The Status of the Jaguar in the Pantanal

7/31/2019 The Status of the Jaguar in the Pantanal

1/6Jaguar in Brazil

SANDRA M. C. CAVALCANTI1, FERNANDO C. C. DE AZEVEDO1,2, WALFRIDO M. TOMS3,RICARDO L. P. BOULHOSA1, PETER G. CRAWSHAW JR.4

The status of the jaguar in thePantanalThe Pantanal is considered an important area for the conservation of jaguars Pan-

thera oncain the long-term. In comparison to other biomes in Brazil, the Pantanal

can be considered still relatively well preserved. According to a recent study, the

original vegetation cover remains intact in 85% of the Pantanal plain. However, in

the uplands of the Upper Paraguay watershed over 50% of the original vegetation

has been altered. This situation is worrisome as this area harbors the headwaters

of the rivers that are responsible for maintaining the wet and dry cycles of the Pan-

tanal. As opposed to previously reported, only about 63% of the Pantanal biome is

actually occupied by jaguars. Habitat fragmentation caused by human presence and

intensification of land use is a threat to jaguars in the Pantanal. Other threats include

high levels of retaliation from ranchers due to livestock depredation and the lack of

enforcement by wildlife authorities, illegal hunting tourism activity, pasture manage-ment through the use of annual fires, and the mining industry. The first estimate of a

jaguar population in Brazil was conducted in the southern Pantanal (6.5-7.0 jaguars/

km2), although the distribution of the species is heterogeneous, which precludes an

accurate estimation of the current population size in this biome. Authorities should

recognize the cost associated with grazing cattle in an area where jaguars exist in

considerable numbers and regularly prey on cattle. A unique regional policy could

address some of the problem, perhaps in the form of tax benefits, special lines of

credit, or a regional increase in beef prices. It is important that environmental ac-

tions be implemented to increase market value of cattle raised in the region without

changing the main characteristics of the Pantanal.

AssessmentNear Threatened Due to loss of habitat,increased human presence and intensificationof land use, as well as poaching of jaguars,this species is considered to be Near Threate-ned in the Pantanal biome.

Geographic range information

Extent of Occurrence EOO and Area of

Occupancy AOO

The Brazilian Pantanal biome encompassesabout 140,000 km2. Results from the range-

wide assessment developed by the WildlifeConservation Society (WCS) in 1999 suggestthat 91-100 % of the biome is occupied by ja-guars (Sanderson et al. 2002, Marieb 2005).Their extent of occurrence encompassesabout 125,000 km2 (S. Cavalcanti, map adap-ted from a MMA Pantanal map and resultsfrom the Pantanal Landscape Species Work-shop, organized by WCS in Corumb, 2003).An exercise by Brazilian researchers workingin the Pantanal (Pantanal Landscape SpeciesWorkshop, 2003) suggests that only about 63

% or 88,200 km2 of the Pantanal biome is ac-tually occupied by jaguars (Fig. 1). The areaof occupancy exclude most of the TaquariAlluvial Fan, parts of the Cceres sub-region,

portions of the Nabileque sub-region (south ofCorumb), and areas in the north-eastern andeastern border of the Pantanal.

FragmentationIn general, and in comparison to other biomesin Brazil, the Pantanal can be considered stillrelatively well preserved (Fig. 2). The inacces-sibility of much of its area restricts agricultu-ral practices and deforestation on the plains(Fig. 3). Beef cattle ranching on the savannaswith flooding native pastures is relatively

less destructive of the environment than lar-ge scale agricultural fields.Less than 20 years ago, the deforestation inthe Pantanal was quantified as 5,438 km2 or3.9% of the Pantanal area (Silva et al. 1992).In 1993 Mouro et al. (2000) observed thatmuch of the upland areas originally coveredby forests or savanna woodlands had beencleared and replaced by pastures. Deforesta-tion areas corresponded to 9,490 km2 or 6.8%of the Pantanal. In 2000 Padovani et al. (2004)quantified the deforested area as 12,182 km2

or almost 9% of the total Pantanal area.According to Mouro et al. (2000), deforesta-tion for pastures has started to spread fromthe east to the Taquari Alluvial Fan (Nhe-

colndia and Paiagus sub regions) and alongthe courses of the Aquidauana and Mirandarivers. The spread of man-made pastures hasbeen especially intense in the Cceres subregion (area of Corixo Grande) and in the Ta-quari river watershed, mainly near the city of

Coxim.The most current information on the status ofthe vegetation cover in the Pantanal revealsthat in the last 9 years (2001-2009) defore-station has accounted for an additional 6%of the area of the Pantanal. The data derivesfrom a recent ongoing survey initiated in themiddle of 2008 and carried out by 5 Non-Governmental Organizations (WWF-Brazil,SOS Mata Atlntica, Conservation Interna-tional, Avina, and Ecoa) with the supportof researchers from EMBRAPA Pantanal.

According to the study the original vegetationcover remains intact in 85% of the Pantanalplain. However, in the uplands of the UpperParaguay watershed over 50% of the originalvegetation has been altered. This situation isworrisome as this area, adjacent to the plain,harbors the headwaters of the rivers that areresponsible for maintaining the wet and drycycles of the Pantanal (Harris et al. 2005).In addition to deforestation and fires, humanpresence causes habitat fragmentation. Overthe past several decades, ranches in the Pan-

tanal have decreased in size as land has beensubdivided among family members. This divi-sion has increased access to areas that wereformerly remote and had little movement ofvehicles and people. This trend is likely tocontinue, or even intensify, thereby increas-

Fig. 1. Extent of Occurrence EOO and

Area of Occupancy AOO for the jaguar in

the Brazilian Pantanal.

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ing access to prime jaguar habitat. This frag-mentation of land decreases its profitability;to maintain economically viable operations,many ranchers opt to increase herd size. Thisintensification in grazing pressure increasesthe need for open pastures and introducedgrasses which further modifies native habi-tats.

Ecology and population informationPopulation size

The few formal attempts to describe jaguaroccurrence in the Pantanal have indicatedthat the jaguar has a heterogeneous distri-bution in the region (Quigley & Crawshaw1992). The lack of information for most of the

different subtypes of the Pantanal precludesan accurate estimation of the current popula-tion size in this biome. It is believed howeverthat the Pantanal still holds a large popula-tion of jaguars (Soisalo & Cavalcanti 2006).In one of the pioneering studies of jaguars inthe late 1970s, Crawshaw & Quigley (1991)estimated a population of 3.2 jaguars/100km2 in the southern Pantanal. The authors

noted however, their data was only specu-lative. More recently Soisalo & Cavalcanti(2006) published the first estimate of a jaguarpopulation in Brazil based on camera-trapdata in conjunction with GPS radio-telemetrydata. Their data indicate that in the southernPantanal, jaguars occur at a density of 6.5-6.7

jaguars/100 km2. These results are consistentwith the estimate of 7.0 jaguars/100 km2 Aze-vedo & Murray (2007) reported for the samegeneral area.

Population trends

Over the past several years there has beenincreased speculation on the numbers ofjaguars in the Pantanal. Ranch owners andcowboys claim that jaguar numbers have in-creased (Marchini 2003). The suggestion thatjaguar numbers are increasing is controversi-al among government officials, environmen-talists and livestock producers throughoutthe country. There is little evidence whetherthe presumed increase in jaguar/livestockconflicts are related to increased numbers ofthese carnivores, increased number of cattle,

increased contact due to habitat fragmenta-tion, or increased attention from the media.Until recently this controversy could not beevaluated due to a lack of baseline data onpopulation numbers. Information on jaguarpopulations in the Pantanal have been publis-hed in the last few years (Soisalo & Cavalcan-ti 2006, Azevedo & Murray 2007). Althoughthe data from these two studies are consi-stent at 6.5-7.0 jaguars/100 km2, it would beunreasonable to assume a stable trend as thestudies cover a short period of time. In order

to evaluate the trend of the jaguar populati-on in the Pantanal additional estimates fromsubsequent time periods are needed.

Subpopulations

Within the Pantanal there are no significantbarriers that could potentially hinder jaguardispersal. However, there are regions thatare significantly affected by factors suchas human presence, density of roads andtowns, etc. These areas may hamper jaguarmovement to a degree, although it is unclear

whether they would separate individuals intosubpopulations. Jaguars could possibly bedivided into 2 subpopulations (Fig. 4) whichwould be reasonably connected by the low-land corridor along the Paraguay River. Thesouthern population would be separated fromthe northern population by the area to the sou-theast of Corumb near Fazenda Bodoquenaand its surroundings, which has been severelydeforested, but probably does not keep jagu-ars from moving between the two areas.

Extreme fluctuationsGiven the diversity of prey species characteri-stic of the Pantanal and the ability of jaguarsto readily switch prey (Cavalcanti & Gese

Fig. 2. Aerial photograph of a ranch in the northern Pantanal, in the district of Pocon,Mato Grosso, Brazil (Photo S. Cavalcanti).

Fig. 3. Aerial image of a ranch in the southern Pantanal during the wet season, showing

the areas inaccessibility (Photo S. Cavalcanti).

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2010), it is unlikely that jaguar populationsundergo severe fluctuations in the biome.Nevertheless, this statement may depend onthe time scale being considered. In the late1970s, jaguars were almost extinct over mostof the Pantanal (Schaller 1979) and presently

they appear to exist in considerable numbers(Soisalo & Cavalcanti 2006, Azevedo & Mur-ray 2007).

Other life history information

Jaguars are challenging to study. Neverthe-less, our knowledge on jaguars has increasedsince the first field studies in the mid 1980sas several studies have helped uncover diffe-rent aspects of their ecology and life history(Crawshaw et al. 2004, Novack et al. 2005,Polisar et al. 2003, Scognamillo et al. 2003,

Cullen et al. 2005, Palmeira et al. 2008, Harm-sen et al. 2009).The reproductive profiles of female jagu-ars indicate a lack of an established matingseason, i.e., asynchrony, suggesting theyassociate with males throughout the year(Cavalcanti & Gese 2009). The breeding pat-tern suggests successful mating taking placeat roughly two-year intervals and offspringbecoming independent at an approximateage of 18-24 months. Male offspring tendto disperse further than females (Quigley &

Crawshaw 2002), thus being the key elementin colonizing new areas and in linking subpo-pulations with dispersal movements.Cavalcanti & Gese (2009) suggest that themating system in jaguars may be one of apolygynous and promiscuous nature; a malelikely mates with several females and a fe-male mates with several males.Soisalo & Cavalcanti (2006) found a male:female ratio of 1.5:1 and 1.2:1 during 2003and 2004, respectively. In a different studyarea, Azevedo & Murray (2007) reported a

male:female ratio of 0.6:1. This might repre-sent different methodological approachesadopted by the two studies or the presenceof transient males on the former studied po-pulation.Although there is still a lack of consistentinformation on jaguar dispersal, jaguarshave been reported to disperse over 60 kmin the Atlantic Forest (Iguau National Park,Crawshaw et al. 2004) and 30 km in the Pan-tanal (Quigley & Crawshaw 2002, S. Caval-canti, unpubl. data).

The locations of female jaguars suggest apattern of spatial avoidance among femalesduring the wet season. Home range overlapamong males is extensive both in the wet and

in the dry seasons, suggesting that males donot maintain exclusive ranges. Overlap bet-ween males and females occurred both inthe wet and dry seasons (Cavalcanti & Gese2009).

ThreatsOne of the main threats to jaguars in the bi-ome comes from high levels of retaliation fromranchers due to livestock depredation. Histori-cally, jaguars have been killed in the Pantanalas a way to curtail livestock depredation by thelarge cats (Crawshaw & Quigley 1991, Lourival& Fonseca 1997) even though the amount ofdamage incurred by jaguars may be less signi-ficant than that incurred by other sources ofmortality (such as droughts, malnutrition anddiseases; Hoogesteijn et al. 1993).

Jaguar persecution goes beyond the econo-mic aspect as it has also a cultural aspect(Cavalcanti et al. 2010). Jaguar hunts areviewed as an act of bravery and dexterityamong cowboys, a way to increase their per-sonal status within the community (BanducciJr. 2007), and therefore remains a commonpractice in the Pantanal (B. Rondom, pers.comm., V. Correia, pers. comm).Another serious threat comes from the lucra-tive illegal hunting tourism activity involvingnational and international hunters (Almeida

1990, Azevedo & Murray 2007, B. Fiori, pers.comm.).Although jaguars are fully protected at thenational level across most of its range (IUCN2009), cultural traditions in the Pantanal cou-pled with the characteristics of the area andthe lack of enforcement by wildlife authori-

ties contribute to the regular illegal shootingof these cats. The illegal nature of this hun-ting makes it difficult to quantify and monitorits effect on the population. The shooting ofjaguars remains a regular activity even inareas where landowners have banned thepractice.Increasing deforestation for the implementa-tion of pastures of native and exotic grasses

for grazing cattle is another threat that likelydisrupts jaguar movements and habitat use(Fig. 5). As previously mentioned, defore-station is more severe in the southeast andnorth-west borders of the plain.Pasture management through the use ofannual fires, although controversial, also im-

Fig. 5. Area in the southern Pantanal formerly covered by native trees deforested for the

implementation of pastures for cattle grazing (Photo W. Tomas).

Fig. 4. Possible jaguar subpopulationswithin the Pantanal biome.

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pacts important natural habitats and kills se-veral prey species. It also probably changesjaguar density in some areas, by disruptingtheir movements and habitat use. These ef-fects may be especially severe in dry years,when shrubs and trees are less resistant tofire (Fig. 6).Charcoal production is a potential indirectthreat for jaguars in that it may generate in-

centives for additional deforestation. Woodfor charcoal production is usually obtainedfrom sites that have been legally deforestedfor pasture implementation (Fig. 7). In thatsense, it is a legal activity. However, given

that wood selling for charcoal productionenhances the economic viability of pastureimplementation, it tends to be an incentivefor the creation of additional pastures andconsequent deforestation.The mining industry is considered a greatthreat to the Pantanal environment and in-directly to jaguars, both in the north, wherethere is gold and diamond extraction, and in

the south, where there is iron, manganeseand limestone extraction (Fig. 8). The districtof Pocon has presently fourteen large goldmines and two-hundred smaller excavationsites (PM Pocone 2010). This recent gold mi-

ning activity has created great environmen-tal problems, including water and soil con-tamination with mercury, river sedimentationand changes in the banks of rivers and lakes.

Locations

The persecution of jaguars by ranch emplo-yees occurs throughout the Pantanal biome.It affects both male and female jaguars inall age classes as it is done both opportu-nistically and in a preventive manner, evenbefore depredations occur. The practice ofsport hunting is more localized, but becauseof its illegal nature, it is difficult to determineprecisely where it happens and how muchimpact it poses to jaguars.Increasing deforestation is most intensivenear the borders of the Pantanal plain, but

it happens throughout the biome as well.Considering the ongoing survey carried outby WWF-Brazil, SOS Mata Atlntica, Con-servation International, Avina, and Ecoa, thecurrent rate of deforestation in the Pantanalis about 0.67%/year or 6% over the last 9years. Considering the total area of 140,000km2, the annual area being deforested in theplain is about 938 km2/year, which is quitesignificant. Considering the non-overlappinghome ranges of female jaguars, the totalarea deforested every year is almost the size

of the area occupied by 20 jaguars. But thisfigure is likely an underestimate given thatnot all the 140,000 km2 of the plain is cove-red by forests.Another significant threat, the use of annualfires for management of pastures, happensthroughout the biome and during drier yearsmay affect even the lower areas of the Pan-tanal, where most of the jaguars are found.Charcoal production as a threat in the formof incentive for additional pasture implemen-tation is particularly serious in the Miranda/

Aquidauana regions, near the southern bor-der of the plain.

Conservation measures

Authorities should recognize the cost asso-ciated with grazing cattle in an area wherejaguars exist in considerable numbers (Soi-salo & Cavalcanti 2006) and regularly preyon cattle. An unique regional policy couldaddress some of the problem, perhaps in theform of tax benefits, special lines of credit,or a regional increase in beef prices. It is

important that environmental actions be im-plemented to increase market value of cattleraised in the region without changing themain characteristics of the Pantanal. Certain

Fig. 6. Pasture management through the use of annual fires in the Pantanal (Photo S.Cavalcanti).

Fig. 7. Furnaces for charcoal production installed in Pantanal ranches on areas that have

been recently deforested. Not only they make pasture implementation economically more

viable, but also help with the cleaning of recently cut areas (Photo W. Tomas).

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actions have already been tested or put intoplace, such as organic certified cattle ran-ching. With the objective of making businessventures economically viable while maintai-ning the regions environmental and socialbalance, local ranchers have participated in

the organic certified cattle ranching (ABPOOrganic Pantanal, http://assets.wwfbr.pan-da.org/downloads/organic pantanal.pdf,January 2010). Although the internationalprotocols of meat production do not includeactions for wildlife conservation, ABPO fol-lows an internal protocol that establishessome environmental directives importantfrom a conservation standpoint.Embrapa Pantanal has been conducting a7-year project with the main objective ofestablishing sustainability criteria/indicators

that are specific for Pantanal ranches and in-clude environmental issues. The focal pointof the different criteria for ranch evaluationand decision making is biodiversity conser-vation. This could result in a certification ora stamp of approval program. The adoptionof low impact production systems togetherwith an added value to Pantanal meat pro-ducts can be beneficial for jaguar conservati-on. This added value via a possible certifica-tion program could compensate, throughoutthe market system, the economic losses

caused by jaguar depredation and the lowerprofitability from lower impact productionsystems. Embrapa Pantanal has been takingthe necessary steps to increase the valueof low impact systems, working with ABPOin the search for a strategy that could joinboth initiatives (organic cattle and sustaina-bility). The institution also works toward asystem that is applicable to other productionsystems, such as the traditional Pantanalranches that are not part of the organic meatinitiative.

Traditional ranchers should focus on incre-asing their production potential, curtailinglosses due to rudimentary herd managementand poor husbandry practices, which can bemore significant than jaguar depredation(Hoogesteijn et al. 1993). Although preda-tion on cattle in the Pantanal will likely al-ways occur, the results from recent studies(Azevedo & Murray 2007, Cavalcanti & Gese2010) illustrate the importance of maintai-ning native prey populations as a possiblemeans of minimizing these conflicts.

The establishment of private reserves in-side ranches is another important measuretowards conservation of jaguars in the Pan-tanal. Private reserves act as a guarantee of

maintenance of the original natural lands-cape without human modification. Bene-fiting from local and federal governments,local ranchers have converted part of theirlands into private reserves, or RPPNs. Cur-rently, more than 2,100 km2 of land are setaside as private reserves in the Pantanal(Harris et al. 2005) and this figure is likely

to increase. The recent purchase of largetracts of land by owners that are committedto conservation in the northern Pantanal hasproduced a mosaic of private ranches in-terspersed with state and federal parks tocreate an almost continuous corridor thatadds up to roughly 300,000 km2 encompas-sing the areas of SESC Pantanal, Mata doBebe, Encontro das guas and Guir StateParks, Pantanal National Park, So Bento,Porto Jofre and Baa Vermelha Ranches,RPPNs Penha, Acurizal, Doroch, Rumo a

Oeste, and Novos Dourados. Such initiati-ves in strategic locations would definitelycontribute to reduce the decline in jaguardistribution or population size.Long-term ecological studies are also vitalfor the conservation of jaguars in the Pan-tanal. Some recent long-term studies haveprovided important information on jaguarsspatial organization, food habits, densityestimates, genetics and predation impacton livestock in the Pantanal (Soisalo & Ca-valcanti 2006, Azevedo & Murray 2007a,

2007b, Eizirik et al. 2008, Cavalcanti & Gese2009, 2010). However, there is a lack of stu-dies on demographic parameters such asage at first reproduction, litter size, age at

dispersal, dispersal distances, populationsizes, etc, human/predator conflicts and ja-guar prey base availability which precludesimplementation of management actions.This type of information can contribute tobetter management decisions that not onlyminimize cattle depredation by jaguarsbut that also contribute to increasing ac-

ceptance of jaguars by ranchers.

Current research projects

1. Jaguar Ecology in the Pantanal TheNorthern Corridor. Coordinator: Peter G.Crawshaw Jr. and Panthera. The objectives ofthe project include the foraging, spatial, andsocial ecology of jaguars, as well as exami-ning demographic parameters of the studiedpopulation.2. Indicators of Sustainability. Coordinator:Embrapa Pantanal CPAP. This program en-

compasses 4 or 5 integrated projects, thathave been developed since 2002 to imple-ment a ranch evaluation/certification systemfor the Pantanal.

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Fig. 8. Gold mining near the municipality of Pocon, in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil

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1 Instituto Pr-Carnvoros, Av. Horcio Neto, 1030,

Atibaia, SP, 12945-010, Brazil

< [email protected]>2 Departamento de Cincias Naturais, Universi-

dade Federal de So Joo del Rei, Praa Dom

Helvcio, 74, Campus Dom Bosco, So Joo del

Rei, MG, 36301-160, Brazil3 Centro de Pesquisa Agropecuria do Pantanal,

Embrapa Pantanal, Rua 21 de Setembro, 1880,

Corumb, MS, 79320-900, Brazil4 ICMBio/Cenap, Av. dos Bandeirantes, s/n, Bal-

nerio Municipal, Atibaia, SP, 12941-680, Brazil

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