The U.S. in WWIIThe U.S. in WWII

Strategic BombingStrategic Bombing

Total War?Total War?

Total war:Total war: one in which the whole one in which the whole population and all the resources of population and all the resources of the combatants are committed to the combatants are committed to complete victory … and thus become complete victory … and thus become legitimate military targetslegitimate military targets

… … and rules of war are disregarded.and rules of war are disregarded. Blurs combatant/non-combatant linesBlurs combatant/non-combatant lines

Carl SpaatzCarl Spaatz

Henry H. Henry H. “Hap” “Hap” ArnoldArnold

Curtis Curtis LeMayLeMay

B-17B-17

B-29B-29

B-24B-24

USAAF DoctrineUSAAF Doctrine

Pre-war: Precision strikes on industrial Pre-war: Precision strikes on industrial and transportation targets to paralyze and transportation targets to paralyze enemy’s economy and logistical enemy’s economy and logistical capacity.capacity. Attacks to be made at high altitude.Attacks to be made at high altitude. Assumed bombers could fly unescorted Assumed bombers could fly unescorted

to targets.to targets. During the war: Also strikes on During the war: Also strikes on

military targets.military targets. Required daylight bombing missions.Required daylight bombing missions.

The BlitzThe Blitz

Britain isolated but Churchill won’t negotiateBritain isolated but Churchill won’t negotiate Hitler actually wants to offer generous terms to avoid two front war Hitler actually wants to offer generous terms to avoid two front war

(real goal is Russia)(real goal is Russia) Hitler believes destruction of Royal Air Force (RAF) will force Hitler believes destruction of Royal Air Force (RAF) will force

negotiationsnegotiations Initial assaults on Channel Ports then airfields Initial assaults on Channel Ports then airfields

Alternative views that Br. was on the edge of defeat v. Alternative views that Br. was on the edge of defeat v. Revisionists (Overy) who claim it wasn’t effectiveRevisionists (Overy) who claim it wasn’t effective

German losses riseGerman losses rise Bomber Command bombs Berlin August 25Bomber Command bombs Berlin August 25 Hitler permits shift to night attacks on citiesHitler permits shift to night attacks on cities Traditional view is this gives RAF respite to recoverTraditional view is this gives RAF respite to recover Also Range to cities is very long and fighters can’t cover Ger. Also Range to cities is very long and fighters can’t cover Ger.

BombersBombers

The Blitz OutcomeThe Blitz Outcome

German bomber and fighter losses become too highGerman bomber and fighter losses become too high Spitfire and Hurricane fighters of RAF are effectiveSpitfire and Hurricane fighters of RAF are effective German fighter range (Bf-109) is limited and bombers German fighter range (Bf-109) is limited and bombers

are not suited to strategic bombing (too small)are not suited to strategic bombing (too small) British use early warning radar (This is the key to British use early warning radar (This is the key to

victory)victory) Shift to terror attacks on cities gives RAF breathing Shift to terror attacks on cities gives RAF breathing

space to recoverspace to recover British lose 832 fighters (1/4 of pilots dead/wounded)British lose 832 fighters (1/4 of pilots dead/wounded) Germans 668 fighters, 600 bombersGermans 668 fighters, 600 bombers Hitler now faces 2-front war if he attacks USSRHitler now faces 2-front war if he attacks USSR

On Targeting Civilians: On Targeting Civilians: The British ExperienceThe British Experience

Sept. 3, 1939: Hitler issued War Directive No. 2Sept. 3, 1939: Hitler issued War Directive No. 2

• • No bombing of French, British citiesNo bombing of French, British cities

No mention of Poland, HollandNo mention of Poland, Holland

Battle of Britain, August 24, 1940 Battle of Britain, August 24, 1940 (Shift to civilian targets)(Shift to civilian targets)

• • German bombers accidentally attacked LondonGerman bombers accidentally attacked London

• • RAF bombed Berlin the next night (Churchill)RAF bombed Berlin the next night (Churchill)

• • Hitler turned Luftwaffe against London, other Hitler turned Luftwaffe against London, other cities (Fuehrer Directive 17) cities (Fuehrer Directive 17)

On Targeting CiviliansOn Targeting Civilians

The Nazis entered this war under the rather The Nazis entered this war under the rather childish delusion that they were going to bomb childish delusion that they were going to bomb everyone else, and nobody was going to bomb everyone else, and nobody was going to bomb them. At Rotterdam, London, Warsaw, and half a them. At Rotterdam, London, Warsaw, and half a dozen other places, they put their rather naive dozen other places, they put their rather naive theory into operation. theory into operation.

Air Marshall Sir Arthur "Bomber" Harris, RAFAir Marshall Sir Arthur "Bomber" Harris, RAF

The British ExperienceThe British Experience

Arthur Harris is Architect of Br. Strategic BombingArthur Harris is Architect of Br. Strategic Bombing Destroy factories and workers living nearby (Morale Destroy factories and workers living nearby (Morale

targets)targets) Bomber offense is best defenseBomber offense is best defense

Daylight raids produced large losses of places Daylight raids produced large losses of places and crews.and crews. Lack long range fighters to protect bombersLack long range fighters to protect bombers Early bombers lack range, payload, altitudeEarly bombers lack range, payload, altitude Lack navigational systems to find targetsLack navigational systems to find targets 1941 only 1/3 of bombs fall within 1941 only 1/3 of bombs fall within 5 miles 5 miles of the target of the target

Accuracy a problem.Accuracy a problem.

Shift to Morale TargetsShift to Morale Targets

RAF Bomber Command adopted policy of RAF Bomber Command adopted policy of bombing cities during night missions.bombing cities during night missions. Chief Air Marshall Portal: …new aim point…built up areasChief Air Marshall Portal: …new aim point…built up areas Actually believes workers will rebel v. Hitler because he Actually believes workers will rebel v. Hitler because he

can’t protect them (opposite result: intense hate of can’t protect them (opposite result: intense hate of British)British)

System is called “Area Bombing”System is called “Area Bombing” Use new Halifax and Lancaster BombersUse new Halifax and Lancaster Bombers

Enormus bomb loads (10 tons but little defense ability)Enormus bomb loads (10 tons but little defense ability)

Short Sterling (1939)Short Sterling (1939)

Avro Lancaster (1941)Avro Lancaster (1941)

US Eighth Air Force arrivesUS Eighth Air Force arrives

August 1942August 1942 Different PhilosophyDifferent Philosophy

Highly accurate Norden BombsightHighly accurate Norden Bombsight Heavily armed B-17 (tradeoff is bomb load only 2 tons of Heavily armed B-17 (tradeoff is bomb load only 2 tons of

bombs)bombs) Daylight precision bombing to destroy German Daylight precision bombing to destroy German

industryindustry

B-17B-17

B-24B-24

Norden Bomb SightNorden Bomb Sight Drop a “bomb in a pickle barrel from Drop a “bomb in a pickle barrel from

20,000 feet”20,000 feet”

U.S. efforts, 1942 – early U.S. efforts, 1942 – early 19431943

Small: planes diverted to other operations.Small: planes diverted to other operations. U-boat facilities made a high priority.U-boat facilities made a high priority. Most targets in France or Low countries – bomber Most targets in France or Low countries – bomber

missions had fighter cover.missions had fighter cover. After June 1943After June 1943

• • Fighter aircraftFighter aircraft • • Ball bearingsBall bearings • • PetroleumPetroleum

Prior to D-Day target transportationPrior to D-Day target transportation

U.S. efforts, 1942 – early U.S. efforts, 1942 – early 19431943

Major DisputeMajor Dispute US wants daylight attacks against industrial US wants daylight attacks against industrial

“Bottlenecks”“Bottlenecks” Example: Almost all German ball-bearings are made in two cities Example: Almost all German ball-bearings are made in two cities

(Schweinfurt, Regensburg) Destroy them and German machinery (Schweinfurt, Regensburg) Destroy them and German machinery grinds to a haltgrinds to a halt

British say daylight raids won’t work British say daylight raids won’t work They seem to be right as US loses 60 Bombers (15%) over They seem to be right as US loses 60 Bombers (15%) over

Schweinfurt in one raidSchweinfurt in one raid

Casablanca ConferenceCasablanca Conference

Allied leaders commit themselves to Allied leaders commit themselves to pursuing strategic bombing, authorize pursuing strategic bombing, authorize the Combined Bomber Offensivethe Combined Bomber Offensive Operation POINTBLANKOperation POINTBLANK

British will pursue night missions, area British will pursue night missions, area bombingbombing

U.S., day missions and precision U.S., day missions and precision bombing.bombing.

Summer 1943Summer 1943

Strategic bombing effort ramps up.Strategic bombing effort ramps up. USAAF forces in Europe get enough USAAF forces in Europe get enough

planes to launch large raids into planes to launch large raids into Germany.Germany.

Facilities engaged in producing Facilities engaged in producing aircraft or related components made aircraft or related components made a priority.a priority. Included ball-bearing plants.Included ball-bearing plants.

Bomber Tactics

Element Formation

Element Formation

Fockewulf 190 DFockewulf 190 D

Messerscmidt 109Messerscmidt 109

Improved Bomber Armament

Added defense against head-on attacks

Deep raids result in prohibitive Deep raids result in prohibitive losseslosses

Bombers unescorted by fighters for Bombers unescorted by fighters for all or part of journey.all or part of journey.

Stiff resistance put up by Luftwaffe Stiff resistance put up by Luftwaffe and anti-aircraft batteries.and anti-aircraft batteries. Radar-assisted air defensesRadar-assisted air defenses German pilots discovered successful German pilots discovered successful

tactics to attack bomber formations.tactics to attack bomber formations.

Example: SchweinfurtExample: Schweinfurt August 17, 1943: 60 of 315 bombers lost.August 17, 1943: 60 of 315 bombers lost. October 14, 1943: 60 of 230 bombers lost.October 14, 1943: 60 of 230 bombers lost.

Heavy Losses

DamageDamage

Targets often hit.Targets often hit. But German industrial infrastructure more But German industrial infrastructure more

resilient than anticipated.resilient than anticipated. Simply disperse industry so raids can’t Simply disperse industry so raids can’t

destroy whole production systemsdestroy whole production systems Ex: make wings, engines, fusilage of planes in Ex: make wings, engines, fusilage of planes in

several different locations (very difficult to several different locations (very difficult to target)target)

In some arms categories, production In some arms categories, production increases through 1944.increases through 1944.

British Area BombingBritish Area Bombing

1943 Mar.-Jul.1943 Mar.-Jul. Battle of the RuhrBattle of the Ruhr

Attack Ruhr Cities at nightAttack Ruhr Cities at night July 30,000 die in firestorm in HamburgJuly 30,000 die in firestorm in Hamburg Overall 45,000 more die in other citiesOverall 45,000 more die in other cities

Berlin Raids 1943-Mar. 1944Berlin Raids 1943-Mar. 1944 16 Raids16 Raids Give up when losses rise too highGive up when losses rise too high German use night fighters and radar controlled AAAGerman use night fighters and radar controlled AAA Chaff or strips of aluminum dropped to confuse radar failsChaff or strips of aluminum dropped to confuse radar fails Germans improve radar and mount it in planes as wellGermans improve radar and mount it in planes as well Br. Area Bombing close to defeat Spring 1944Br. Area Bombing close to defeat Spring 1944

1944: Help for the Bombing 1944: Help for the Bombing CampaignCampaign

New fighters: P-51New fighters: P-51 More planes.More planes. Attacks from the Attacks from the

Mediterranean.Mediterranean. Attrition of German Attrition of German

pilots.pilots.

Switch in prioritiesSwitch in priorities OilOil TransportationTransportation These targets can not be dispersedThese targets can not be dispersed

February 1944 “Big Week”February 1944 “Big Week”

Raids of up to 1000 B-17s supported by long-Raids of up to 1000 B-17s supported by long-range P-51 Fightersrange P-51 Fighters Focus on aircraft production and oilFocus on aircraft production and oil Use P-47 and P-38 Escorts with drop tanks to increase Use P-47 and P-38 Escorts with drop tanks to increase

rangerange Real key is P-51 it can go as far as the bombers but has Real key is P-51 it can go as far as the bombers but has

the performance as good as any fighter in the worldthe performance as good as any fighter in the world Considered the best fighter of WWIIConsidered the best fighter of WWII

Germans have to defend the oil and their fighter force is Germans have to defend the oil and their fighter force is shattered with over 400 shot down in a weekshattered with over 400 shot down in a week

Breaks the back of the LuftwaffeBreaks the back of the Luftwaffe

Mid 1944-1945Mid 1944-1945 US diverts bombers to Normandy after Big Week US diverts bombers to Normandy after Big Week

to prepare for D-Day Invasionto prepare for D-Day Invasion Resume Strategic Bombing March 1944Resume Strategic Bombing March 1944 Combined British and US AttacksCombined British and US Attacks

Oil production down from 316,000 tons to 17,000 by late Oil production down from 316,000 tons to 17,000 by late 19441944

Railroad cars decline from 900,000 to 214,000Railroad cars decline from 900,000 to 214,000 Around the clock attacks on citiesAround the clock attacks on cities

With destruction of Luftwaffe losses fall to 1% per With destruction of Luftwaffe losses fall to 1% per raidraid

Accomplishments of the Accomplishments of the Strategic Bombing CampaignStrategic Bombing Campaign

Broke the Broke the LuftwaffeLuftwaffe Allies had air superiority over NormandyAllies had air superiority over Normandy

German logistical system crippled German logistical system crippled late in the war.late in the war. Could not get arms to front.Could not get arms to front. Vehicles lacked oil to move.Vehicles lacked oil to move.

How much of the Allied victory was How much of the Allied victory was due to the air campaign?due to the air campaign?

The CostsThe Costs

29,000 U.S. airmen, 8,200 bombers lost.29,000 U.S. airmen, 8,200 bombers lost. About 600,000(?) civilian casualties.About 600,000(?) civilian casualties.

87,000 Dead in Ruhr, 50,000 each in Hamburg and 87,000 Dead in Ruhr, 50,000 each in Hamburg and Berlin, 2% are childrenBerlin, 2% are children

Firestorms:Firestorms: Hamburg: July, 1943Hamburg: July, 1943 Dresden: Feb., 1945Dresden: Feb., 1945

How much of the victory is owed to the bombers???How much of the victory is owed to the bombers??? Never break German moraleNever break German morale Transportation in cites never really breaks down (freight Transportation in cites never really breaks down (freight

transportation does!!!!)transportation does!!!!) Industrial production collapses only very late if at allIndustrial production collapses only very late if at all

USAAF Strategic Bombing: USAAF Strategic Bombing: JapanJapan

Regular raids from Marianas begin in November Regular raids from Marianas begin in November 1944.1944.

Problems:Problems: Japan disperses factories like GermansJapan disperses factories like Germans Japanese cities and housing are less vulnerable to high Japanese cities and housing are less vulnerable to high

explosive due to light construction to resist earthquakesexplosive due to light construction to resist earthquakes Home islands extreme range for B-29’sHome islands extreme range for B-29’s CloudsClouds Strong windsStrong winds

Curtis LeMay provides the Curtis LeMay provides the solutionssolutions

US reluctantly abandons high level US reluctantly abandons high level daylight precision attacksdaylight precision attacks

LeMay arrives Feb. 1945LeMay arrives Feb. 1945 Conduct raids at lower altitudes.Conduct raids at lower altitudes. Night missions.Night missions. Pursue area bombing.Pursue area bombing. Incendiaries (fire bombs not explosives)Incendiaries (fire bombs not explosives)

Tokyo Fire RaidTokyo Fire Raid

Mar. 9, 1945Mar. 9, 1945 Burn out 16 square miles of Tokyo with 325 Burn out 16 square miles of Tokyo with 325

bombersbombers B-29 used in Japan (larger and much longer range and B-29 used in Japan (larger and much longer range and

bigger bomb load than B-17bigger bomb load than B-17 89,000 dead, 180,000 injured in 1 night89,000 dead, 180,000 injured in 1 night Bomber losses 2%Bomber losses 2%

By June Nagoya, Kobe, Osaka, Yokohama, Kawasaki By June Nagoya, Kobe, Osaka, Yokohama, Kawasaki all burned out all burned out

260,000 dead, 2 million buildings destroyed, 9-13 million 260,000 dead, 2 million buildings destroyed, 9-13 million homelesshomeless

By July 60% of the 60 largest cities burned outBy July 60% of the 60 largest cities burned out

Debut of Debut of new tactics:new tactics:The Tokyo The Tokyo

Raid,Raid,March 9-10, March 9-10,

19451945

Remainder of war:Remainder of war:Japan’s cities systematically Japan’s cities systematically

destroyeddestroyed

Impact of the BombingImpact of the Bombing Japanese government attitude is largely Japanese government attitude is largely

unchanged, fight onunchanged, fight on Food rationed to 1500 calories a day (certain Food rationed to 1500 calories a day (certain

starvation)starvation) People eat pine rootsPeople eat pine roots

EconomyEconomy Chemical industry collapsesChemical industry collapses Less than 1 million tons of shipping left (subs and Less than 1 million tons of shipping left (subs and

aircraft attacks) down from 7 millionaircraft attacks) down from 7 million Japan rejects offer by Secretary of State Dulles in Japan rejects offer by Secretary of State Dulles in

May to NegotiateMay to Negotiate

Hiroshima: Hiroshima: August 6, August 6,

19451945

Nagasaki: Nagasaki: August 9, August 9,

19451945

Moral Considerations…Moral Considerations…

Attacks on non-combatants.Attacks on non-combatants. Intent: The role of non-combatants in war (are they Intent: The role of non-combatants in war (are they

legitimate targets as they build weapons?)legitimate targets as they build weapons?) Moral vs. immediate concerns.Moral vs. immediate concerns.

Reduces British and then US to same level as the Germans Reduces British and then US to same level as the Germans and Japaneseand Japanese

Causation: Use Blitz of London as an excuse?Causation: Use Blitz of London as an excuse? Is it the only option available?Is it the only option available?

CriticsCritics Can’t justify civilian attacks: The fact that factories are located in Can’t justify civilian attacks: The fact that factories are located in

cities doesn’t change fact that night attacks are really aimed at cities doesn’t change fact that night attacks are really aimed at civilianscivilians

Bombing really didn’t have much of an impact anywayBombing really didn’t have much of an impact anyway

Moral Considerations…Moral Considerations…

In General Germany was able to maintain In General Germany was able to maintain transportation in cities and disperse industrytransportation in cities and disperse industry

Even Hamburg maintained 80% of pre-war production Even Hamburg maintained 80% of pre-war production into 1945into 1945

However….However…. The attacks on fuel were a major successThe attacks on fuel were a major success

Problem here is oil attacks are far the most Problem here is oil attacks are far the most effective and they do not require civilian attackseffective and they do not require civilian attacks

Oil production did collapse Oil production did collapse Also the Axis had divert enormous resources to Also the Axis had divert enormous resources to

repel air attacksrepel air attacks