Functional Styles of the English language (the belles-letters, publicistic.)

Functional styles (FS) are the subsystems of language, each subsystem having its own peculiar features in what concern vocabulary means, syntactical constructions, and even phonetics. The appearance and existence of FS is connected with the specific conditions of communication in different spheres of human life. FS differ not only by the possibility or impossibility of using some elements but also due to the frequency of their usage. For example, some terms can appear in the colloquial style but the possibility of its appearance is quite different form the possibility to meet it in an example of scientific style.

The classification of FS is a very complicated problem, that is why we will consider ideas of I.V.Arnold and I.R. Galperin, bearing in mind that Galperin treats functional styles as patterns of the written variety of language thus excluding colloquial FS. Both scholars agree that each FS can be recognized by one or more leading features. But Galperin pays more attention to the coordination of language means and stylistic devices whereas Arnold connects the specific features of each FS with its peculiarities in the sphere of communication.

According to I.R. Galperin, a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A functional style should be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of the language. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant and can deviate from the invariant, even breaking away with it.

Each FS is a relatively stable system at the given stage in the development of the literary language, but it changes, and sometimes considerably, from one period to another. Therefore FS is a historical category. Thus, for example in the 17th century it was considered that not all words can be used in poetry, and that a separate poetic style exists. Later, in the 19th century romanticism rejected the norms of poetic style and introduced new vocabulary to poetry. The development of each style is predetermined by the changes in the norms of standard English. It is also greatly influenced by changing social conditions, the progress of science and the development of cultural life.

Every functional style of language is marked by a specific use of language means, thus establishing its own norms which, however, are subordinated to the norm-invariant and which do not violate the general notion of the literary norm. The writers of the given period in the development of the literary language contribute greatly to establishing the system of norms of their period. It is worth noting that the investigations of language norms at a given period are to great extent maintained on works of men of letters. Selection, or deliberate choice of language, and the ways the chosen elements are treated are the main distinctive features of individual style.

Individual style is a unique combination of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable. (Galperin, p.17) Naturally, the individual style of a writer will never be entirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given period. But the adaptations of these canons will always be peculiar and therefore distinguishable. Individual style is based on a thorough knowledge of the contemporary language and allows certain justifiable deviations from the rigorous norms. Individual style requires to be studied in a course of stylistics in so far as it makes use of the potentialities of language means, whatever the characters of these potentialities may be.

All men of letters have a peculiar individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect they desire. Writers choose language means deliberately. This process should be distinguished from language peculiarities which appear in everyday speech of this or that particular individual (idiolect).

In the English literary standard we distinguish the following major functional styles (hence FS):

The language of belles-lettres. The language of publicize literature. The language of newspapers. The language of scientific prose. The language of official documents.

The belles - letters FS has the following substyles:

a) The language style of poetry;

b) The language style of emotive prose;

c) The language style of drama.

The publicistic FS comprises the following substyles:

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a) The language style of oratory;

b) The language style of essays;

c) The language style of feature articles in

The Belles-Lettres Style

According to I.R. Galperin, this is a generic term for three substyles: the language of poetry; emotive prose (the language of fiction); the language of the drama. Each of these substyles has certain common features, and each of them enjoys some individuality. The common features of the substyles are the following:

1. The aesthetico-cognitive function (a function which aims at the cognitive process, which secures the gradual unfolding of the idea to the reader and at the same time calls forth a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction which a reader experiences because he is able to penetrate into the author's idea and to form his own conclusions).

2. Definite linguistic features: Genuine, not trite, imagery, achieved by purely linguistic devices. The use of words in different meanings, greatly influenced by the lexical environment. A vocabulary which will reflect to a certain degree the author's personal evaluation of things or

phenomena. A peculiar individual selection of vocabulary and syntax. The introduction of the typical features of colloquial language to a full degree (drama), to a lesser

degree (in prose), to a slight degree (poetry).The belles-lettres style is individual in essence. This is one of its most distinctive properties.

The language of poetry is characterized by its orderly form, which is based mainly on the rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of the utterances. The rhythmic aspect calls forth syntactic and semantic peculiarities. There are certain restrictions which result in brevity of expression, epigram-like utterances and fresh, unexpected imagery. Syntactically this brevity is shown in elliptical sentences, in detached constructions, in inversion, etc.

Emotive prose shares the same common features, but these features are correlated differently than in poetry. The imagery is not so rich as in poetry; the percentage of words with contextual meaning is not so high. Emotive prose features the combination of the literary variant of the language, both in words and in syntax, with the colloquial variant. But the colloquial language in the belles-lettres style is not a simple reproduction of the natural speech, it has undergone changes introduced by the writer and has been made "literature-like". In emotive prose there are always two forms of communication present - monologue (the writer's speech) and dialogue (the speech of the characters). Emotive prose allows the use of elements from other styles as well. But all these styles undergo a kind of transformation under the influence of emotive prose. Passages written in other styles may be viewed only as interpolations and not as constituents of the style.

Language of the drama is entirely dialogue. The author's speech is almost entirely excluded except for the playwright's remarks and stage directions. But the language of the characters is not the exact reproduction of the norms of colloquial language. Any variety of the belles-lettres style will use the norms of the literary language of the given period. The language of plays is always stylized, it strives to retain the modus of literary English.

The publicistic style of language became a separate style in the middle of the 18th century. Unlike other styles, it has two spoken varieties, namely the oratorical substyle and the radio and TV commentary. The other two substyles are the essay (moral, philosophical, literary) and journalistic articles (political, social, economic). The general aim of publicistic style is to influence the public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the expressed point of view.

Publicistic style is characterized by coherent and logical syntactical structure, with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing. Its emotional appeal is achieved by the use of words with the emotive meaning but the stylistic devices are not fresh or genuine. The individual element is not very evident. Publicistic style is also characterized by the brevity of expression, sometimes it becomes a leading feature.

The oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. Direct contact with the listeners permits a combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. The typical features of this style are: direct address to the audience; sometimes contractions; the use of colloquial words. The SDs employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. As the audience rely only on memory, the speaker often resorts to repetitions to enable his listeners to follow him and to

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retain the main points of his speech. The speaker often use simile and metaphor, but these are generally traditional, because genuine SDs may be difficult to grasp.

The essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of the matter. The most characteristic language features of the essay are: brevity of expression; the use of the first person singular; a rather expanded use of connectives; the abundant use of emotive words; the use of similes and sustained metaphors.

The language of journalistic articles is defined by the character of newspaper, magazine, as well as subjects chosen. Literary reviews stand closer to essays.

Newspaper, Scientific Prose, Official Documents Styles.

The newspaper FS falls into:

a) The language style of brief news items

and communiqués;

b) The language style of newspaper headings;

c) The language style of notices and advertisements.

The scientific prose FS also has three divisions:

a) The language style of humanitarian sciences;

b) The language style of "exact" sciences;

c) The language style of popular scientific prose.

The official document F S can be divided into four varieties:

a) The language style of diplomatic documents;

b) The language style of business documents;

c) The language style of legal documents;

d) The language style of military documents.

Newspaper Style

English newspaper writing dates from the 17th century. The first of any regular English newspapers was the Weekly News which first appeared in May, 1622. The early English newspaper was principally a vehicle of information. Commentary found its way into the newspapers later. But as far back as the middle of the 18 th century the British newspaper was very much like what it is today, carrying foreign and domestic news, advertisements, announcements and articles containing comments.

Not all the printed materials found in newspapers comes under newspaper style. Only materials which perform the function of informing the reader and providing him with an evaluation of information published can be regarded as belonging to newspaper style. English newspaper style can be defined as a system of interrelated lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the purpose of informing and instructing the reader. Information in the English newspaper is conveyed through the medium of:

1) brief news items;2) press reports;3) articles purely informational in character;4) advertisements and announcements.

The newspaper also seeks to influence public opinion on political and other matters. Elements of appraisal may be observed in the very selection and way of presentation of news, in the use of specific vocabulary, casting some doubt on the facts recorded, and syntactical constructions indicating a lack of assurance of the reporter or his desire

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to avoid responsibility. The principle vehicle of interpretation and appraisal is the newspaper article and the editorial in particular. Editorial is a leading article which is characterized by a subjective handling of facts. This purpose defines the choice of language elements which are mostly emotionally colored.

Newspaper style has its specific vocabulary features and is characterized by an extensive use of:

1) special political and economic terms (president, election);2) non-term political vocabulary (nation, crisis, agreement, member);3) newspaper cliches (pressing problem, danger of war, pillars of society);4) abbreviations (NATO, EEC);5) neologisms.

Scientific Prose Style: the language of science tends to prove a hypothesis to create new concepts, to develop the relation between different phenomena…

The 1st and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterance.

A 2nd feature is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. A new term in scientific prose is generally followed by an explanation. Neutral and common literary words used in scientific prose will be explained even if their meaning is slightly modified, either in the context by a parenthesis or an attributive phrase, or in a foot note.

In modern scientific prose is an interesting phenomenon, it can be observed the change of terms between various branches of science.

A 3rd characteristic feature is what we may call a sentence pattern. There can be 3 types of patterns:

- Postulatory- Argumentative- Formulative

A 4th observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose and one that strives the eye of the reader is the use of quotations and references. These sometimes occupy as much as half a page. The reference also has a definite compositional pattern , namely the name of the written referred to the title of the wave quoted, the publishing house, the place, and the year it was published and the page of abstract quoted or referred to.

A 5th feature is the frequent use of foot notes, not of the reference wind, but digressive in character .this is in full accord with the main requirement of style. The impersonality of scientific writing can also be considered a typical feature of this style. This quality is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions. It should be noted that impersonal passive constructions are frequently used before the verb suppose, assume, presume, conclude, point-out…

There is a noticeable difference in the syntactical design of utterance in the exact sciences (Math, Physics) and in the humanitarian. This perhaps is due to the fact that the data and the methods of investigation used in the humanitarian sciences are less objective.

The Style of Official Documents

This FS is not homogeneous and is represented by the following substyles or variants:

1) the language of business documents;2) the language of legal documents;3) the language of diplomacy;4) the language of military documents.

Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties and to reach agreement between two contracting parties. The most general function of the style of official documents predetermines the peculiarities of the style. The most striking feature is a special system of cliches, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can be easily recognized. Thus in finance we find terms like extra revenue, liability. In diplomacy such phrases as high contracting parties, memorandum, to ratify an agreement are found. In legal language, examples are to deal with a case, a body of judges.

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All these varieties use abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions, for example, M.P. (Member of Parliament), Ltd (Limited), $. Abbreviations are especially abundant in military documents. They are used not only as conventional symbols, but also as signs of military code. Another feature of the style is the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning. There is no room here for the realization of any other meaning here.

Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices (Metaphor, Metonymy, Irony Zeugma, Pun.)

Metaphor: is a stylistic device based on the principle identification of 2 objects. It is the interaction between the logical meanings of a word which is based on the likeness between objects and implies analogy as a comparison between them.

Ex. This stethoscope crept over her back what was her long telling him through the thick envelope of her flash through the wall of her ribs and shoulders.

In addition to their logical meanings the underlined words have acquired contextual, logical meaning clearly indicated by a context. Thus, the word “crept” as a contextual logical meaning means that it was moved by the doctor’s hand. The word “envelope” means “covering”. While “wall” means “protection”.

Metaphor can be embodied in all meaningful parts of the speech (verb, adv, noun…)

Ex. As a noun:

“The machine sitting at the desk was no longer the man; it was a busy New York broker.”

As a verb:

“In the sun rag that streamed straight in the open window, the dust dumped and it was golden.”

Metaphors can be classified according to the degree of their unexpectedness. Thus, metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, quite predictable are called “genuine metaphors” which are commonly used in speech and therefore sometimes are even fixed in the dictionaries; as expressive means of the language, they are tired of dead metaphors.

Ex. “A raw of hope”

“A flight of fancy”

Sometimes the metaphor is not confined to one image. The writer finds it necessary to prolong the image. He does so by adding a number of other images, but all this are related with a central image.

The stylistic function of the metaphor is told double: by evoking images and suggesting the analogies, it makes the author think more concrete, definite and clear; and at the same time it reveals the authors’ emotional attitude towards what he describes.

Metonymy: is a stylistic device when instead of naming an object of speech we use the name of some other objects which are closely connected with it as a condition of its existence or its constant belonging or as a result characteristic of it. The notion has a vivid expression. In metonymic relations, between the object named and the object implied are various and numerous. The following are the most common types of relations which metonymy is based on are:

- The relations that exist between an instrument and the action it performs , between an organ of the body and its functionEx. As the sword is the worst argument, that can be the last. (Byron)The word “sword” has acquired a contextual meaning in the sentence, that of repression.

- The relation that exists between the article of the clothing and the person wearing it.Ex. Then, a pause as the bonnet and dress neared the top of the square.

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- The container, instead of the thing contained.Ex. The hole applauded.

- The material instead of the thing it is made of.Ex. The marble spoke.

- The author for his work.Ex. I went to the novel that I was read. (Simenon)

- A concrete thing used instead of abstract noun. In this case the thing becomes the symbol of the notion.Metonymy as a stylistic device is used to achieve the concreteness of the description by given a specific detail connected with a phenomenon the author a concrete, and live image; and reveals a certain feeling of his own.

Ex. There was something so agreeable in being so intimate with such a waste coat; in being such off hands terms so soon with such a pair of whiskers.

By mentioning the only one seemingly insignificant feature or the debate connected with the phenomenon, the author draws the attention to it and makes him see the character he describes as he himself sees.

Irony:

Ex. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in the pocket.

The underlined word acquires the meaning quite opposite to its primary, dictionary meaning, “unpleasant, not delightful”

Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. The effect of irony largely depends on unexpectedness and seeming, lack of logic of a word used by the author in an inacceptable context. The reader is fully aware about the contrast between what is logically expected and what is said. And this contrast of the meaning very often produces a humorous effect. This stylistic function of irony is frequently found in Dickens “Post humorous papers of the Pickwick club”.

Irony may be used to achieve an effect of bitter mockery or sarcasm as well especially when it concerns some social phenomenon.

Zeugma: it’s a semantic irregularity that is if one and the same verb is combined with 2 or more nouns and acquires a different meaning in each of such combinations.

Ex. He has taken her picture and another cup of tea. (Should be translated separately)

Pun- it is a play of words. Pun is considered the most difficult for translation. It is the realization in one and the same word of 2 lexical meanings simultaneously. It can’t be translated by a word with similar capacity to develop 2 meanings in the TL.

Ex. Ask me no questions, I'll tell you no lies.

Samuel Johnson disparagingly referred to punning as "the lowest form of humour

Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices (The Epithet, Oxymoron, Simile, Periphrases, Hyperbole)

Epithet- the word comes from Greek and means “addition”. It is a stylistic device showing mainly the individual emotional attitude of the writer or a speaker towards the subject mentioned.

The epithets can be classified from the point of view of their compositional structure into:

1. Simple epithets- ordinary adjectives.2. Compound epithets- are built like compound adjectives.

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Ex.” Heart-burning sight, cloud- shaped giant”

3. Phrase epithets- the tendency to stuff into one language unit as much information as possible has lead to new compositional models for epithets, phrase epithets.

Ex. There is a sort of “o-what-a-wicked-world-that-is-and-how-i-wish-i-could-do-sth-to-make-it-better.”

Another structure of the epithet is the one which is called reversed (illogical, syntactical) it is based on the illogical syntactical relations between the modifier and the modified.

Ex. “The devil of a job”, “the book of a brother”.

Epithets may vary not only in the structure but in the manner of the distribution of the sentence as well. So, we differ 3 types of epithets according to this classification:

1. String epithets- “ it was an old musty, fusty, narrow-minded, clear and bitter room”2. Transferred epithets- are ordinary, logical attributes, generally describing the state of the human being,

but made to refer to an inanimate object.Ex. “sleepless pillow, restless space”

3. Metaphoric epithets- a metaphor within an epithet. In most cases metaphoric epithets are expressed by adjectives and adverbs.Ex. “the moon licked lovely”

Into the same group should be included the compound epithets, the kind of element of which is “like”

Ex. “He was young and small and almost as dark as a Negro, and there was a quick monkeylike rashness on his face.”

As all other stylistic devices, epithets become hackneyed through long usage. Epithets in such combinations as “bright smile, happy end, and lucky chance” can hardly be called original. Epithets should not be mixed-up with logical attributes which have the same syntactical functions, but not convey the individual attitude of the writer, towards the object described.

Ex. “Iron gate- iron hate”, the first is attribute, the second -epithet.

Oxymoron- (oxys-sharp, moros- foolish) - it is a combination of 2 words, mostly an adj and a noun, or an adv with an adj, in which the meaning of the two being opposite in the sense.

Ex. “A faithful betrayer, speaking silence”

Oxymoron reveals the contradictory nature of one and the same phenomenon .One of its components discloses some objectively existing features or qualities, while the other serves to convey the authors’ personal, individual attitude towards the same phenomenon.

Ex. The house filled with guests and all of them are plastered in diamonds and stinking of titles, no one of them less than an earl…

2 opposite ideas very naturally repulse each other so that ones created oxymoron, is practically never repeated in different contexts, and so does not become tried , always remaining a free word- combination.

Simile – comparison between 2 different things belonging to different classes of nouns. It is a stylistic device expressing the likeness between these objects. Simile should not be confused with comparison, because these are 2 different processes. Comparison means juxtaposition of 2 objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their likeness or difference.

To use a simile is to characterize one object by bringing it to an entirely different class of things. Similes have a formal element in their structure, this are connective words such as: -like, as, such as, as if, as though, to seem…the semantic structure of the last 3 only remotely suggest any resemblance.

Ex. It was that moment of the year when the country –side seemed to die from its own loveliness, from the intoxication of its sights and sounds.

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Sometimes the simile “like” is placed in the end of the sentence. Simile may also be introduced by lexical means, indicating the likeness between 2 objects.

Ex. He reminded Jane, that she had a resemblance to a captive one.

There are different structures and variations of similes:

- Sometimes the sign of comparison is directly mentioned.Ex. He is as beautiful as a weather cock.

- Sometimes there is no direct comparison, and the character of the resemblance is only meant.Ex. My heart is like a singing birdLook at the moonHow strange the moon seemsShe is like a woman rising from the townShe is like a dead woman. (The quality is not mentioned here)

- Sometimes the image suggested by the simile is not clear and the author finds it necessary to explain.Ex. He had a face like a quire boy, but a quire boy is suddenly over the world by the middle age, pretty dull like a wizard.The simile usually serves as a meaning to a clear meaning, by comparing one object or phenomenon the writer describes, with the concrete and familiar thing. It makes the description clearer and more picturesque. Besides making a narrative more concrete and definite, the simile helps the author to rebuild the certain feelings of his own as well.In English as in any other language there is a list of fixed and traditional similes which must be regarded as phraseological units. They are the names of animals, plants, natural phenomenon, commonly used.Ex. “as good as gold, as hot as hell”These combinations are used by the writer in the direct speech of the characters, thus individualizing their speech and are rather seldom represented in the author’s narratives as traditional similes. They do not convey any minor shade or degree of qualities, but show the highest degree of expressiveness. They present a kind of exaggeration.

Paraphrases - is the renaming of an object by a phrase that brings out some particular feature of the object. The essence of the device is that it is decodable only in the context. If the paraphrases’ idea is understandable outside the context, it is not a stylistic device, but nearly a synonymous expression. Such easily decodable paraphrases are called traditional, dictionary or language paraphrases.Ex. My better half (wife) My worst half (husband) The gentleman of long rope (lawyer) The cap and gun (a student body)Stylistic paraphrases is a new domination of an object by disclosing some quality of the object and making it alone represent the object, but at the same time representing in the mind the ordinary name of the concept.Ex. I understand you are poor and wish to earn money by nursing the little boy, my son, who has been so prematurely deprived of what can never be replaced. (Dickens)Paraphrases may be:

- Logical- based on the logical notions. In this case a certain figure of an object is taken to denote the whole object or a wider notion is substituted for the concrete notion.Ex. Mrs.Shortgrass bore under his arm the instrument of the pistols.

- Figurative- may be based on metaphoric or metonymic figures of speech.Ex. Back foolish tears, back to your native spring. (Eyes).

Hyperbole- it is a deliberated overstatement or exaggeration the aim of which is to intensify one of the features of the object in question to such a degree that it will show it’s utter absurdly.Ex. God, I cried buckets. I saw it thousand times.

Like many stylistic devices, hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device through the frequent repetition and becomes a unit of the language as a system, or the language expressive means.

Ex. – 1000 pardons

I am scared to death (traditional emotive means)And word-combination “a drop of water” which means “not much water” presents a kind of hyperbole, exaggeration of the insignificance.

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10. Syntactical expressive means. (Stylistic Inversion, Detached Constructions, Parallel Constructions, Chiasmus, Suspense, Climax, Antithesis)

Inversion- also called word-order represents a critical, syntactical problem in many languages. In English there is a strict word-order but this order is not always respected, especially in literature. Some writers respect it, but others don’t.

Ex. Talent Mrs. Donald has capital he has not.

In order to understand the meaning of this sentence, while listening, we mean intonation. Stylistic inversion aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional coloring to the surface meaning of the utterance. This is determined to be a violation of norms of Standard English. It occurs especially in verse.

Ex. A good, generous prayer it was.

Rudd I am in my speech.

In went Mr. Holcomb.

These examples are most common in English. Inversion is a stylistic device that is always sense motivated.

Detached constructions - sometimes one of the secondary parts of the sentence, by more specific consideration of the writer, it is placed so that it seems formerly of the word it refers to. Such parts of structures are called detached. They seem to dangle in the sentence as isolated parts. The detached part being turn away from its referent assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation. The structural patterns of detached constructions have not yet been classified, but the most noticeable cases are those in which an attribute or an adverbial modifier is placed not in immediate proximity to its referent, but in some other position.

Ex. Pete rose up grinding his teeth, pail, and with a fury in his eyes.

In written form is easy to observe these detached constructions, while in oral form we need a special intonation.

Ex. I want to go, he said miserably.

In this case the word “miserably” may be understood as an adverbial modifier to the verb “said” if not for the comma. The pause indicated by the comma implies that “miserably” is an adjective for the pronoun “he”.

A variant of detached construction is parenthesis- an exclamatory word, clause, and sentence, which interrupts a syntactic construction without affecting it, marked by commas, brackets or dashes.

Ex. The prime- minister of Great Britain who was born in 1960, who entered his function 4 years ago, who created stability in the country …, came to Moldova for a summit.

Parallel constructions- is a device which may be found not as much in a sentence as in a paragraph. The necessary condition in parallel constructions is identical or similar syntactical structure in 2 or more sentences or paragraphs.

Ex. There were real silver spoons to stir the tea with, and real china cups to drink it out of, and plates of the same to eat from.

Parallel constructions are often backed up by the repetition of the same words, conjunctions and repetitions. We distinguish between:

- Partial parallel constructions- is the repetition of some parts of successive sentences or clauses.Ex. It is that man, who has visited us; it is that car he came by; it is that door he entered in…- that he left opened.

Here the pattern of the last “that” is different in comparison with the rest, different in the meaning.

- Complete parallel constructions- are when all parts are repeatedParallel constructions are often used in enumeration, climax, and are used in different styles of writing.

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Ex. He was reading, dancing and singing all the day. (Repetition of the continuous forms).

Chiasmus (reversed parallel constructions)

Belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on syntactical repetition, but it has a cross order of words and phrases.

The structure of 2 successive sentences or parts of sentences may be described as reversed parallel constructions. So that the word order of one of the sentences is inverted as compared with that of the other.

Ex. As high as we have mountained in delight in our delectation we seemed as low.

Chiasmus may be represented at the beginning of the sentence by one part of speech and at the end by other.

Ex. I thought of import in order to import.

Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change of the active into passive.

Ex. I was written to write her the article.

Suspense- is a compositional device which consists in arranging the matter of a communication in such a way that the less important descriptive, subordinate parts are arranged at the beginning, but the main idea is placed at the end, in order to keep the reader or the listener in suspense. Suspense and climax often come together. In this case the information is arranged in the order of gradation. The device of suspense is especially favored by the orators.

Climax- is also called gradation, is an arrangement of sentences. There are several types of climax:

- Logical- is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them. In this case the climax can be observed and depicted if we read attentively the paragraph and look for connections.

- Emotional- is based on the relative emotional tension, produced by words with emotive meaning.Ex. – it was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a veritable jam of the city.

- Quantative- is characterized by an evident increase in volume.Ex. They looked at hundreds of houses, they climbed thousand stares , they inspected numerable kitchens.

- Numerical- is characterized by a numerical increase.Ex. Little by little, bit by bit, day by day, year by year, they were preparing their revenge.

Antithesis – when 2 things are compared.

Ex. Better to rain in hell, than surf in haven.

Many word combinations are built up by means of contrasting pairs.

Ex. Up and down, inside and out, from top to bottom.

Antithesis is based on the opposition of different linguistic nature means, even if it is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context.

Ex. Youth is lovely, age is lovely

Youth is fury, age is frosty.

Antithesis is a device bordering between stylistics and logics. It is essential to distinguish between antithesis and contrast, which is a literary not a linguistic device, based on logical opposition between the phenomena set one against another.

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