualwater export

Sumatra 116 28977 1320 27657

Java 124 1085 3089 -2003

Nusa Tenggara 18 1110 345 765

Kalimantan 32 5770 401 5369

Sulawesi 39 5492 379 5113

Maluku 4 970 153 816

Papua 2 249 156 93

Total 335 43653 5843 378091Water use refers here to the total crop production, including crops not used for food, but for feed, seed or other purposes (see food balance sheet).


Table 5.2. Water use for production, interprovincial virtual water flow and international virtual water flow per crop for Indonesia for the period 2000-2004. The primary and processed crops are combined.

International virtual water flow [109 m3/yr]

Water use for production1 [109 m3/yr]

Interprovincialvirtual water flow

[109 m3/yr] Import Export

Rice (milled equivalent) 182.0 13.8 1.8 0.0

Maize 25.3 3.2 0.2 0.1

Cassava 9.1 1.6 0.2 0.3

Soybeans 1.5 0.0 2.6 0.0

Groundnuts 2.4 0.5 0.4 0.0

Coconuts 47.3 3.7 0.0 8.6

Oil palm 44.1 4.3 0.0 24.0

Bananas 3.8 2.5 0.0 0.0

Coffee 14.5 2.5 0.1 7.0

Cocoa 5.3 0.2 0.5 3.5

Total 335.3 32.4 5.8 43.71Water use refers here to the total crop production, including crops not used for food, but for feed, seed or other purposes (see food balance sheet).

6. Water footprint of Indonesian provinces

The average water footprint related to the consumption of crop products in Indonesia is 1131 m3/cap/yr. People

in Kalimantan Tengah have the largest water footprint, 1895 m3/cap/yr, and a person in Java Timur has the

smallest water footprint, 859 m3/cap/yr. A person in Jakarta relies the most on external water resources. Jakarta

is a large urban area with only a small area suitable for agricultural purposes. This creates the dependency on

water resources of other provinces and countries. Lampung has the highest use of internal water resources

(98%). Lampung can fulfil its own needs for almost every crop, only for groundnuts and soybeans it has a small

deficit. The provinces have an average internal water use of 84%, for the other 16% they rely on other provinces

or countries. Table 6.1 shows the water footprint related to the consumption of crop products per Indonesian

province.

Figure 6.1 visualizes the variation of the water footprint per capita over Indonesia. The water footprints of

provinces on Java are relatively low and provinces on Kalimantan have a relatively high water footprint. The

factors that determine the water footprint in general are: volume of consumption, consumption patterns, climate

and agricultural practice (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2007). Because in this study the consumption patterns have

been assumed to be the same for each province, the differences in water footprints are caused by climate,

agricultural practice and consumption quantity. Agricultural practice influences the yield and thus the water

footprint of crop products. On Java the yields are high, the average consumption rate is just below average and

the evapotranspiration rate is lower compared to other regions, which causes the low water footprint of the

population on Java.

Figure 6.1. Water footprints of Indonesian provinces per capita related to crop products for the period 2000-2004.


Table 6.1. Water footprint related to the consumption of the selected crop products per capita for Indonesian provinces for the period 2000-2004.

Provincial water footprint [m3/cap/yr]

External

Internal

Other province Other countryTotal

Nanggroe Aceh D. 1171 69 4 1243

Sumatera Utara 1245 56 22 1323

Sumatera Barat 1131 71 24 1226

Riau 663 498 79 1240

Jambi 1288 158 38 1483

Sumatera Selatan 1143 98 30 1272

Bengkulu 1573 67 17 1657

Lampung 1113 5 19 1136

Bangka Belitung 360 732 115 1207

D.K.I. Jakarta 5 849 121 974

Java Barat 708 164 30 902

Java Tengah 1152 61 15 1228

D.I. Yogyakarta 875 101 11 986

Java Timur 815 42 2 859

Banten 789 287 55 1130

Bali 923 158 29 1110

Nusa Tenggara Barat 1332 96 6 1433

Nusa Tenggara Timur 865 354 58 1277

Kalimantan Barat 1639 74 26 1740

Kalimantan Tengah 1641 211 44 1895

Kalimantan Selatan 1337 97 26 1461

Kalimantan Timur 1096 334 56 1485

Sulawesi Utara 1021 267 47 1335

Sulawesi Tengah 1332 66 22 1420

Sulawesi Selatan 1249 35 14 1297

Sulawesi Tenggara 1089 276 50 1415

Gorontalo 905 242 36 1182

Maluku 360 544 80 984

Maluku Utara 569 442 72 1082

Papua Barat 475 503 70 1048

Indonesia 946 157 28 1131

The contribution of each separate crop to the average Indonesian water footprint is visualized in Figure 6.2. In

the figure the primary and processed products of the root crop are combined. The figure shows that rice

contributes 69% to the crop-related water footprint. This is caused by the relatively high water footprint per

kilogram for rice, but mostly by the high consumption rate of rice in Indonesia. After rice, coconut and coconut

oil have the largest contribution to the crop-related water footprint of an average Indonesian consumer.


The contribution of the green, blue and grey component to the water footprint related to the consumption of crop

products is show in Figure 6.3. The green component has by far the largest contribution. The grey component is

relatively small, but if the fertilizer use will increase in the future the contribution of this component will also

increase.

Figure 6.2. The contribution of crops to the total water footprint of Indonesia related to the consumption of crop products for the period 2000-2004.

Figure 6.3. The contribution of the green, blue and grey component to the total water footprint of Indonesia related to the consumption of crop products for the period 2000-2004.

Figure 6.4 shows the virtual water trade balance and the water footprint for the island of Java and for Indonesia

as a whole. The total virtual water import of Java is 15.6 billion m3/yr, of which 12.5 billion m3/yr comes from

other islands (Appendix XIII) and 3.1 billion m3/yr from other countries (Table 5.1). The total virtual water

export from Java is 1.6 billion m3/yr, of which 0.5 billion m3/yr goes to other islands (Appendix XIII) and 1.1

billion m3/yr to other countries (Table 5.1). The total water footprint of the Javanese population, insofar related

to consumption of crop products, is 114 billion m3/yr, 13% of which is external. Java thus depends on external

water resources, most of which comes from other islands. As for Indonesia as a whole, the dependency on

external water resources is minimal. On contrary, the country exports a significant amount of water in virtual

form.


Figure 6.4. The virtual water trade balance and water footprint for Indonesia and the island of Java. The numbers refer to water volumes in 109 m3/yr. The water use refers to the production for food only, not to the production for feed, seed and other uses.

7. Conclusions

The average water footprint related to the consumption of crop products in Indonesia is 1131 m3/cap/yr, but there

are large regional differences. The water footprint in Java Timur is the lowest, namely 859 m3/cap/yr, and the

highest water footprint can be found in Kalimantan Tengah, 1895 m3/cap/yr. The factors that determine the water

footprint are: volume of consumption, consumption patterns, climate and agricultural practice (Hoekstra and

Chapagain, 2008). Because the consumption pattern is assumed the same in each province, the differences in

water footprint are caused by climate, agricultural practice and consumption volume. The biggest contribution to

the water footprint per capita is from rice. This is caused by the high consumption rate and the relatively high

water footprint of rice.

The water footprint of crops varies within the country, there are large differences between provinces. For

instance, of all large rice producing provinces, the provinces on Java and Bali have the lowest water footprint.

The water footprint of one kilogram of rice produced on Java or Bali is almost half the amount of the water

footprint of rice produced on Kalimantan, the Maluku islands or Papua.

The green water component has the largest contribution to the water footprint of crops in Indonesia. For most

crops the blue water use is less than 10% of the total water footprint, only for rice and soybeans the blue water

contribution is higher. The blue water use has a larger effect on the environment than the green water use,

because this component is originating from groundwater or surface water. However, to ensure high yields and

food security, irrigation water is required. The grey component is relatively low, it contributes to at most 6% of

the water footprint of crops. If the use of fertilizers will increase in the future, this component will become a

more important factor in the total water footprint of crop products in Indonesia.

The interprovincial virtual water flows are primarily caused by the trade in rice. The crops cassava, coconut,

bananas and coffee have the largest interprovincial flow relative to the water use for production. Sulawesi

Selatan has the largest contribution to the virtual water export to other provinces. The flow out of this province

exists primarily of water virtually embedded in rice. Large importing provinces are Jakarta, Java Barat, Riau and

Banten. The largest flow of net virtual water is from Sumatra to Java. Java, the most water-scarce island, has a

net virtual water import and the most significant external water footprint, which does release the water scarcity

on this island. Sumatra exports most virtual water to other countries. The large flow of virtual water out of

Sumatra is mainly related to the products palm oil, coffee and coconut oil.

Provinces depend highly on internal water resources. On average 84% of the water footprint consists of internal

water, the flow of virtual water between provinces is low. Because of the large variance between the water

footprints of products in provinces, it is more efficient to produce crops in provinces where the water footprint of

those particular products is low. When the pressure on the resources will increase and water will become scarcer,

trade in virtual water can save water, reduce the pressure on the water resources and assure a high degree of food

self-sufficiency within Indonesia. But to achieve this the agricultural sector needs to be reformed on the basis of

water-efficient production and wise trade. There are two alternative routes. On the one hand, the overall


Indonesian water footprint may be reduced by promoting wise trade between provinces – i.e. trade from places

with high to places with low water efficiency. On the other hand, the water footprint can be reduced by

improving water efficiency in those places that currently have relatively low efficiency, which equalises

production efficiencies and thus reduces the need for imports and enhances the opportunities for exports. In any

case, trade will remain necessary to supply food to the most densely populated areas where water scarcity is

highest (Java).

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to LabMath-Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia, for supporting this work and to Badan

Meteorologi dan Geofisika, Jakarta, Indonesia, for making data available for this study.

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Appendix I. Population per province in 2000

Province Population [103]

Nanggroe Aceh D. 3931

Sumatera Utara 11650

Sumatera Barat 4249

Riau 4958

Jambi 2414

Sumatera Selatan 6900

Bengkulu 1567

Lampung 6741

Bangka Belitung 900

D.K.I. Jakarta 8389

Java Barat 35730

Java Tengah 31229

D.I. Yogyakarta 3122

Java Timur 34784

Banten 8099

Bali 3151

Nusa Tenggara Barat 4009

Nusa Tenggara Timur 3952

Kalimantan Barat 4034

Kalimantan Tengah 1857

Kalimantan Selatan 2985

Kalimantan Timur 2455

Sulawesi Utara 2012

Sulawesi Tengah 2218

Sulawesi Selatan 8060

Sulawesi Tenggara 1821

Gorontalo 835

Maluku 1206

Maluku Utara 785

Papua 2221

Indonesia 206265

Source: BPS (2008a)


Appendix II. Weather stations per province

Province Weather stations

Nanggroe Aceh D. Sabang, Banda Aceh

Sumatera Utara Medan, Belawan

Sumatera Barat Padang, Fort de Kock, Padang

Riau Pakanbaru, Tarempa

Jambi

Sumatera Selatan Palembang

Bengkulu Bengkulu

Lampung Menggala, Telukbetung

Bangka Belitung Pangkalpinang, Buluh Tumbang

D.K.I. Jakarta Jakarta

Java Barat Bandung, Bogor, Lembang, Rarahan, Tjipetir, Gunung-Rosa, Pangerango

Java Tengah Semarang, Magelang, Tegal, Cilacap

D.I. Yogyakarta Yogyakarta

Java Timur Surabaya, Djember, Karanganjar, Pasuruan, Sawahan, Kawah-Idjen, Rogodjampi, Tosari, Tamansari

Banten Curung-Budiarto, Serang

Bali Den-Pasar

Nusa Tenggara Barat Tambora, Bima

Nusa Tenggara Timur Kupang, Waingapu

Kalimantan Barat Pontianak, Sintang

Kalimantan Tengah Palangkaraya, Pangkalan Bun

Kalimantan Selatan Banjamarsin, Banjarbaru

Kalimantan Timur Balikpapan, Tarakan

Sulawesi Utara Manado, Tahuna

Sulawesi Tengah Luwuk

Sulawesi Selatan Ujung-Padang, Masamba, Majene

Sulawesi Tenggara Kendari, Bau-bau, Poso

Gorontalo Gorontalo

Maluku Ambon, Amahai

Maluku Utara Ternate

Papua Jayapura, Biak-Mokmer, Manokwari, Sorong, Kaimana

Source: The underlined weather stations are from BMG (2008), the others are taken from FAO (2008b)


Appendix III. Crop parameters

Crop Season Date Length of development stages6 [days]

Crop coefficient7

Planted Harvested I CD MS LS Total Kc ini Kc mid Kc end

Wet1 1-Nov 1-Apr 30 30 60 30 150 1.05 1.10 0.65Rice, paddy Dry1 10-Apr 10-Sep 30 30 60 30 150 1.05 1.12 0.67

Wet2 10-Oct 15-Feb 20 35 40 30 125 0.30 1.08 0.48Maize Dry2 10-Mar 15-Jul 20 35 40 30 125 0.30 1.10 0.50

Cassava Wet3 1-Nov 1-Jun 20 40 90 60 210 0.30 0.99 0.39

Soybeans Dry 1-Aug 25-Oct 15 15 40 15 85 0.40 1.08 0.43

Groundnuts Wet4 10-Mar 1-Aug 35 45 35 25 140 0.40 0.97 0.52

Coconuts 15-Feb 120 60 180 5 365 0.95 1.00 1.00

Oil palm fruit 15-Feb 120 60 180 5 365 0.80 0.81 0.81

Bananas 1-Feb 120 60 180 5 365 1.00 1.05 0.95

Coffee 1-Aug 120 60 180 5 365 0.80 0.82 0.82

Cocoa beans 1-Nov5 120 60 180 5 365 0.90 0.91 0.91 1Source: IRRI (2008) 2 Source: Swastika et al.( 2004) 3 Source: FAO (2008e) 4 Source: Taufiq et al. (2007) 5 Source: Wood and Lass (1989) 6 Source: Allen et al. (1998); Chapagain and Hoekstra (2004) 7 Source: Allen et al. (1998); Chapagain and Hoekstra (2004)


Appendix IV. Irrigated area fraction of crops per province

Province Land type [103 ha]1 Irrigated area fraction

Wetland Dryland Rice Maize Cassava Soybeans Groundnut

Nanggroe Aceh D. 367 799 0.99 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20

Sumatera Utara 575 813 0.90 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21

Sumatera Barat 238 525 0.98 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

Riau 120 709 0.86 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08

Jambi 161 733 0.84 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12

Sumatera Selatan 484 662 0.87 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27

Bengkulu 77 263 0.83 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

Lampung 313 786 0.84 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13

Bangka Belitung 4 161 0.37 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

D.K.I. Jakarta 2 3 1.00 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29

Java Barat 918 809 0.95 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

Java Tengah 968 764 0.96 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21

D.I. Yogyakarta 57 96 0.73 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

Java Timur 1096 1153 0.94 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21

Banten 195 260 0.91 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13

Bali 80 134 0.99 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Nusa Tenggara Barat 226 246 0.87 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.28

Nusa Tenggara Timur 116 738 0.66 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08

Kalimantan Barat 275 847 0.71 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16

Kalimantan Tengah 164 970 0.58 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

Kalimantan Selatan 434 383 0.89 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40

Kalimantan Timur 124 456 0.56 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16

Sulawesi Utara 58 359 0.94 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Sulawesi Tengah 118 703 0.97 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04

Sulawesi Selatan 569 625 0.99 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26

Sulawesi Tenggara 73 300 0.89 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

Gorontalo 27 175 0.97 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Maluku 0.81

Maluku Utara 0.86

Papua 0.81 1Source: BPS (2008b)


Appendix V. Fertilizer use per crop

Crop Fertilized area [%] Application of nitrate [kg N/ha]

Rice 90 105

Maize 80 5

Cassava 40 65

Soybeans 0 0

Groundnut 0 0

Coconut 15 45

Oil Palm 80 95

Banana 0 0

Coffee 70 70

Cocoa 70 95

Source: FAO (2008c) and FAO (2005)


Appendix VI. Production quantity of crops per province

Province Production quantity [103 ton/yr] 1

Rice Maize Cassava Soybean Groundnut

Nanggroe Aceh D. 1402 56 61 43 32

Sumatera Utara 3400 678 475 11 25

Sumatera Barat 1813 66 103 4 8

Riau 421 41 60 2 3

Jambi 568 27 56 4 2

Sumatera Selatan 1899 71 279 6 7

Bengkulu 390 49 86 2 6

Lampung 1999 1115 3865 11 12

Bangka Belitung 10 1 15 0 0

D.K.I. Jakarta 13 0 1 0 0

Java Barat 9650 427 1766 35 68

Java Tengah 8495 1727 3331 152 172

D.I. Yogyakarta 667 190 762 50 58

Java Timur 9061 3839 3963 326 196

Banten 1169 20 122 2 11

Bali 819 94 151 11 18

Nusa Tenggara Barat 1460 62 96 53 35

Nusa Tenggara Timur 480 579 865 3 14

Kalimantan Barat 981 52 201 2 2

Kalimantan Tengah 409 9 102 3 2

Kalimantan Selatan 1398 35 108 7 18

Kalimantan Timur 417 12 101 2 2

Sulawesi Utara 392 164 38 4 6

Sulawesi Tengah 657 52 55 2 5

Sulawesi Selatan 3888 634 539 26 49

Sulawesi Tenggara 308 78 193 2 8

Gorontalo 119 85 8 1 2

Maluku 28 8 230 2 4

Maluku Utara 15 1 27 0 0

Papua 73 7 50 6 5

Total 52403 10176 17713 771 775

Source: Provincial data from Ministry of Agriculture (2008), adjusted so the national totals are consistent to FAO

(2008a)


Province Production quantity [103 ton/yr]

Coconut Oil Palm Bananas Coffee Cocoa

Nanggroe Aceh D. 437 2245 36 45 11

Sumatera Utara 614 14665 68 44 49

Sumatera Barat 374 2671 43 21 7

Riau 2735 13108 34 2 2

Jambi 640 3831 13 5 0


Bengkulu 42 618 12 62 2

Lampung 723 968 165 125 11


D.K.I. Jakarta 0 6 2 0 0

Java Barat 515 76 1132 5 4

Java Tengah 1118 0 416 15 2

D.I. Yogyakarta 244 0 34 0 0

Java Timur 1326 0 631 45 15

Banten 296 0 130 2 1

Bali 390 0 79 21 5







Sulawesi Utara 1347 0 24 4 2

Sulawesi Tengah 978 665 36 6 74



Gorontalo 307 0 2 0 1

Maluku 364 0 3 1 4

Maluku Utara 900 0 33 1 12

Papua 73 420 878 4 15

Total 16327 51698 4348 635 564

Source: Provincial data from Ministry of Agriculture (2008), adjusted so the national totals are consistent to FAO

(2008a)


Appendix VII. Harvested area of crops per province

Province Harvested area [ha]

Rice Maize Cassava Soybean Groundnut

Nanggroe Aceh D. 337142 22198 4889 33196 8920

Sumatera Utara 813200 208990 38078 10687 22870

Sumatera Barat 406465 24934 8168 3031 7687

Riau 136260 18452 5273 2123 3866

Jambi 163643 10640 4493 2932 2094


Bengkulu 108992 25037 6841 2485 5918

Lampung 488323 355281 287148 10326 10242


D.K.I. Jakarta 2781 33 91 24

Java Barat 1878279 121562 93765 26500 68832

Java Tengah 1629020 537519 224082 105178 146077

D.I. Yogyakarta 134701 66469 58419 42493 62550

Java Timur 1708325 1132131 248656 258898 167965

Banten 346612 9509 11856 2874 11830

Bali 148218 32047 12310 8049 13790







Sulawesi Utara 90210 71333 4023 3327 5165

Sulawesi Tengah 175309 22010 4622 1942 5132



Gorontalo 35667 49047 1043 1210 3223

Maluku 10900 5364 16816 1321 1672

Maluku Utara 15813 2856 10261 518 2167

Papua 23406 4405 4407 5385 5055

Total 11730306 3335840 1256942 629088 674291

Source: Ministry of Agriculture (2008)


Province Harvested area [ha]

Coconut Oil Palm Bananas Coffee Cocoa

Nanggroe Aceh D. 116001 164633 3608 98401 11117

Sumatera Utara 139704 558592 10048 66360 30886

Sumatera Barat 88623 184988 3370 45380 6751

Riau 586347 885962 3535 10867 2375

Jambi 133231 246479 1688 27731 1008


Bengkulu 19829 83471 2068 118924 7384

Lampung 155844 96225 28663 173067 11694

Bangka Belitung 15077 79096 1629 86 152

D.K.I. Jakarta 106

Java Barat 188082 5335 67803 14575 5718

Java Tengah 283563 54800 40131 3395

D.I. Yogyakarta 40578 2750 1787 1517

Java Timur 282803 43816 93705 15233

Banten 101983 8340 13781 8792 2257

Bali 72659 8917 38382 3677







Sulawesi Utara 255699 3367 8526 4081

Sulawesi Tengah 179301 31891 1378 19244 60263



Gorontalo 59457 188 1127 2324

Maluku 93590 4762 5021 5501

Maluku Utara 172514 2790 5008 14823

Papua 35894 33752 2015 8565 13316

Total 3814242 3449848 314708 1298837 439801

Source: Ministry of Agriculture (2008)


Appendix VIII. Product and value fraction per crop

Root product Processed product Product fraction1 Value fraction2

Rice Rice (Milled Equivalent) 0.65 1.00

Maize - 1.00 1.00

Cassava - 1.00 1.00

Soybean Soybean Cake 0.80 0.66

Soybean Soybean Oil 0.18 0.34

Groundnut with shell Groundnut shelled 0.68 1.00

Groundnut shelled Groundnut Oil 0.52 0.78

Coconuts Copra 0.20 1.00

Copra Coconut Oil 0.54 0.63

Oil Palm Fruit Palm Oil 0.20 0.93

Oil Palm Fruit Palmkernels 0.05 0.07

Palmkernels Palmkernel Oil 0.45 0.42

Bananas - 1.00 1.00

Coffee - 1.00 1.00

Cocoa Beans - 1.00 1.00 1Source: FAO (2008d) 2Source: Chapagain and Hoekstra (2004)


Appendix IX. National food balance per crop

Crop Food balance items [103 ton/yr]

PR IM ST EX DO FE SE FM WA OT FO

Rice (milled equivalent) 34338 1375 108 7 35814 1376 307 0 2604 4 31524

Maize 9891 1237 0 42 11085 3250 96 0 625 30 7085

Cassava 17145 613 0 502 17257 343 0 0 2148 2459 12307

Soybeans 797 1243 0 2 2039 0 45 0 97 0 1897Groundnuts (shelled equivalent) 907 138 0 10 1034 0 19 62 90 0 863

Coconuts – incl. copra 12090 39 0 283 11846 0 5 4751 1209 0 5881

Palmkernels 1942 1 15 6 1951 0 0 1951 0 0 0

Soybean oil 0 15 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 15

Groundnut oil 28 0 0 0 28 0 0 0 0 0 28

Palmkernel oil 868 3 0 640 232 0 0 0 0 0 232

Palm oil 8450 31 -75 6037 2369 0 0 0 0 681 1689

Coconut oil 789 2 -48 485 258 0 0 0 0 21 237

Bananas 4186 6 0 21 4171 0 0 0 419 0 3752

Coffee 650 11 0 328 334 0 0 0 26 0 308

Cocoa beans 434 33 -6 401 61 0 0 0 0 0 61

PR = production quantity. IM = import quantity. ST= stock variation. EX= export quantity. DO= domestic supply (=PR+IM+ST-EX). FE= feed quantity. SE= seed quantity. FM= food manufacture. WA= waste quantity. OT= other uses quantity and FO= food quantity

Source: FAO (2008a)


Appendix X. Daily consumption of protein per capita per province

Province Protein intake [g/day]1 Relative protein intake [%]

Nanggroe Aceh D. 55.2 96

Sumatera Utara 58.3 102

Sumatera Barat 57.8 101

Riau 58.2 102

Jambi 58.6 102

Sumatera Selatan 54.5 95

Bengkulu 54.0 94

Lampung 56.1 98

Bangka Belitung 62.6 109

D.K.I. Jakarta 62.0 108

Java Barat 58.6 102

Java Tengah 52.0 91

D.I. Yogyakarta 51.1 89

Java Timur 54.0 94

Banten 59.2 103

Bali 65.3 114

Nusa Tenggara Barat 58.2 102

Nusa Tenggara Timur 57.4 100

Kalimantan Barat 54.5 95

Kalimantan Tengah 58.2 102

Kalimantan Selatan 60.2 105

Kalimantan Timur 59.8 104

Sulawesi Utara 62.2 109

Sulawesi Tengah 56.5 99

Sulawesi Selatan 58.9 103

Sulawesi Tenggara 61.4 107

Gorontalo 55.2 96

Maluku 53.5 93

Maluku Utara 55.8 97

Papua 48.9 85

Indonesia 57.3 100 1Source: BPS (2008d)


Appendix XI. International virtual water import per crop

Crop Virtual water import [103 m3/yr]

Rice 1840000

Maize 215000

Cassava 172000

Soybeans 2590000

Groundnut (shelled) 383000

Coconut (copra) 1430

Groundnut oil 90

Palmkernel oil 10900

Palm oil 5930

Coconut oil 9260

Bananas 152

Coffee 82000

Cocoa beans 538000

Source: Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2009)


Appendix XII. Water footprint of crops per province

Province Water footprint of crops [m3/ton]

Rice Maize Cassava

Green Blue Grey Total Green Blue Grey Total Green Blue Grey Total

Nanggroe Aceh D. 2361 1385 225 3972 2626 155 15 2797 484 26 21 531

Sumatera Utara 2771 903 229 3903 2371 96 13 2479 458 36 21 516

Sumatera Barat 2984 296 213 3493 2717 7 13 2738 574 0 21 595

Riau 3823 1501 305 5630 3579 83 18 3680 649 10 24 683

Jambi 3558 727 275 4560 3176 52 16 3244 632 1 23 656

Sumatera Selatan 3423 351 274 4049 3005 26 16 3048 574 0 22 596

Bengkulu 3635 889 264 4789 4473 59 21 4553 662 7 23 692

Lampung 1577 2035 232 3843 1663 164 13 1840 374 25 19 419

Bangka Belitung 5612 71 398 6081 3007 0 15 3022 603 0 23 626

D.K.I. Jakarta 2210 722 201 3133 3832 148 22 4001 578 3 22 603

Java Barat 2126 115 187 2428 1811 1 11 1823 370 0 17 387

Java Tengah 2621 1062 184 3866 3021 110 13 3144 635 1 18 653

D.I. Yogyakarta 2161 895 192 3248 2719 31 14 2764 619 0 20 640

Java Timur 1954 458 181 2593 2053 37 12 2102 416 0 17 433

Banten 1994 1332 205 3530 2618 112 15 2745 525 8 19 552

Bali 2096 411 175 2683 2924 10 15 2949 623 1 22 646

Nusa Tenggara Barat 2965 980 213 4159 4368 200 19 4587 748 1 23 773

Nusa Tenggara Timur 2559 1802 336 4697 2431 112 18 2560 613 9 25 647

Kalimantan Barat 5016 317 344 5677 3493 12 16 3521 558 0 20 578

Kalimantan Tengah 4867 1307 384 6558 5291 118 26 5434 714 5 23 741

Kalimantan Selatan 3578 200 292 4070 3673 0 21 3694 480 0 20 501

Kalimantan Timur 4445 0 308 4753 4112 0 21 4132 516 0 20 536

Sulawesi Utara 3060 436 219 3714 3827 7 18 3852 712 0 25 738

Sulawesi Tengah 2512 1969 250 4732 3038 45 17 3100 549 8 23 581

Sulawesi Selatan 2525 1026 205 3756 2841 95 13 2950 579 9 20 608

Sulawesi Tenggara 2582 1639 254 4475 3368 101 19 3488 510 9 20 540

Gorontalo 1952 1920 214 4086 2418 47 14 2479 541 12 24 577

Maluku 3821 855 344 5020 4146 0 24 4170 502 0 22 524

Maluku Utara 2802 1546 267 4615 4233 0 26 4259 568 0 22 590

Papua 4312 16 315 4643 4942 0 26 4968 609 0 24 633



Soybeans Groundnuts Coconut


Nanggroe Aceh D. 2139 155 0 2294 1134 114 0 1248 3098 0 18 3117

Sumatera Utara 3238 15 0 3253 4236 115 0 4350 3117 0 16 3133

Sumatera Barat 2780 0 0 2780 3828 7 0 3835 3556 0 16 3572

Riau 3150 63 0 3213 4900 166 0 5066 2963 0 15 2978

Jambi 2495 74 0 2569 3824 91 0 3915 2834 0 14 2848


Bengkulu 3360 105 0 3465 4646 74 0 4720 7091 0 32 7123

Lampung 1319 435 0 1753 2243 277 0 2520 1571 0 15 1586

Bangka Belitung 2914 0 0 2914 4166 0 0 4166 5841 0 27 5868

D.K.I. Jakarta 878 69 0 946

Java Barat 2117 22 0 2139 2059 4 0 2062 3853 0 22 3874

Java Tengah 1558 418 0 1977 3561 328 0 3889 3733 0 17 3750

D.I. Yogyakarta 1515 110 0 1625 3167 108 0 3274 2144 0 12 2156

Java Timur 1381 262 0 1642 2587 128 0 2715 2090 0 13 2103

Banten 1111 279 0 1390 2685 190 0 2875 3430 0 23 3453

Bali 1168 52 0 1221 2813 5 0 2819 2244 0 12 2256

Nusa Tenggara Barat 2237 956 0 3193 3614 318 0 3932 3672 0 18 3690

Nusa Tenggara Timur 188 302 0 490 1398 154 0 1552 3962 0 37 3998





Sulawesi Utara 2352 40 0 2392 4082 15 0 4096 2752 0 13 2765

Sulawesi Tengah 1603 100 0 1703 3847 19 0 3866 1913 0 13 1926



Gorontalo 1288 144 0 1433 3171 78 0 3249 1874 0 13 1888

Maluku 2297 0 0 2297 1527 0 0 1527 2985 0 17 3002

Maluku Utara 2429 0 0 2429 2231 0 0 2231 2179 0 13 2192

Papua 2582 0 0 2582 4147 0 0 4147 7105 0 35 7140



Oil palm Banana Coffee


Nanggroe Aceh D. 776 0 57 832 874 0 0 874 24094 0 1139 25233

Sumatera Utara 485 0 30 516 1463 0 0 1463 18350 0 740 19089

Sumatera Barat 841 0 50 891 1091 0 0 1091 28059 0 1067 29127

Riau 861 0 52 913 1185 0 0 1185 62231 0 2396 64628

Jambi 790 0 49 839 1448 0 0 1448 63743 0 2536 66279


Bengkulu 1613 0 92 1705 1830 0 0 1830 26036 0 953 26989

Lampung 689 0 74 763 786 0 0 786 9825 0 677 10502

Bangka Belitung 890 0 56 945 3058 0 0 3058 38435 0 1534 39969

D.K.I. Jakarta

Java Barat 766 0 57 823 614 0 0 614 27016 0 1292 28308

Java Tengah 1514 0 0 1514 36262 0 1332 37594

D.I. Yogyakarta 796 0 0 796 50340 0 2295 52635

Java Timur 628 0 0 628 20611 0 1041 21652

Banten 625 0 51 676 667 0 0 667 36679 0 1906 38585

Bali 1075 0 0 1075 21597 0 965 22563

Nusa Tenggara Barat 498 0 0 498 34639 0 1344 35983

Nusa Tenggara Timur 588 0 0 588 28440 0 2077 30518





Sulawesi Utara 1472 0 0 1472 28154 0 1087 29241

Sulawesi Tengah 818 0 64 882 346 0 0 346 9778 0 490 10268



Gorontalo 590 0 0 590 20255 0 1044 21299

Maluku 14782 0 0 14782 83426 0 3770 87196

Maluku Utara 742 0 0 742 80446 0 3556 84001

Papua 1006 0 67 1073 3242 0 0 3242 29554 0 1251 30805



Cocoa

Green Blue Grey Total

Nanggroe Aceh D. 10361 0 635 10996

Sumatera Utara 8242 0 426 8667

Sumatera Barat 13549 0 630 14179

Riau 13760 0 690 14450

Jambi 31248 0 1575 32823

Sumatera Selatan 19102 0 1045 20148

Bengkulu 37351 0 1735 39086

Lampung 6865 0 642 7507

Bangka Belitung 43712 0 2140 45852

D.K.I. Jakarta

Java Barat 14816 0 877 15693

Java Tengah 23332 0 1103 24435

D.I. Yogyakarta 53938 0 3180 57117

Java Timur 11792 0 753 12545

Banten 19979 0 1360 21339

Bali 8015 0 456 8471



Kalimantan Barat 38608 0 1761 40370

Kalimantan Tengah 102634 0 5128 107762

Kalimantan Selatan 46711 0 2704 49414

Kalimantan Timur 11895 0 583 12478

Sulawesi Utara 21588 0 1051 22638

Sulawesi Tengah 6756 0 453 7209

Sulawesi Selatan 7418 0 399 7817

Sulawesi Tenggara 7975 0 508 8483

Gorontalo 13956 0 974 14930

Maluku 13255 0 765 14020

Maluku Utara 14244 0 824 15068

Papua 12227 0 633 12860


Appendix XIII. Gross virtual water flows between provinces

Exporting province of virtual water [106 m3/yr]

Nan

ggro

e A

ceh

D.

Sum

ater

a U

tara

Sum

ater

a B

arat

Ria

u

Jam

bi

Sum

ater

a S

elat

an

Beng

kulu

Lam

pung

Bang

ka B

elitu

ng

D.K

.I. J

akar

ta

Java

Bar

at

Java

Ten

gah

D.I.

Yog

yaka

rta

Java

Tim

ur

Bant

en

Nanggroe Aceh D. 20 0 0 1 2 0 123 1 0 0 1 0 2 0Sumatera Utara 5 0 0 3 9 0 117 3 0 1 11 8 7 0Sumatera Barat 2 22 0 0 1 0 127 0 0 0 4 3 5 0Riau 458 361 657 1 242 26 493 0 0 0 8 6 8 0Jambi 39 43 55 0 17 0 107 0 0 0 4 2 4 0Sumatera Selatan 20 47 13 148 30 0 192 0 0 0 9 6 10 0Bengkulu 3 3 2 26 5 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Lampung 3 0 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 6 5 5 0Bangka Belitung 125 97 180 7 2 66 7 122 0 0 2 1 2 0D.K.I. Jakarta 214 189 267 305 71 183 55 154 5 184 2164 93 978 2Java Barat 215 292 158 894 215 428 195 190 17 0 512 178 960 3Java Tengah 102 202 80 329 90 263 114 85 13 0 69 6 0 0D.I. Yogyakarta 15 23 14 27 8 34 15 13 1 0 12 48 15 0Java Timur 62 206 68 365 95 129 42 30 15 0 28 0 3 0Banten 72 74 80 86 23 102 39 56 3 0 33 685 57 463Bali 12 27 17 35 9 14 3 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 0Nusa Tenggara Barat 6 25 7 40 11 12 3 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0Nusa Tenggara Timur 38 48 55 39 10 26 3 23 2 0 0 0 0 0 0Kalimantan Barat 2 1 1 0 0 7 4 19 0 0 0 16 6 32 0Kalimantan Tengah 2 1 1 0 0 6 3 9 0 0 0 9 3 20 0Kalimantan Selatan 5 2 2 0 1 16 8 30 0 0 0 10 2 26 0Kalimantan Timur 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 13 4 28 0Sulawesi Utara 1 5 1 8 2 2 1 23 0 0 0 2 1 1 0Sulawesi Tengah 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 0 8 12 3 1 2Sulawesi Selatan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 24 34 8 1 7Sulawesi Tenggara 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 13 3 0 3Gorontalo 0 2 1 3 1 1 0 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 0Maluku 42 30 59 1 0 25 4 28 0 0 0 4 1 10 0Maluku Utara 21 15 31 0 0 12 2 14 0 0 1 5 1 8 0

Impo

rting

pro

vinc

e of

virt

ual w

ater

[106 m

3 /yr]

Papua 66 57 96 24 6 34 2 60 1 0 2 11 3 20 0 Total 1531 1793 1844 2336 587 1633 527 2093 65 0 372 3587 403 2606 19


Exporting province of virtual water [106 m3/yr]

Bali

Nus

a Te

ngga

ra B

arat

Nus

a Te

ngga

ra T

imur

Kal

iman

tan

Bar

at

Kalim

anta

n Te

ngah

Kalim

anta

n S

elat

an

Kal

iman

tan

Tim

ur

Sul

awes

i Uta

ra

Sula

wes

i Ten

gah

Sula

wes

i Sel

atan

Sula

wes

i Ten

ggar

a

Gor

onta

lo

Mal

uku

Mal

uku

Uta

ra

Papu

a

Tota

l

Nanggroe Aceh D. 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 114 271Sumatera Utara 1 13 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 1 467 655Sumatera Barat 0 5 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 5 0 1 0 0 125 304Riau 1 8 4 0 0 0 0 1 0 8 0 1 0 0 185 2469Jambi 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 0 0 0 100 381Sumatera Selatan 1 9 4 0 0 0 0 2 0 9 0 1 0 0 176 679Bengkulu 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 106Lampung 1 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 33Bangka Belitung 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 44 659D.K.I. Jakarta 26 11 27 49 44 244 21 119 135 1294 11 18 33 65 164 7124Java Barat 75 27 71 156 142 45 63 308 153 240 30 45 84 167 4 5866Java Tengah 19 3 18 82 75 24 28 31 16 65 4 4 8 16 165 1912D.I. Yogyakarta 2 0 2 7 7 8 2 0 2 37 0 0 0 0 21 316Java Timur 7 2 7 93 85 27 32 25 13 21 2 4 7 14 65 1447Banten 8 1 7 18 17 66 7 18 29 349 2 3 5 10 7 2321Bali 172 105 10 9 14 3 0 4 57 0 0 0 0 0 497Nusa Tenggara Barat 23 227 11 10 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 384Nusa Tenggara Timur 0 795 11 10 54 4 0 17 266 0 0 0 0 0 1400Kalimantan Barat 1 6 25 0 54 5 14 0 46 1 9 4 1 44 298Kalimantan Tengah 1 3 16 0 194 4 9 0 30 0 6 2 1 72 391Kalimantan Selatan 1 1 24 0 0 10 12 0 41 0 8 5 2 83 291Kalimantan Timur 0 4 22 0 15 591 12 0 38 0 8 4 2 60 819Sulawesi Utara 0 1 3 2 2 1 1 39 373 5 0 5 2 59 537Sulawesi Tengah 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 10 37 4 7 4 2 30 146Sulawesi Selatan 0 2 2 0 4 3 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 177 279Sulawesi Tenggara 0 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 26 407 0 0 0 38 503Gorontalo 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 13 124 2 2 1 38 202Maluku 1 0 8 0 0 61 0 5 20 339 0 3 14 0 656Maluku Utara 0 1 6 0 0 32 0 4 11 180 0 2 0 0 347

Impo

rting

pro

vinc

e of

virt

ual w

ater

[106 m

3 /yr]

Papua 1 2 17 6 5 99 2 12 34 541 1 7 5 3 1117 Total 170 1081 610 446 429 1524 184 585 511 4522 67 127 170 303 2286 32411

Value of Water Research Report Series

Editorial board: Arjen Y. Hoekstra – University of Twente, [email protected] Hubert H.G. Savenije – Delft University of Technology, [email protected] van der Zaag – UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, [email protected]

1. Exploring methods to assess the value of water: A case study on the Zambezi basin. A.K. Chapagain − February 2000 2. Water value flows: A case study on the Zambezi basin. A.Y. Hoekstra, H.H.G. Savenije and A.K. Chapagain − March 2000 3. The water value-flow concept. I.M. Seyam and A.Y. Hoekstra − December 2000 4. The value of irrigation water in Nyanyadzi smallholder irrigation scheme, Zimbabwe. G.T. Pazvakawambwa and P. van der Zaag – January 2001 5. The economic valuation of water: Principles and methods J.I. Agudelo – August 2001 6. The economic valuation of water for agriculture: A simple method applied to the eight Zambezi basin countries J.I. Agudelo and A.Y. Hoekstra – August 2001 7. The value of freshwater wetlands in the Zambezi basin I.M. Seyam, A.Y. Hoekstra, G.S. Ngabirano and H.H.G. Savenije – August 2001 8. ‘Demand management’ and ‘Water as an economic good’: Paradigms with pitfalls H.H.G. Savenije and P. van der Zaag – October 2001 9. Why water is not an ordinary economic good H.H.G. Savenije – October 2001 10. Calculation methods to assess the value of upstream water flows and storage as a function of downstream benefits I.M. Seyam, A.Y. Hoekstra and H.H.G. Savenije – October 2001 11. Virtual water trade: A quantification of virtual water flows between nations in relation to international crop trade A.Y. Hoekstra and P.Q. Hung – September 2002 12. Virtual water trade: Proceedings of the international expert meeting on virtual water trade

A.Y. Hoekstra (ed.) – February 2003 13. Virtual water flows between nations in relation to trade in livestock and livestock products A.K. Chapagain and A.Y. Hoekstra – July 2003 14. The water needed to have the Dutch drink coffee A.K. Chapagain and A.Y. Hoekstra – August 2003 15. The water needed to have the Dutch drink tea A.K. Chapagain and A.Y. Hoekstra – August 2003 16. Water footprints of nations, Volume 1: Main Report, Volume 2: Appendices A.K. Chapagain and A.Y. Hoekstra – November 2004 17. Saving water through global trade A.K. Chapagain, A.Y. Hoekstra and H.H.G. Savenije – September 2005 18. The water footprint of cotton consumption A.K. Chapagain, A.Y. Hoekstra, H.H.G. Savenije and R. Gautam – September 2005 19. Water as an economic good: the value of pricing and the failure of markets P. van der Zaag and H.H.G. Savenije – July 2006 20. The global dimension of water governance: Nine reasons for global arrangements in order to cope with local water problems A.Y. Hoekstra – July 2006 21. The water footprints of Morocco and the Netherlands A.Y. Hoekstra and A.K. Chapagain – July 2006 22. Water’s vulnerable value in Africa P. van der Zaag – July 2006 23. Human appropriation of natural capital: Comparing ecological footprint and water footprint analysis A.Y. Hoekstra – July 2007 24. A river basin as a common-pool resource: A case study for the Jaguaribe basin in Brazil P.R. van Oel, M.S. Krol and A.Y. Hoekstra – July 2007

mailto:[email protected]



25. Strategic importance of green water in international crop trade M.M. Aldaya, A.Y. Hoekstra and J.A. Allan – March 2008 26. Global water governance: Conceptual design of global institutional arrangements M.P. Verkerk, A.Y. Hoekstra and P.W. Gerbens-Leenes – March 2008 27. Business water footprint accounting: A tool to assess how production of goods and services impact on freshwater

resources worldwide P.W. Gerbens-Leenes and A.Y. Hoekstra – March 2008 28. Water neutral: reducing and offsetting the impacts of water footprints A.Y. Hoekstra – March 2008 29. Water footprint of bio-energy and other primary energy carriers P.W. Gerbens-Leenes, A.Y. Hoekstra and Th.H. van der Meer – March 2008 30. Food consumption patterns and their effect on water requirement in China J. Liu and H.H.G. Savenije – March 2008 31. Going against the flow: A critical analysis of virtual water trade in the context of India’s National River Linking

Programme S. Verma, D.A. Kampman, P. van der Zaag and A.Y. Hoekstra – March 2008 32. The water footprint of India D.A. Kampman, A.Y. Hoekstra and M.S. Krol – May 2008 33. The external water footprint of the Netherlands: Quantification and impact assessment P.R. van Oel, M.M. Mekonnen and A.Y. Hoekstra – May 2008 34. The water footprint of bio-energy: Global water use for bio-ethanol, bio-diesel, heat and electricity P.W. Gerbens-Leenes, A.Y. Hoekstra and Th.H. van der Meer – August 2008 35. Water footprint analysis for the Guadiana river basin M.M. Aldaya and M.R. Llamas – November 2008 36. The water needed to have Italians eat pasta and pizza M.M. Aldaya and A.Y. Hoekstra – May 2009 37. The water footprint of Indonesian provinces related to the consumption of crop products F. Bulsink, A.Y. Hoekstra and M.J. Booij – May 2009 Reports can be downloaded from: www.waterfootprint.orgwww.unesco-ihe.org/value-of-water-research-report-series

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THE WATER FOOTPRINT OF INDONESIAN PROVINCES

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