ChapterChapter 55ChapterChapter 55

ThTh S lfS lf U d t diU d t diTheThe SelfSelf:: UnderstandingUnderstanding“Who“Who AmAm I?”I?”

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 11

TheThe SelfSelfTheThe SelfSelf

•• ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf:: PersonalPersonalThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf:: PersonalPersonalversusversus SocialSocial IdentityIdentityS lfS lf E tE t Attit dAttit d t dt d thth S lfS lf•• SelfSelf--EsteemEsteem:: AttitudesAttitudes towardtoward thethe SelfSelf

•• SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thethe SelfSelfpp gg•• TheThe SelfSelf asas TargetTarget ofof PrejudicePrejudice

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

•• PersonalPersonal--SocialSocial IdentityIdentity ContinuumContinuum::PersonalPersonal SocialSocial IdentityIdentity ContinuumContinuum::signifiessignifies thethe twotwo distinctdistinct waysways thatthat thethe selfselfcancan bebe categorizedcategorizedcancan bebe categorizedcategorized–– PersonalPersonal levellevel

•• SelfSelf cancan bebe thoughtthought ofof asas aa uniqueunique individualindividualSelfSelf cancan bebe thoughtthought ofof asas aa uniqueunique individualindividual–– HowHow it’sit’s describeddescribed dependsdepends onon intragroupintragroup

comparisonscomparisons

–– SocialSocial identityidentity levellevel•• SelfSelf cancan bebe thoughtthought ofof asas aa membermember ofof aa groupgroup

–– HowHow it’sit’s describeddescribed isis aa resultresult ofof intergroupintergroupcomparisonscomparisons

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

•• WhoWho II AmAm DependsDepends onon thethe SituationSituation•• WhoWho II AmAm DependsDepends onon thethe SituationSituation–– PeoplePeople seesee themselvesthemselves differentlydifferently dependingdepending onon

thethe contextscontexts andand thethe componentscomponents ofof thethe selfselfthethe contextscontexts andand thethe componentscomponents ofof thethe selfselfmademade salientsalient

–– SelfSelf--ComplexityComplexity:: refersrefers toto howhow thethe selfself--conceptconceptSelfSelf ComplexityComplexity:: refersrefers toto howhow thethe selfself conceptconceptisis organizedorganized•• HighHigh complexitycomplexity:: AspectsAspects ofof thethe selfself areare distinctdistinct fromfrom

oneone anotheranother–– FailureFailure inin oneone domaindomain hashas lessless impactimpact onon one’sone’s overalloverall

feelingsfeelings aboutabout one’sone’s selfselfgg

•• LowLow complexitycomplexity:: AspectsAspects ofof thethe selfself overlapoverlap eacheachotherother

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

•• WhoWho II AmAm DependsDepends onon thethe SituationSituationIndependentIndependent SelfSelf ConceptConcept:: inin individualisticindividualistic–– IndependentIndependent SelfSelf--ConceptConcept:: inin individualisticindividualisticcultures,cultures, peoplepeople developdevelop aa selfself--conceptconcept asasseparateseparate fromfrom oror independentindependent ofof othersothersseparateseparate fromfrom oror independentindependent ofof othersothers

–– InterdependentInterdependent SelfSelf--ConceptConcept:: inin collectivistcollectivistcultures,cultures, peoplepeople developdevelop aa selfself--conceptconcept inin termstermscultures,cultures, peoplepeople developdevelop aa selfself conceptconcept inin termstermsofof one’sone’s connectionsconnections oror relationshipsrelationships withwithothersothers

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfGroup membership, like being a member of a Group membership, like being a member of a

d i fl h ’ lfd i fl h ’ lfgender group, influences how one sees one’s selfgender group, influences how one sees one’s self

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf–– WhatWhat determinesdetermines whichwhich aspectaspect ofof thethe selfself willwill bebe mostmost

i fl ti l?i fl ti l?influential?influential?•• AnAn aspectaspect ofof thethe selfself maymay bebe relevantrelevant toto thethe currentcurrent

contextcontext–– OurOur intellectualintellectual selfself isis relevantrelevant toto thethe collegecollege contextcontext–– OurOur funfun selfself isis relevantrelevant toto aa partyparty contextcontext

•• ContextContext cancan makemake anan aspectaspect ofof thethe selfself distinctivedistinctive•• ContextContext cancan makemake anan aspectaspect ofof thethe selfself distinctivedistinctive–– BeingBeing thethe onlyonly personperson ofof aa specificspecific racerace inin aa groupgroup makesmakes

racerace aa distinctivedistinctive aspectaspect ofof thethe selfself

•• ImportanceImportance ofof thethe aspectaspect toto thethe selfself–– SelfSelf--definingdefining characteristicscharacteristics willwill surfacesurface inin manymany contextscontexts

•• ReferencesReferences otherother peoplepeople makemake aboutabout one’sone’s selfselfReferencesReferences otherother peoplepeople makemake aboutabout one sone s selfself–– BeingBeing referredreferred toto asas aa woman,woman, scientist,scientist, minority,minority, collegecollege

student,student, etcetc.. makesmakes thatthat componentcomponent ofof thethe selfself salientsalient

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

–– WhoWho II AmAm DependsDepends onon Others’Others’WhoWho II AmAm DependsDepends onon OthersOthersTreatmentTreatment••HowHow peoplepeople areare treatedtreated byby othersothers andand••HowHow peoplepeople areare treatedtreated byby othersothers andand

howhow theythey believebelieve theythey willwill bebe treatedtreatedinin thethe futurefuture affectsaffects howhow theythey thinkthinku uu u a sa s oo yyaboutabout themselvesthemselves

–– PeoplePeople maymay trytry toto hidehide anan aspectaspect ofof thetheselfself thatthat theythey thinkthink willwill resultresult inin rejectionrejectionfromfrom othersothers

OrOr theythey maymay choosechoose toto emphasizeemphasizeOr,Or, theythey maymay choosechoose toto emphasizeemphasizethisthis featurefeature

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

•• SelfSelf--AwarenessAwareness•• SelfSelf AwarenessAwareness–– SubjectiveSubjective SelfSelf--AwarenessAwareness:: thoughtthought toto bebe thethe firstfirst

levellevel ofof thethe selfself toto emergeemergee ee e oo t et e sese toto e e gee e ge•• TheThe selfself isis separateseparate fromfrom otherother objectsobjects inin one’sone’s

physicalphysical environmentenvironment–– ObjectiveObjective SelfSelf--AwarenessAwareness:: organism’sorganism’s capacitycapacity toto

bebe thethe objectobject ofof itsits ownown attentionattention•• WhatWhat dodo animalsanimals dodo whenwhen theythey looklook inin aa mirror?mirror?•• WhatWhat dodo animalsanimals dodo whenwhen theythey looklook inin aa mirror?mirror?

–– SymbolicSymbolic SelfSelf--AwarenessAwareness:: uniquelyuniquely humanhuman capacitycapacitytoto formform anan abstractabstract representationrepresentation ofof thethe selfselftoto formform anan abstractabstract representationrepresentation ofof thethe selfselfthroughthrough languagelanguage andand isis connectedconnected withwith knowingknowingthatthat deathdeath isis inevitableinevitable

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

•• PossiblePossible SelvesSelves:: TheThe SelfSelf OverOver TimeTime•• PossiblePossible SelvesSelves:: TheThe SelfSelf OverOver TimeTime–– PossiblePossible SelfSelf:: imageimage ofof howhow thethe selfself mightmight bebe inin

thethe futurefuturethethe futurefuture•• CouldCould bebe avoidedavoided oror desireddesired•• CanCan motivatemotivate peoplepeople toto changechange behaviorbehaviorCanCan motivatemotivate peoplepeople toto changechange behaviorbehavior•• AwarenessAwareness thatthat oneone isis failingfailing toto livelive upup toto one’sone’s

standardsstandards cancan resultresult inin distractiondistraction asas aa wayway totoreducereduce uncomfortableuncomfortable selfself--awarenessawareness

•• PeoplePeople maymay bebe overlyoverly optimisticoptimistic aboutabout theirtheir abilityability totobecomebecome thethe selfself thatthat theythey desiredesirebecomebecome thethe selfself thatthat theythey desiredesire

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

•• SuccessfulSuccessful changechange isis moremore likelylikely whenwhen feelingsfeelings ofof•• SuccessfulSuccessful changechange isis moremore likelylikely whenwhen feelingsfeelings ofofselfself--efficacyefficacy,, believingbelieving thatthat oneone cancan achieveachieve aagoalgoal,, areare presentpresent

•• CollectiveCollective selfself--efficacyefficacy,, believingbelieving thatthat youryour groupgroup cancanachieveachieve aa goalgoal,, isis veryvery importantimportant forfor teamworkteamwork

–– PersuadingPersuading peoplepeople toto becomebecome politicallypolitically activeactive dependsdepends ininPersuadingPersuading peoplepeople toto becomebecome politicallypolitically activeactive dependsdepends ininpartpart onon theirtheir perceptionperception thatthat thethe groupgroup cancan bringbring aboutaboutsocialsocial changechange

•• OtherOther changeschanges toto thethe selfself occuroccur duedue toto changeschanges inin•• OtherOther changeschanges toto thethe selfself occuroccur duedue toto changeschanges ininsituationalsituational factorsfactors

–– ForFor example,example, age,age, relocation,relocation, newnew job,job, andand majormajor lifelifetteventsevents

ThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelfThinkingThinking AboutAbout thethe SelfSelf

•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?–– WhatWhat areare factorsfactors thatthat influenceinfluence howhow peoplepeople

thinkthink aboutabout themselves?themselves?thinkthink aboutabout themselves?themselves?–– CanCan youyou thinkthink ofof aa timetime whenwhen aa contextcontext

mademade aa particularparticular aspectaspect ofof thethe selfselfmademade aa particularparticular aspectaspect ofof thethe selfselfdistinctive?distinctive?

–– CanCan youyou thinkthink ofof aa timetime whenwhen youyou doubteddoubtedyy yythethe collectivecollective selfself--efficacyefficacy ofof aa group?group?

–– HowHow diddid startingstarting collegecollege challengechallenge youryour viewviewgg gg gg yyofof thethe self?self?

SelfSelf--EsteemEsteemSelfSelf EsteemEsteem

•• MeasurementMeasurement ofof SelfSelf--EsteemEsteem•• MeasurementMeasurement ofof SelfSelf EsteemEsteem–– SelfSelf--EsteemEsteem:: degreedegree toto whichwhich thethe

selfself isis perceivedperceived positivelypositively ororselfself isis perceivedperceived positivelypositively orornegativelynegatively;; one’sone’s overalloverall attitudeattitudetowardtoward thethe selfself

–– SelfSelf--esteemesteem cancan changechange readilyreadily ininresponseresponse toto socialsocial situationssituations•• ItIt easilyeasily cancan bebe enhancedenhanced oror decreaseddecreased

inin laboratorylaboratory settingssettings

SelfSelf EsteemEsteemSelfSelf--EsteemEsteem–– Rosenberg’sRosenberg’s ((19651965)) scalescale isis thethe mostmostRosenberg sRosenberg s ((19651965)) scalescale isis thethe mostmost

commoncommon methodmethod toto measuremeasure selfself--esteemesteem

SelfSelf--EsteemEsteemSelfSelf EsteemEsteem–– UnconsciousUnconscious measurementmeasurement proceduresprocedures alsoalso

areare usedused toto measuremeasure selfself--esteemesteemareare usedused toto measuremeasure selfself esteemesteem•• SelfSelf--ReferenceReference EffectEffect:: peoplepeople seemseem toto orientorient

themselvesthemselves towardtoward stimulistimuli thatthat areare associatedassociated withwiththth lflf dd hh ff ff bj tbj t dd bbthethe selfself andand showshow preferencespreferences forfor objectsobjects ownedowned bybyandand reflectivereflective ofof thethe selfself

–– SuggestsSuggests thatthat strategiesstrategies toto improveimprove selfself--esteemesteem maymay bebegggg gg pp yymoremore successfulsuccessful ifif implementedimplemented belowbelow consciousconsciousawarenessawareness

•• DijksterhuisDijksterhuis ((20042004)) usedused subliminalsubliminal classicalclassicalDijksterhuisDijksterhuis ((20042004)) usedused subliminalsubliminal classicalclassicalconditioningconditioning toto raiseraise oror lowerlower theirtheir selfself--esteemesteem

–– ThoseThose withwith raisedraised selfself--esteemesteem werewere unaffectedunaffected bybynegativenegative feedbackfeedback aboutabout anan intelligenceintelligence testtestnegativenegative feedbackfeedback aboutabout anan intelligenceintelligence testtest

–– ThoseThose withwith loweredlowered selfself--esteemesteem werewere furtherfurther affectedaffected bybynegativenegative feedbackfeedback aboutabout anan intelligenceintelligence testtest

SelfSelf--EsteemEsteemSelfSelf EsteemEsteem•• SelfSelf--ServingServing BiasesBiasesSelfSelf ServingServing BiasesBiases

–– AboveAbove AverageAverage EffectEffect:: tendencytendency forfor peoplepeople totoraterate themselvesthemselves asas aboveabove thethe averageaverage onon mostmostggpositivepositive socialsocial attributesattributes

–– PeoplePeople dodo notnot tendtend toto taketake responsibilityresponsibility forforpp p yp ynegativenegative outcomes,outcomes, butbut dodo soso forfor positivepositiveoutcomesoutcomes•• PeoplePeople maymay dodo thisthis forfor bothboth personalpersonal andand groupgroup

outcomesoutcomes–– CultureCulture affectsaffects likelihoodlikelihood thatthat peoplepeople willwill engageengage inin thisthisCultureCulture affectsaffects likelihoodlikelihood thatthat peoplepeople willwill engageengage inin thisthis

processprocess

SelfSelf--EsteemEsteemSelfSelf EsteemEsteem

•• IsIs HighHigh SelfSelf--EsteemEsteem AlwaysAlways Positive?Positive?•• IsIs HighHigh SelfSelf EsteemEsteem AlwaysAlways Positive?Positive?–– ItIt hashas foundfound toto bebe relatedrelated toto bullying,bullying,

narcissismnarcissism andand interpersonalinterpersonal aggressionaggressionnarcissism,narcissism, andand interpersonalinterpersonal aggressionaggression•• MenMen withwith highhigh selfself--esteemesteem ratherrather thanthan lowlow selfself--

esteemesteem areare moremore likelylikely toto commitcommit actsacts ofof violenceviolencetowardtoward thosethose whowho contestcontest theirtheir positivepositive selfself--viewview

•• ThoseThose withwith unstableunstable highhigh selfself--esteemesteem areare moremore likelylikely totofeelfeel threatenedthreatened whenwhen theythey receivereceive feedbackfeedback ofof aa failurefailurefeelfeel threatenedthreatened whenwhen theythey receivereceive feedbackfeedback ofof aa failurefailurethanthan thosethose withwith stablestable highhigh selfself--esteemesteem

SelfSelf--EsteemEsteemSelfSelf EsteemEsteem•• DoDo GenderGender DifferencesDifferences inin SelfSelf--EsteemEsteem

Exist?Exist?–– WomenWomen whowho areare devalueddevalued (face(face gendergender

discrimination)discrimination) andand areare awareaware ofof thisthisinequalityinequality havehave lowerlower selfself--esteemesteem comparedcomparedtoto othersotherstoto othersothers

–– Men’sMen’s selfself--esteemesteem tendstends toto bebe higherhigher thanthanwomen’swomen’s selfself esteemesteemwomen swomen s selfself--esteemesteem•• TheseThese differencesdifferences areare lessless inin thethe professionalprofessional classclass

thanthan inin middlemiddle--lowerlower incomeincome classesclasses•• MaleMale dominateddominated culturescultures showshow aa greatergreater

differencedifference inin malemale vsvs.. femalefemale selfself--esteemesteem

SelfSelf--EsteemEsteemSelfSelf EsteemEsteem

•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?–– WhatWhat areare successfulsuccessful strategiesstrategies thatthat peoplepeople useuse

toto maintainmaintain theirtheir overalloverall selfself--esteem?esteem?toto maintainmaintain theirtheir overalloverall selfself esteem?esteem?–– HowHow dodo youyou knowknow thatthat youyou areare valued?valued?–– WhyWhy isis highhigh selfself--esteemesteem associatedassociated withwith–– WhyWhy isis highhigh selfself--esteemesteem associatedassociated withwith

violenceviolence inin men?men?–– HowHow dodo women’swomen’s rightsrights affectaffect women’swomen’s selfself--HowHow dodo women swomen s rightsrights affectaffect women swomen s selfself

esteem?esteem?•• HowHow doesdoes thisthis issueissue relaterelate toto race?race?

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf

•• SocialSocial ComparisonComparison TheoryTheory:: FestingerFestinger ((19541954))suggestedsuggested thatthat peoplepeople comparecompare themselvesthemselvesgggg p pp p pptoto othersothers whenwhen therethere isis nono objectiveobjectiveyardstickyardstick toto evaluateevaluate thethe selfself againstagainst others’others’yy ggperformanceperformance–– DownwardDownward SocialSocial ComparisonComparisonDownwardDownward SocialSocial ComparisonComparison–– UpwardUpward SocialSocial ComparisonComparison

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf

hh hh ff ll–– WhatWhat isis thethe motivemotive forfor socialsocial comparison,comparison, totofeelfeel goodgood aboutabout thethe selfself oror toto bebe accurate?accurate?•• ToTo bebe accurateaccurate itit maymay bebe bestbest toto comparecompare one’sone’s•• ToTo bebe accurate,accurate, itit maymay bebe bestbest toto comparecompare one’sone’s

performanceperformance withwith someonesomeone whowho isis similarsimilar ononvariousvarious dimensionsdimensions (e(e..gg..,, gender,gender, ethnicity,ethnicity, ororproficiencyproficiency inin aa specificspecific domain)domain)

•• Generally,Generally, peoplepeople areare moremore interestedinterested inin feelingfeelinggoodgood aboutabout thethe selfself thanthan accuracy!accuracy!goodgood aboutabout thethe selfself thanthan accuracy!accuracy!

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf

–– ContextsContexts withinwithin whichwhich comparisonscomparisons occuroccur havehaveContextsContexts withinwithin whichwhich comparisonscomparisons occuroccur havehavedifferentdifferent consequencesconsequences•• SelfSelf--EvaluationEvaluation MaintenanceMaintenance ModelModel:: suggestssuggests thatthat toto

maintainmaintain aa positivepositive viewview ofof thethe personalpersonal selfself peoplepeopledistancedistance themselvesthemselves fromfrom othersothers whowho performperform betterbetterthanthan theythey dodo onon valuedvalued dimensionsdimensions butbut movemove closercloser totothanthan theythey dodo onon valuedvalued dimensions,dimensions, butbut movemove closercloser totoothersothers whowho performperform worseworse thanthan theythey dodo

•• SocialSocial IdentityIdentity TheoryTheory:: suggestssuggests thatthat toto maintainmaintain aapositivepositive viewview ofof theirtheir groupgroup identityidentity peoplepeople willwill movemoveclosercloser toto positivepositive othersothers withwith whomwhom theythey shareshare ananidentity,identity, butbut distancedistance fromfrom (or(or derogate)derogate) thosethose whowhode t ty,de t ty, butbut d sta ced sta ce oo (o(o de ogate)de ogate) t oset ose ooperformperform poorlypoorly oror somehowsomehow makemake socialsocial identityidentitynegativenegative ((blackblack--sheepsheep effecteffect))

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf•• SelfSelf--PresentationPresentation andand SelfSelf--RegulationRegulation•• SelfSelf PresentationPresentation andand SelfSelf RegulationRegulation

–– IngratiationIngratiation:: whenwhen peoplepeople trytry toto makemakeothersothers likelike themthem byby conveyingconveying thatthat theythey likelikeothersothers likelike themthem byby conveyingconveying thatthat theythey likelikethemthem

–– And,And, peoplepeople cancan attemptattempt toto presentpresentAnd,And, peoplepeople cancan attemptattempt toto presentpresentthemselvesthemselves toto othersothers asas possessingpossessing positivepositiveattributesattributes•• ThisThis tendencytendency isis affectedaffected byby culturalcultural normsnorms

–– AmericanAmerican studentsstudents areare moremore likelylikely toto describedescribethemselvesthemselves inin termsterms ofof theirtheir strengthsstrengths thanthan arearethemselvesthemselves inin termsterms ofof theirtheir strengthsstrengths thanthan areareJapaneseJapanese studentsstudents whowho tendtend toto bebe moremore selfself--criticalcritical

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf

lflf ff hh dd dd–– SelfSelf--MonitoringMonitoring:: refersrefers toto howhow motivatedmotivated andandableable peoplepeople areare toto monitormonitor theirtheir behaviorbehavior ininresponseresponse toto others’others’ expectanciesexpectanciesresponseresponse toto othersothers expectanciesexpectancies•• HighHigh selfself--monitorsmonitors areare concernedconcerned withwith thethe reactionsreactions

ofof othersothers andand areare veryvery goodgood atat monitoringmonitoring theirtheiryy gg ggbehaviorbehavior andand adjustingadjusting theirtheir actionsactions inin frontfront ofof otherotherpeoplepeople

UseUse thirdthird personperson pronounspronouns andand havehave higherhigher selfself esteemesteem–– UseUse thirdthird personperson pronounspronouns andand havehave higherhigher selfself--esteemesteem

•• LowLow selfself--monitorsmonitors areare notnot asas adeptadept atat thisthis andand preferprefertoto actact consistentlyconsistently withwith theirtheir personalpersonal viewsviews

–– UseUse firstfirst personperson pronounspronouns andand havehave lowerlower selfself--esteemesteem

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf

•• AnotherAnother methodmethod toto knowknow thethe self,self, whichwhich isisassumedassumed toto bebe useful,useful, isis introspectionintrospection:: thetheprocessprocess ofof privatelyprivately thinkingthinking aboutabout “who“who oneone isis..””–– However,However, lookinglooking inwardinward maymay notnot bebe thethe bestbest wayway toto

gaingain selfself--knowledgeknowledge•• P lP l ftft dd tt hh ii ff thth•• PeoplePeople oftenoften dodo notnot havehave consciousconscious awarenessawareness ofof thethe

reasonsreasons forfor theirtheir actionsactions–– AnalyzingAnalyzing reasonsreasons forfor likingliking oror choosingchoosing somethingsomething cancan resultresult

inin attitudeattitude changechange thatthat misleadsmisleads peoplepeople whenwhen makingmakinganotheranother choicechoice

•• PeoplePeople areare notnot veryvery goodgood atat predictingpredicting theirtheir futurefuture feelingsfeelings•• TheThe usefulnessusefulness ofof introspectionintrospection dependsdepends onon whichwhich aspectsaspects

ofof thethe selfself areare analyzedanalyzed

SocialSocial ComparisonComparison:: KnowingKnowing thetheSelfSelf•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?

–– WhyWhy dodo peoplepeople makemake downwarddownward socialsocialcomparisons?comparisons?comparisons?comparisons?

–– IfIf someonesomeone closeclose toto youyou performsperforms betterbetter thanthanyouyou dodo onon aa tasktask thatthat isis importantimportant toto you,you,youyou dodo onon aa tasktask thatthat isis importantimportant toto you,you,whatwhat maymay happenhappen accordingaccording toto thethe selfself--evaluationevaluation maintenancemaintenance model?model?

–– WhoWho isis likelylikely toto staystay inin relationshipsrelationships longer,longer, aalowlow selfself--monitormonitor oror aa highhigh selfself--monitor?monitor?•• Why?Why?

TheThe SelfSelf asas TargetTarget ofofPrejudicePrejudice•• EmotionalEmotional ConsequencesConsequences•• EmotionalEmotional ConsequencesConsequences

–– ItIt hashas beenbeen proposedproposed thatthat attributingattributing negativenegativeoutcomesoutcomes toto prejudiceprejudice maymay bebe aa wayway totooutcomesoutcomes toto prejudiceprejudice maymay bebe aa wayway totomaintainmaintain selfself--esteemesteem•• However,However, perceivedperceived discriminationdiscrimination andand selfself--esteemesteem,, pp

havehave beenbeen foundfound toto bebe negativelynegatively correlatedcorrelated–– DiscriminationDiscrimination againstagainst one’sone’s groupgroup maymay implicateimplicate thethe selfself

•• AnAn attributionattribution toto prejudiceprejudice maymay bebe selfself protectiveprotective•• AnAn attributionattribution toto prejudiceprejudice maymay bebe selfself--protectiveprotectivewhenwhen comparedcompared toto makingmaking attributionsattributions toto otherotherinternal,internal, stablestable featuresfeatures ofof thethe selfself

•• TheThe pervasivenesspervasiveness ofof thethe prejudiceprejudice isis alsoalso aa factorfactor

TheThe SelfSelf asas TargetTarget ofofPrejudicePrejudice•• CognitiveCognitive ConsequencesConsequencesgg qq

–– PerceivedPerceived prejudiceprejudice cancan hinderhinder thethe abilityability totolearnlearn newnew skillsskills

•• BehavioralBehavioral ConsequencesConsequences–– StereotypeStereotype ThreatThreat:: cancan occuroccur whenwhen peoplepeopleStereotypeStereotype ThreatThreat:: cancan occuroccur whenwhen peoplepeople

believebelieve thatthat theythey mightmight bebe judgedjudged inin lightlight ofof aanegativenegative stereotypestereotype aboutabout theirtheir groupgroup oror thatthat theythey

bb ff h ih i ff iimay,may, becausebecause ofof theirtheir performance,performance, inin somesome waywayconfirmconfirm aa negativenegative stereotypestereotype ofof theirtheir groupgroup•• EffectsEffects appearappear hardhard toto controlcontrol andand performanceperformance•• EffectsEffects appearappear hardhard toto controlcontrol andand performanceperformance

deficitsdeficits resultresult fromfrom anxietyanxiety duedue toto threatthreat

TheThe SelfSelf asas TargetTarget ofofPrejudicePrejudice•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?•• WhatWhat areare youryour thoughts?thoughts?

–– WhyWhy don’tdon’t attributionsattributions toto prejudiceprejudice alwaysalwaysserveserve aa selfself--protectiveprotective function?function?serveserve aa selfself protectiveprotective function?function?

–– WhenWhen isis stereotypestereotype threatthreat likelylikely toto bebe felt?felt?•• IsIs anyoneanyone immuneimmune toto stereotypestereotype threat?threat?IsIs anyoneanyone immuneimmune toto stereotypestereotype threat?threat?

–– WhyWhy oror whywhy not?not?

–– WhatWhat areare potentialpotential consequencesconsequences ofof stereotypestereotypepp qq ypypthreat?threat?

–– WhatWhat areare waysways toto decreasedecrease stereotypestereotype threat?threat?