The student will demonstrate an understanding of the organization of living systems.

TAKS Review, Objective 2

The student will demonstrate an understanding of the organization of

living systems.


Living things are . . .Living things are . . .• Made of cells

• Grow and develop

• Respond to the environment

• Use energy

• Reproduce

http://www.nrlc.org/abortion/facts/fig20baby7.jpg


• Tissues - like types of cells

• Tissue form organs

• Organs that work together form organ systems

• Organ systems that work together make an organism

Cells are organized into. . .Cells are organized into. . .


Hydrochloric acid is produced by the lining of the stomach. What is its function?

Calories are how the energy contained in food is measured.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.

‘Lipids’ is the name for fats and oils.


TaxonomyTaxonomy - how to classify life Biological Classification

Kingdom

Phylum Phylum

Class Class

Order Order

Family

Genus Genus

Genus

Family

Order

Family Family

Genus Genus

Class Class

Order Order

Family

Genus Genus

Genus Genus

Family

Genus

Order

Family Family

Genus Genus

Genus Genus


49 Which of these classificationsis most specific?

A Family

B Genus

C Phylum

D Order

The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest are:

Kingdom (6)

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

species


The Six KingdomsThe Six Kingdoms – – the the largest groupings of living largest groupings of living

thingsthings

Animalia

PlantaeFungi

Protista Eubacteria Archaebacteria


Animal KingdomAnimal Kingdom(Animalia)

• Multicellular• Heterotrophic• Includes all

vertebrates (one major phylum) and invertebrates (several phyla)

• Insects, jellyfish, people…… all are animals


Kingdom PlantaeKingdom Plantae

Multicellular &Autotrophic

~ all plants perform photosynthesis

Examples: mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants (grasses, trees, shrubs, most garden plants, wildflowers)


chloroplast

Large vacuole

Cell wall –

Be careful…

Fungi & plants have walls……..


Kingdom FungiKingdom Fungi

• Multicellular & some single-celled

• Most of these organisms are decomposers

• Includes mushrooms, yeasts, molds, and infections like athlete's foot


Fungi are eukaryotic.

Athlete’s foot

Bread mold

mushroom

http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/biology/plant_bio/fungi/Rhizopus%20-%20bread%20mold.jpg

http://pascal.scheffers.net/photo/polen02/mushroom.jpg

http://www.bluewillowpages.com/mushroomexpert/images/kuo/agaricus_bisporus_01big.jpg


So, how do they DIFFER from animals?


Kingdoms of Single-CelledKingdoms of Single-CelledOrganismsOrganisms

• Protista• Eubacteria• Archaebacteria


WHY??


Kingdom ProtistaKingdom Protista Largest source of food

and oxygen for the entire planet.

Includes plankton, amoeba, and ciliates (like the paramecium)

Described as – unicellular eukaryotes

• What is the significance of “A?”• How do you know that this is not a

prokaryotic organism? What are the clues?


Prokaryotic Kingdoms - Cells without membrane-bound organelles

1. Kingdom Eubacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes, often decomposers

2. Kingdom Archaebacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes from extreme environments


8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with —

F growth

G defense

H digestion

J respiration

• Kingdom of Bacteria has beneficial and harmful members

• The best answer here is H, since digestive systems of mammals contain many bacteria.

• Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually result in illness, which would trigger the defenses; not help the organism


Binomial ClassificationBinomial Classification

• Living things are given a two-part scientific name. The first part is the Genus which is capitalized. The second part is the species name, which is never capitalized.

• Scientific names are used because the same plant or animal in different places may have different common names.

• Man’s scientific name is Homo sapiens


12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most closely related to the

F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki

G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax

H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens

J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus


Which are closely related? Which are most distantly related?

Organism family Genus species

Panthera leo (lion)

Carnivora Panthera leo

Equus caballus (horse)

Equidae Equus caballus

Panthera tigris (tiger)

Carnivora Panthera tigris

Felis domestica (cat)

Carnivora Felis domestica

Canis familiaris (dog)

Carnivora Canis familiaris


Related (in biological terms) means family, genus, species.

F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki

G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax

H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens

J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

• Genus is always a capital letter,

species is lower case.

• Most closely related would be in the

same genus, Rana.

• ANSWER? • H


The Cell Theory

Matthias Schleiden, Robert Virchow, and Robert Brown all contributed to the formation of the cell theory, which states:

– 1. All living things are composed of cells.

– 2. Cells are the smallest working units of living things.

– 3. All cells come from preexisting cells by cell division.


The Eukaryotic Plant Cell The Eukaryotic Plant Cell


The Eukaryotic Animal CellThe Eukaryotic Animal Cell


Cell PartCell Part FunctionFunction Cell membrane Controls what enters and leaves the

cell

Nuclear membrane Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus

Nucleus Control center of the cell

Chromosomes Genetic information in the nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum Transport system in cell

Ribosome Organelle makes proteins

Golgi Body Organelle packages proteins

Vacuole Stores water and/or waste

Lysosome Breaks down old cell parts

Mitochondria Organelle for cellular respiration – provides energy


The cell membrane has many roles including maintaining homeostasis:

structure, regulating transport of nutrients and wastes into and out of the

cell, and basic protection of the cell.


Be familiar with the structure and function

of parts of cellsincluding bacteria. In biology….always

consider

FORM & FORM & FUNCTION!!FUNCTION!!


Why? The muscle involved (the bicep) will

contract (shorten), andraise the upper

arm.

Choices one and four are bones and cannot cause movement by

themselves. Choice #2 is a tendon whose major function isattachment, not

movement


VirusesViruses are different from cells and have different properties and

functions.


This is the only answer that makes

sense….

Why are A, B and D not

good choices?


• Chloroplasts – organelle responsible for photosynthesis

• Cell Walls – a structure outside of the membrane to provide support

• Large vacuoles to store extra water

Plant cells have….. but animal cells don’t


This is a typical plant cell

• It contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, a very large vacuole.

• Why do plants need large vacuoles?

•ANSWER: This is where food and

water are stored.


52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry period will —

F be softer

G grow at a faster rate

H be thinner

J photosynthesize at a faster rate

These 3 would

indicate more water,

not less


TAKS questionWhich structure

regulates gas exchange during the processes of photosynthesis and respiration?

• A Q• B R• C S• D T

= stomata


The Temperate Forest


The Desert


The Tundra


The Taiga


The Tropical Rain Forest


The Grasslands


• By animal By animal

• By windBy wind

• Floating in waterFloating in water

Mechanisms of Seed DispersalMechanisms of Seed Dispersal


Animal Dispersal

Barbs get tangled in animal

fur and carried to new places.

Some animals bury seeds andthey grow into new plants.

Animals eat fruit, and after digestion

the seeds are dropped in new places.


More barbs and hooks…


Dispersal by wind….


Floating on water…..


Explosive dispersal


TAKS question

Which of the following characteristics could help short plants survive in areas with limited sunlight?

F Broad leaf surfacesG Brightly colored flowersH Thick stemsJ Shallow roots


TAKS question #4Which of these characteristics might help a

plant species survive in an area with limited sunlight?

• F Bright flowers• G Large leaves• H Short stems• J Thick cuticles


TAKS question

This seed is best dispersed by —

• A water• B birds• C wind• D insects


Cell Cell Reproduction Reproduction

• The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell. It has two parts. Mitosis is the process of nuclear division. What is interphase?

• During mitosis the nucleus separates into two new identical sister nuclei.


26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each daughter cell after mitosis?

• F 11

• G 19

• H 38

• J 76Mitosis is the normal division of any cell nucleus, so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then separate into two identical cells. So the answer is

H


When cells reproduce out of control……..

• ……tumors are formed. Some tumors are malignant and are called cancer.

• However, tumors may or may not be malignant. A tumor that is not malignant is called benign.


Transporting into Cells -

• Passive movement - from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is diffusion.

• The diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.

Diffusion

Osmosis is the diffusion of H2O


Why? Why? Because this means that water is moving from high Because this means that water is moving from high concentration (of water) to lower concentration (of water) concentration (of water) to lower concentration (of water)

across the membrane.across the membrane.


What is active transport?

Energy is used to move selected molecules into a cell, even if they are at a low concentration

(that is….from low to high concentration)


Ways to Maintain Homeostasis

• Passive transport – no ATP used– Diffusion– Osmosis– Facilitated diffusion

• Carrier proteins• Ion channels

• Active transport – ATP used– Carrier proteins

• Cell membrane pumps (sodium-potassium)

– Endocytosis– Exocytosis


34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the

ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells

and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter the egg?

F Coagulation

G Sodium pump

H Active transport

J Osmosis

Means to clump together – Incorrect

Sodium is not being moved – Incorrect The egg would not use energy

to do this since it kills the cell.

This is the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the fresh water) to low

concentration (inside the EggEgg)


6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2Carbon dioxide plus Water Produces Glucose and Oxygen

This is

photosynthesis:

SUNLIGHT


Plants carry out photosynthesis and cellular respiration.


Cellular RespirationCellular Respiration

• C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

• Occurs in ALL living things(In mitochondria of eukaryotes)


TheGenetic Code

• All of the information to All of the information to make a new cell/organism make a new cell/organism is contained in the is contained in the chromosomes of the cell. chromosomes of the cell.

• Chromosomes are made Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Deoxyribonucleic Acid.

• Chromosomes contain Chromosomes contain genes, each of which genes, each of which codes for a single protein. codes for a single protein. There may be There may be hundreds/thousands of hundreds/thousands of genes on each genes on each chromosome.chromosome.


DNADNADNA is formed of nucleotides, which have 3 parts; a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogen base.

The 4 different nitrogen bases of DNA are:

o Adenineo Thymineo Cytosineo Guanine

The process of copying DNA is called replication

A REPLICA of each side of the strand of DNA is made.


The Code of Life • The structure of DNA is

called a double helix.• The base Guanine

always pairs to Cytosine. Adenine pairs to Thymine

• Apples in Trees, Cars in Garages

• Mutations are caused when these pairings are not made.


F Amount of adenine

G Number of sugars

H Sequence of nitrogen bases

J Strength of hydrogen bonds

Adenine is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases; it can’t code for anything by itself.

Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar so, G is not correct.

Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to code for trait changes.

38 In DNA, which of the following determines the traits of an organism?


Transcription . . . • messenger RNA reads the DNA in the nucleus and then leaves the nucleus to take the information to the ribosome.

• the DNA then wraps back up until next time.


RNA vs. DNACharacteristic RNA DNA

Strands 1 2

Sugar molecule

Ribose Deoxyribose

Bases A, U, C, G A, T, C, G

Where

Found

Nucleus and cytoplasm

Nucleus only

Building block

Nucleotide Nucleotide


Kinds of RNAKinds of RNA

There is only one kind of DNA, but There is only one kind of DNA, but there are 3 kinds of RNA.there are 3 kinds of RNA.

–Messenger RNA (mRNA)Messenger RNA (mRNA)

–Transfer RNA (tRNA)Transfer RNA (tRNA)

–Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)


TranslationTranslation . . . code into words . . . code into words • mRNA takes the code mRNA takes the code

from the nucleus to the from the nucleus to the ribosome where it pairs ribosome where it pairs with transfer RNA to put with transfer RNA to put amino acids into chains amino acids into chains called proteins. called proteins.

• mRNA pairs to tRNA in mRNA pairs to tRNA in the ribosomes This protein the ribosomes This protein building is called building is called TRANSLATIONTRANSLATION..


What does this chart represent?

It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it must be

mRNA.

How would you find the amino acid coded by GAC?


Mutations are changes in the sequence of base pairs in the DNA molecule. There is no guarantee that mutations will be dominant or recessive. In fact, the term “homozygous recessive” refers to what would happen if two copies of a mutated gene were present in a cell. In a skin cell where the mutation occurred, this is not the case.

Mutations effect DNA, not RNA. However, mutations must occur with the DNA coding region for mRNA codons to affect the skin cell. They would not affect offspring unless they were passed on in a gamete (sex cell).

Offspring don’t get their parent’s skin cells; only their gametes.


Following the base pairing rules for DNA

(A-T and G-C),AATCGC would have the complement TTAGCG, and run from 5’ to 3’.

Uracil (U) is not found Uracil (U) is not found in DNA – only in RNAin DNA – only in RNA

This does not follow the base-pairing rule


53 The table shows a comparison of some amino acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in the table that are most closely related are —

A Q and T B R and SC Q and R D Q and S


To be closely related means the amino acid composition should be almost the same, since that is what the DNA is coding. Between Q and T, only 4 levels are

the same – Between R and S only 4 levels are

the same – Between Q and S 5 of the levels

are the same, but – Between Q and R 5 of the levels

are the same and differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent. Answer:

Not A

Not B

Not D

C


Transcription and TranslationTranscription and Translation


What is the DNA base pair rule(Chargaff’s Rule)?

24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strandwill be —F 3' TCTACGTAG 5'G 5' CTACGTAGA 3'H 3' AGATGCATC 5'J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'


In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C

5' AGATGCATC 3‘

TCTACGTAG

• Base pair each letter by the above rule.

• So the answer is:

• F


Nothing wrong here…………..

The answer is D!


7 cells contain

the mutation.


• Father of Genetics is Gregor Mendel.

• Dominant traits always are visible, and are represented by capital letters.

GeneticsGenetics – How traits are inherited…..


GeneticsGenetics

Recessive traitsRecessive traits are hidden unless both are hidden unless both alleles are the recessive one alleles are the recessive one (know ~ homozygous v. heterozygous) (know ~ homozygous v. heterozygous)

At least one pair of At least one pair of allelesalleles determines the determines the trait in genetic inheritance.trait in genetic inheritance.


TAKS question:• The diagram illustrates

the parts of this flower. Which of these parts are not directly involved in sexual reproduction?

• A Stigma and style• B Sepal and pedicel• C Anther and filament• D Receptacle and

ovary


Example: Punnett Square

Y y

Y

y

Yy—heterozygous

Yy—heterozygous

YY Yy

Yy yy

25% = YY homozygous dominant

50% = Yy heterozygous

25% = yy homozygous recessive


Punnett SquaresPunnett Squares

D D

d Dd Dd

d Dd Dd

d d

D Dd Dd

d dd dd

D d

D DD Dd

d Dd dd

D d

D DD Dd

D DD Dd

Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive

Heterzoygous & Heterozygous

Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous

Homozygous Recessive & Homozygous Dominant


These percentages are not possible.

To get this genotype percentage one of the parents would need to

be homozygous smooth and the other parent

would need to be wrinkled.

The homozygous tall parent is TT for height and the short parent is tt for

height. This will give each offspring a Tt genotype for height. Both parentsare wrinkled making them ss for this trait. This will give each off spring agenotype of ss for the wrinkled trait.

This make 100% of the offspring Ttss.


gg is not possible!

Half will inherit long beak from the male (Ll) and half will be short beak (ll)

Half, not all will be short beak.

Why? All the offspring must have green feathers

because all children receive the G gene from

the male.


Phenotype is what is seen…..

• Phenotype refers to what is visible – the dominant trait or the recessive trait.

• How do you know the phenotype?

• LOOK!!


Genotype – actual combination of alleles

• Only 3 possibilities• BB = Homozygous

Dominant• Bb = Heterozygous • bb = Homozygous

recessive • How do you know?

Must look at inheritance pattern to find out.


Inheritance of Traits

• Pedigree—family history that shows how a trait is inherited over several generations.– Helps identify carriers of genetic disorders

• Carriers—individuals who are heterozygous for a genetic disorder but do not show symptoms—can pass the mutant allele to their offspring


Sample Pedigree

Male

Female

Male with disorder

Female with disorder


Pedigree Shows the Family Tree

Colorblindness Inheritance

Male ParentFemale Parent

Carrier

Male Colorblind Male Normal Female ?Female ?

Male Female

Male

Male Female

Male Colorblind Female

P = Father has colorblindness; Mother is a carrier


Pedigree Shows the Family Tree

Colorblindness Inheritance

XcY XCXc

XcY XCY XX ?XX ?

Male Female

Male

Male Female

XCY Female

P = Father has colorblindness; Mother is a carrier


HomeostasisHomeostasis

• … is the maintenance of the normal operating conditions of an organism

• …control of body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and hormone levels all need to be maintained…..a “steady state.”


Structural System – 1(Musculoskeletal System)

• Bones– Support & give

structure – Make blood cells – Allow movement – Muscle

attachments– Ligaments hold

joints together


• 3 types of muscles – Smooth,

involuntary – Striated, voluntary – Cardiac, heart

muscle somewhat like both above

• Allow for movement • Attached by tendons

above and below joints

Structural System – 2


17 Which structure in the upper arm isresponsible for raising the lower arm?A 1B 2C 3D 4

In order to raise it, it must be attached, so its not 1 or 2.

4 is a bone not a muscle, so its answer:


Nervous SystemNervous System - 1

Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves Voluntary - you

control and choose

Involuntary - allows parts to keep functioning without thought

Nerve cells send and receive information.


Nervous SystemNervous System - 2Main parts of

nerve cell: – Axon: sends

signal – Cell Body:

controls cell functions

– Dendrite: receives signal from another

– Synapse: space between cells


Nervous SystemNervous System - 3

• Involuntary is controlled by the medulla oblongata of the brain.

• This is how you keep breathing while sleeping and digest food without thinking about it.


Circulatory SystemCirculatory System - 1This system helps to connect many other systems as it provides the transport of substances from one organ to another.

Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of waste.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry it back to the heart.

The heart pumps the blood


Circulatory SystemCirculatory System - 2• The top parts of the

heart receive blood – Atrium/atria

• The bottom two are very muscular and pump the blood – Ventricle/ventricles

• Two contractions, right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.


A circulatory system

B integumentary system

C excretory system

D endocrine system

29 Nutrients from digested food move from the digestive system directly into the —

Endocrine system does not transport. So . . .

Excretory system gets rid of waste CO2 and H2O, not food. So . .

Integumentary system holds organs and tissues in place. So. . .

The Circulatory System carries everything to every cell, so it is . .


25 The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts quickly to increased levels of CO2 in the blood and stimulates a response from the —

A excretory system

B immune system

C respiratory system

D integumentary system

Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO2.


Immune SystemImmune System - 1• The immune system

protects from infections and illness

• 1st Order Non-specific: includes skin, mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach acid, tears

• 2nd Order: includes the inflammatory response (swelling, redness due to histamine release), fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected tissue cells.

Could also be called first line defense.

Could also be called second line defense.


Immune SystemImmune System - 2Two main types of immunity: • ACTIVE – body makes

its own antibodies after being sick - permanent OR a vaccination to help your body make antibodies

• PASSIVE – injection with antibodies, or transferred from mother to unborn baby


6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell. Which of the following are infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?

F Helper T cells

G Liver cells

H GABA-receptor cells

J Red blood cells


Ask yourself: which cell type deals with immunity?

F Helper T cells

G Liver cells

H GABA-receptor cells

J Red blood cells

• Answer? Helper T cells.

• All the rest are body cells with specific jobs that do not relate to immunity.


Plant SystemsPlant SystemsThere are 3 main plant

systems: • ReproductiveReproductive – this is the

flower structure (in flowering plants)

• TransportTransport – this is the stem and roots and their xylem and phloem

• EnergyEnergy – this is the leaf and other areas of photosynthesis.


Leaf TissueLeaf Tissue – What happens where?


NEXT – Ecology and the EnvironmentEcology and the Environment

The student will demonstrate an understanding of the organization of living systems.

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