The Search for the Sustainable City in 20th Century Urban Planning - Basiago - 1996

8/2/2019 The Search for the Sustainable City in 20th Century Urban Planning - Basiago - 1996

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The Environmentalist 16 , 135- 155 ( 1996)

The search for the sustainable city in 20thcentury urban planningA.D. BASIAGO1084 7 Sunn ybrae Avenue, Chatsworth, Ca/ifomia 91311, US A.

SummaryA new c i ty has eme rged in the 1990s, des igned to achieve urban "sustainabi l i ty" The not ion o fsustainable urban form has i ts roots in the Garden Ci ty movement at the turn of the century .The "garden" ci t ies o f the 1900s and the "ecological" c i t ies o f the 1970 s were p rop ose d asal ternat ives to the pathology of modern urban form. Just as c i t ies prov ide a place for humansto r ive, so the y dest roy ecosystems and bec ome unf i t habi tats for the hum an spi ri t. The c ity mus tbe m ade mo re v i ta l , humane , ef f ic ient, beaut i fu l , self -suff ic ient, an d natural thro ugh a return to amo re co mp act form, i ts impac t on the env i ronm ent mu st be decreased. These themes have re-em erge d in the sustainable c i ties of the 1990s, advanced on beh al f of future gene rat ions andplanetary ecology. The sustainable ci ty is a compact ci ty. Calthorpe's "Transit-Oriented Devel-opments" (1989) are hai led as sustainable because their walkable streets free residents fromrer iance on automobi les and thei r h igh densi ty preserves surrounding wi ld l i fe habi tat . TheEuropean Com miss ion (EC) rests a sustainable future for Europe (1990) on the twin pi l lars ofurban compactness an d urban regenerat ion. Nash (1991) bel ieves that sustainable global urba-nizat ion w ou ld con sist of 1.5 bi l l ion hum an s l iv ing in 500 comp act cit ies. He cal ls his vis ion "IslandCivi l isat ion" The sustainable ci ty is also a cffy of regen erat ive processes. Girarde t (1990; 1992)thinks , it has a "c ircular metabo l ism' , as dis t inguishe d f rom the " linear metabol ism " of contem-pora ry c i ties. M cDo nou gh (adv iser to Pres ident Cl inton o n "sustainable developme nt ' ) theor izesin The Hannover Principles (1992) that in order to make civi l izat ion sustainable, urban form wil lhave to be based on the pr inc iples of nature, which makes no waste, maxim izes biodiversf fy andis sustained by the sun. The urban for m designed by M cDo nald (1993), conceptual ized wi th ideasf rom c~baos theory, contem plates a sustainable c i ty wi th in a sustainable watershed and a for m"hol ist ic" "diverse" "fractal" an d "e volut iona ry" Lyle (1994) bel ieves that the sustainable ci t ies o fthe ne.~ century wi l l be based on the "green inf rast ructure" of " regenerat ive systems" Thecom mo na l i ty l ink ing these landmarks o f sustainable urbanizat ion is the ideal of br ing ing the c i tyinto a ~f ital sym bios is with nature. The sustainable ci ty is a "green" or " l iv ing" ci ty. The search forthe su.~tainable ci ty in the 20th centu ry has no t been Uto pian b utt op ian , a que st to create a for mof c i ty sui ted to op t imal de velop me nt of the Earth is land.IntroductionThe ide,a t ha t t he c on t e m por a r y pa t t e r n o f w or ldurbaniza t ion i s not ' sus ta inable ' , and tha t a ' sus-ta inable ' pa radigm must be des igned, f i r s t ap-peared in Br i ta in a qua r te r o f a century ago. InA Blueprint for Survival (The Ecologist , 1972) , adis t inguished pane l wrote tha t our ' indus t r ia l wayof l ife ' is not sustainable. By disrupt ing ecosys-t e ms a nd de p l e t i ng r e sour c e s , e xpa nd ing popu la -t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n a r e e n d a n g e r i n g h u m a nsurviva l . The ' sus ta inable ' soc ie ty wou ld cause

* An d r ew D. B as i ag o , an Am er i can l awy e r an d c i t y p l an n e r , was asch o la r i n l an d eco n o m y a t C am b r id g e . He i s cu r r en t ly wr i t i n g ab o o k o n so l a r c i t i e s .

minimum e c o log i c a l d i s r up t i on , p r a c t i s e c onse r -va t i on , a nd ma in t a in a c ons t a n t popu la t i on .'Our task i s to c rea te a soc ie ty which i s sustain-able', the pane l wrote .T he U N ' s Wor ld Commiss ion on E nv i r on-me n t a nd D e ve lopme nt r e ne w e d the c a l l f o r sus -ta inable deve lo pmen t in 1987. The i r r epor t , OurCommon Future, def ined sus ta inable deve lopmenta s ' de ve lopme nt t ha t me e t s t he ne e ds o f t he p r e -se nt , w i thou t c ompr om is ing t he a b il i ty o f f u tu r egenera t ions to mee t the i r own needs ' (Brundt land,1987) . At the Ear th Summit (1992) , d iplomatsf rom over 120 na t ions es tabl i shed sus ta inable de-ve lopme nt a s t he w o r ld de ve lopm e nt po l ic y o f t he21st century. The accords they f ramed to save thewor ld ' s fores ts , s tabi l ize i t s c l imate and conserveits biodiversi ty, the Rio Declaration on Environ-

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m e n t and D e v e lopm e n t ( U N C ED , 1992a ) , a ndAge nda 21 ( U N C ED , 1992b) he r a ld a ne w deve l -op m e n t s c ie nc e ba se d o n e c onom ic , soc i a l a nd e n -v i r onm e n ta l su s t a ina b i l i t y .I n u r ba n p l a nn ing , no c onse nsus e x i s t s a s t ow h i c h h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t s e m b o d y s u s t a i n a b i l i t y .S us t a ina b i l i t y m ig h t im p ly the v i t a l i ty o f a c i t y a sa c o m ple x sys t e m , t he q ua l i t y o f l if e o f i t s c it i ze ns ,o r t he c a pa c i ty o f na tu r e t o su ppo r t i ts p r oc es se s .S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s d e f in e t hi s c o n c e p t n a r r o w l yi n t e r m s o f t h e economic sus ta ina bi l i ty o f a c ity , i tspo te n t i a l ' t o r e a c h q ua l i t a t ive ly a ne w l e ve l o f so -c i o - e c o n o m i c , d e m o g r a p h i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a lo u t p u t w h i c h i n t h e l o n g r u n r e in f o rc e s t h e f o u n -d a t i o n s o f t h e u r b a n s y s t e m ' ( E w e rs a n d N i j k a m p ,1990). O the r s l i nk su s t a ina b i l i t y t o b r o a de r soc ia lpr inc ip l e s o f f u tu r i t y , e qu i ty , a nd pa r t i c ipa t ion( FO E, 1994 ). W he n phys i c a l p l a nne r s sp e a k o f su s -t a i n a b i l i t y , t h e y m e a n t h e p u r s u i t o f u r b a n f o r mt h a t s y n th e s iz e s la n d d e v e l o p m e n t a n d n a t u r e p r e -se r va t ion . P e a r ce ( 1994b) w r i te s t ha t ' t h e voc a b u -la ry o f " sus ta i nab i l i ty" i s s t il l f a r f ro m se t t led . . . Aw ide va r i e ty o f op in ion e x i s t s a s t o w ha t w ou ldc o n s t i t u t e " s u s t a i n a b l e " u r b a n f o r m ' . G l i m p s e so f w h a t a s u s t a i n a b l e u r b a n f o r m m i g h t b e c a nbe f oun d in t he 'G a r de n C i ty ' o f t he 1900s, t he'Ec o log ic a l C i ty ' o f t he 1970s, a nd the ' S us t a in -a b l e C i ty ' o f t he 1990s. I n t h i s pa pe r , t he se h i s to r -i c al m ode l s o f su s t a ina b le u r ba n f o r m a r e e x -p lo r e d , w i th a v i e w to de r iv ing ge ne r a l p r inc ip l e so f su s t a ina b le u r ba n iz a t ion .

Th e sea rch fo r th e g a rd en c i tyHoward 's 'Garden Ci ty ' (1902) : Urbansus ta inabi l i ty as the in tegrat ion o f town and cou ntryH o w c a n w e d e s i g n c it ie s t h a t c o m b i n e t h e b e s t o ft o w n a n d c o u n t r y l i v i n g ? T h i s q u e s t i o n a s k e d b yS i r E b e n e z e r H o w a r d l a u n c h e d t h e e r a o f t h e' G a r d e n C i t y ' . I n Garden Ci t ie s o f Tomorrow(1902), o r ig ina l ly publ ishe d as T om orrow : T hePa th to Re a l Re fo rm ( 1898 ) , H ow a r d e nv i s ione dse l f - c on ta ine d r u r a l c om m u ni t i e s o f 30 000 su r -r o u n d e d b y g r e e n b e lt s i n p e r m a n e n t a g r i c u lt u r e .H e p r o p o s e d r e s t o r i n g p e o p l e t o t h e l a n d , a w a yf r om ' c r ow de d , i l l - ve n t i l a t e d , unp la nne d , unw ie l -d y , u n h e a l t h y c it ie s '. T h e ' G a r d e n C i t y ' w o u l dc o m b i n e a ll t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c ia l a d v a n t a g e so f ' a n e ne r ge t i c a nd a c t ive t ow n l i f e ' w i th a l l ' t h eb e a u t y a n d d e l i g h t o f t h e c o u n t r y ' . H o w a r d h o p e dt h a t h i s p r o p o s a l w o u l d s p a r k a n i n t e r n a t i o n a le f f o r t t o bu i ld up ' c lu s t e r s o f be a u t i f u l hom e -t o w n s , e a c h z o n e d b y g a r d e n s , f o r t h o s e w h onow dw e l l in c r ow de d , s lum - in f e s t e d c i t ie s ' ( H o-w a r d , 1 90 2). T h e r o o t s o f H o w a r d ' s ' G a r d e n C i t y 'l a y in t h e u r b a n o v e r c r o w d i n g o f t h e I n d u s t r i a lR e v o l u t io n , w h i c h h a d p r o d u c e d s lu m s i n m a n y

g r e a t c i t i e s . O w e n ' s N e w L a n a r k a n d N e w H a r -m o n y ; B u c k i n g h a m ' s m o d e l c i t y ; S a l t a i r e ,f ou nd e d by S i r T i tu s S a l t a t A lp a c a M i ll s ; Le ve r ' sP o r t S u n l i g h t ; a n d C a d b u r y ' s B o u r n v i l l e a l ls o u g h t s o c i a l i m p r o v e m e n t b y e m i g r a t in g p o p u l a -t i o n t o a u t o n o m o u s s e t t l e m e n t s ( P e p l e r , c i t e d i nGeddes , 1948) .I n Garden Ci t ie s o f Tomorrow, H o w a r d a d -v a n c e d a s i m i la r c o m m u n i t a r i a n p l a n . O r g a n iz e rsw o u l d a p p r o a c h p r o - s o c ia l c a p it a li s ts , w h o w o u l df und the pu r c ha s e o f ( 2500 ha ) o f a g r i c u l tu r a l l a ndf o r 4 pe r c e n t de be n tu r e s . T he e s t a t e w ou ld be he ldin t r u s t by f ou r c i t i z ens on b e ha l f o f de be n tu r e -ho lde r s a nd the G a r de n C i ty c i t i z e n r y . M un ic ipa lr e v e n u es w o u l d b e d e r iv e d f r o m r e n t s b a s e d u p o na nnua l l a nd va lue s . A ' r a t e - r e n t ' w ou ld be c o l -l e c t e d f r o m f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s , h o m e b u i l d i n glo t s a nd bus ine s s p r e m ise s . Th i s ' r a t e - r e n t ' w ou ldc ons i s t o f a ' r e n t ' a n d a ' r a t e ' . 'R e n t s ' w ou ld f i-n a n c e t h e i n t e r e s t o n t h e p u r c h a s e m o n e y a n d as ink ing f und to r e t i r e t he p r inc ipa l . A ny ba l a nc ew o u l d b e s p e n t b y a m u n i c i p a l c o u n c i l o n p u b l i ci m p r o v e m e n t s , p e n s i o n s a n d i n s u r an c e . ' R a t e s 'w o u l d b e u s e d to b u i l d a n d m a i n t a i n p u b l i c w o r k sa s t he c i t y de ve lope d . The l e a se s unde r w h ic h a l lbu i ld ing s i t e s w ou ld be l e t w ou ld c on ta in a c ove -n a n t b y t h e l a n d l o r d t o a p p l y t h e w h o l e s u m r e -ce ived , f i r s t , to pay debenture in te res t , second, tor e d e e m d e b e n t u r e s, a n d t h i rd , f o r p u b l i c p u r p o s e s( H o w a r d , 1 9 0 2 ) . H o w a r d b e li e v ed t h is r e v e n u esys t e m w ou ld y i e ld g r e a t r e su l t s . N o ' l a nd lo r d ' sr e n t ' o r i n t e r e s t w o u ld be pa ya b le f o r pub l i c w or kso t h e r t h a n t h e s m a l l a m o u n t w h i c h h a d b e e n a l -r e a dy p r ov ide d f o r i n e s t im a t ing ne t r e ve nue . A sthe c i t y g r e w , i nc r e a se d va lue s w ou ld no t go toind iv idua l s , bu t t o t he m un ic ipa l i t y t o be spe n to n p u b l i c i m p r o v e m e n t s . T h i s w o u l d r e l i e v e t h er a t e s pa id by c i t i z e ns , f o s t e r c o - ope r a t ion , g ivew o r k e r s h i g h e r p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r , a n d s p u r e m -p loym e n t . F a r m e r s w ou ld s e e t he i r r e n t s , u sua l lylo s t t o a l a nd lo r d , r e tu r ne d to t he m a s r oa ds ,s c h o o ls a n d m a r k e t s . A n a d m i r e r o f H e n r yG e o r g e , H o w a r d b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p a t h t o s o c i a lr e f o r m l a y i n a m o r e e q u i t ab l e s y s t e m o f l a n dt e n u r e i n w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s n e i t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e dr e n t - v a l u e s c r e a t e d b y o t h e r s n o r m a i n t a i n e dr e n t - v a l u e s e x p r o p r i a t e d b y o t h e r s ( H o w a r d ,1902 ) . H ow a r d ' s 'G a r de n C i ty ' i s r e m e m be r e dno t f o r f i na nc e , how e ve r , bu t f o r l a nd u se . H o-w a r d s a w t h a t t o w n a n d c o u n t r y a c t a s ' m a g n e t s '(F ig . 1) . Th e jobs , h igh wag es , and l i f e adva nce-m e n t o f t o w n a r e u n d e r m i n e d b y ' h i g h r e n ts a n dp r ic e s '. S o c ia l o p p o r t u n i t y a n d a m u s e m e n t a re r e -duc e d by e xc e s sive hou r s , soc i a l i so l a t i on a nd longc om m u t ing d i s t a nc es . The 'w e ll - li t s t r e e ts ' o ftow ns ' shu t ou t sun l igh t ' a nd the i r ' f i ne pub l i cbui ld ings ' a t t r ac t soot . ' [P ]a la t ia l ed i f ices ' and' f e a r f u l s l um s ' , H ow a r d w r o te , a r e ' t he s t r a nge ,c o m p l e m e n t a r y fe a t u re s o f m o d e r n c i ti e s' . C o n -

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Fig. 1 . The three magn e t s of town, co unt ry and garden c i ty accord ing to H owa rd (1902)

v e r se l y , t h e c o u n t r y , f o r a ll i ts b e a u t y a n d w e a l t h ,l a c k s s o c ie t y a n d c a p i ta l . R e n t s i n t h e c o u n t r y a r el o w , b u t o n l y b e c a u s e w a g e s a r e . T h e ' b r i g h t s u n -s h i n e ' a n d ' p u r e a i r' o f t h e c o u n t r y a r e d i m i n i s h e db y ' l o n g h o u r s a n d l a c k o f a m u s e m e n t s ' . ' [B ] e a ut i-f u l v is t a s, l o r d l y p a r k s , [ a n d ] v i o l e t -s c e n t e d w o o d s 'a r e n o s a l v e f o r t r e s p a s s i n g s i g n s . D r i n k i n g w a t e r ,s a n i t a t i o n a n d p r o p e r d r a i n a g e a r e s c a r c e f o r l a c ko f r u r a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o fi s o l a t e d r u r a l a r e a s r i v a l s l u m s ( H o w a r d , 1 9 0 2 ) .T h e b a n e o f u r b a n i z a t i o n , H o w a r d r e a li z ed , is al a ck o f b a l a n ce b e t w e e n u r b a n a n d n a t u r a l f o r m .B y c o n t r a s t , a ' G a r d e n C i t y ' w o u l d e x i s t i nh a r m o n y w i t h i ts r u r a l s e t ti n g . C i r c u l a r in f o r m ,i t w o u l d c o v e r a b o u t 4 0 0 o f th e 2 5 0 0 h a ( F i g s 2a n d 3 ). A t i t s c e n t r e w o u l d b e a c i r c u l a r g a r d e n o fa b o u t 2 h a . S u r r o u n d i n g t h is g a r d e n o n a m p l eg r o u n d s w o u l d b e a t o w n h a l l, c o n c e r t h a ll , l e c tu r eh a l l, t h e a t r e , l i b ra r y , m u s e u m , p i c t u r e -g a l l e ry , a n dh o s p i t al . W i t h i n t h i s u r b a n c e n t r e w o u l d a l s o b e ap u b l i c p a r k o f 60 h a w i t h a m p l e r e c r e a t i o ng r o u n d s . R u n n i n g a l l a r o u n d t h i s ' C e n t r a l P a r k ' ,a w i d e g l a s s a r c a d e , t h e ' C r y s t a l P a l a c e ' , w o u l d

o p e n o n t o t h e p a r k . T h e ' C r y s t a l P a l a c e ' w o u l ds e r v e a s a n a l l - w e a t h e r r e s o r t a t t r a c t i n g c i t i z e n s t ot h e p a r k a n d a s a s h o p p i n g e m p o r i u m w i t h a w i n -t e r g a r d e n . S i x w i d e b o u l e v a r d s w o u l d s p i r a l o u tf r o m t h is c i v ic c e n t r e t o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f ' G a r -d e n C i t y ' , d i v i d i n g i t i n t o s i x d i s t i n c t i v e w a r d s .H o u s e s w o u l d b e b u i l t i n a r i n g l o o k i n g o n t o t h e' C r y s t a l P a l a c e ' , o n o t h e r a v e n u e s b u i l t i n c o n -c e n t r i c r i n g s a r o u n d t h e t o w n c e n t r e , o r f r o n t i n gt h e r o a d s c o n v e r g i n g a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e t o w n .' G r a n d A v e n u e ' , a g r e e n b e l t 1 30 m w i d e a n d 4 . 8k m i n d i a m e t e r , w o u l d d i v i d e t h e a r e a o u t s i d e' C e n t r a l P a r k ' i n t o t w o p a r t s . I t w o u l d f o r m a d d i -t i o n a l p a r k l a n d o c c u p i e d b y sc h o o l s, s u r r o u n d i n gp l a y g r o u n d s a n d g a r d e n s , a n d c h u r c h e s . A l l o f th ec i t y ' s i n d u s t r y - i ts f a c t o r i e s , w a r e h o u s e s , d a i r i e s,c o l li e ri e s a n d t i m b e r y a r d s - w o u l d f r o n t a c i r c u l a rr a i l w a y r in g i n g t h e o u t e r p e r i p h e r y o f t h e t o w na n d c o n n e c t e d to a m a i n l in e p a s s in g t h r o u g h t h ee s ta t e . B e y o n d t hi s o u t e r r i n g w o u l d r e m a i n 2 0 0 0h a o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . I n t h is m a n n e r , t h e g a r d e nq u a l i t y o f r e s i d e n t i al l if e w o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d . R e -s id e n c e s w o u l d b e s e g r e g a t e d f r o m i n d u s t r y , g o o d s

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N o B .. . . . . . . . . D , A G R k M O N L Y .

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Fig . 2 . The 'Gard en Ci ty ' af ter Ho wa rd (1902) surroun ded by it s agr icul tural belt . The notat ion 'Diagram only , Plancann ot be draw n unt i l s ite selected ' w as added in the second edi t ion (1902). (From Ho wa rd, 1902) .w o u l d b e l o a d e d d i r e c t ly i n to t r u c k s f r o m w a r e -h o u s e s a n d f a c t o ri e s , t ra f f ic w o u l d b e r e d u c e d a n ds i t u a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s w o u l d a l s o o b t a i n . T h e c i -t i z e n ry w o u l d c o n s t i t u te a c o n v e n i e n t l a b o u r p o o l .F a r m e r s w o u l d f i n d a n a t u r a l m a r k e t c l o s e to t h e ird o o r s . A g r i c u l t u r a l g a i n s w o u l d c o m e f r o m u s i n gt h e c i t y ' s s e w a g e a s m a n u r e , f r o m t h e c l o s e p r o x i -

m i t y o f t h e t o w n a s a p r o d u c e m a r k e t , a n d f r o mt h e c o n v e n i e n t t r a n s i t t o d i s t a n t m a r k e t s a f f o r d e db y t h e ra i l s y s te m . I n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t e r m s , n o e x -i s ti n g s t ru c t u r e s w o u l d h a v e t o b e p u r c h a s e d o rd e s t r o y e d , a n d n o u r b a n r e n o v a t i o n w o u l d b e r e -q u i re d . T h e v e r y b e s t a n d m o s t m o d e r n m a c h i n e r yw o u l d b e u s e d t o b u i l d s u c h t h i n g s a s r o a d s ( H o -

~k P.D A .o HTf lE

- B .IAM ONLY.)FP(ND UPONELECTED.

Fig . 3 . One s l ice of the ci rcular p ie. A typical ward a nd the cen t re of the Ga rden Ci ty . (From Ho wa rd, 1902).



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DtACRAMILLUS TRA TING CORRECT PRINCIPLEOF A CITY'S GROW TH-OPEN COUNTRY( V t R NEAR AT HA NO . ANO RAP__IOCOMMUNICATION B[TW[[N 01~-$1t00TS.

COUI , TRV ~ , , ~ p . A I . ~,

C O , , . T . , C o u . , . *

C O U N T R Y

Fig. 4. The 'Social C ity' in its mo re limited realization.(From Howard, 1902).

ward , 1902) .I n a c ha p te r e n t i t l e d ' S oc i a l C i t i e s ' , H ow a r de x p l a i n e d h o w t o a c c o m m o d a t e r is i ng p o p u l a t i o n .W h e n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f ' G a r d e n C i t y ' r e a c h e d32 000 , a no th e r c i t y e .g . , 'C onc o r d ' w ou ld be e s -t a b l i s h e d a t s o m e d i s t a n c e a w a y . T o g e t h e r t h e yw o u l d f o r m s a t e l l i t e s a r o u n d a ' C e n t r a l C i t y ' o f58 000 , w h ose c e n t r e , som e 5 . 2 km d i s t a n t , c ou ldbe r e a c h e d in f ive m inu te s ( F ig . 4 ). S u r e ly t o bu i ldo n t h e z o n e o f a g r ic u l t u ra l l a n d a r o u n d a ' G a r d e nC i ty ' w ou ld de s t r oy i t s r i gh t t o be so - c a l l e d . Thea r e a be tw e e n c i t ie s , t he re f o r e , w ou ld r e t a in ' a l l t hef r e sh de l igh t s o f t he c oun t r y - f ie ld , he dg e r ow a n dw o o d l a n d ' . T h e c i t i e s w o u l d b e a r r a y e d a r o u n dthe pe r iphe r y o f t he i n t e r - m un ic ipa l r a ilw a y e nc i r -

c l i ng the c e n t r a l c i t y a nd be d i r e c t ly l i nke d byh i g h w a y . T h e i r p e o p l e w o u l d s h a r e p u b l i c b u i l d -i n g s a n d l i v e a s o n e c o m m u n i t y . S u c h a n e t w o r km i g h t g r a d u a ll y d r a i n a w a y t h e p o p u l a t i o n s o f th eo ld s lum c i t i e s a nd r e juve na te u r ba n l i f e on a r e -g iona l a nd na t iona l ba s i s ( H ow a r d , 1902 ) .The 'G a r de n C i ty ' c a p t iva t e d in f lue n t i a l pe o -p l e . I n 1899 , a G a r de n C i ty A ssoc i a t i on w a sf o r m e d . I n 1903 , H ow a r d ' s a s soc i a t e , F r a nk O s -b o r n , t o o k h i s i d e a s t o E n g l a n d a n d e s t a b l i s h e dt h e F i r s t G a r d e n C i t y, L t d . , w h i c h b o u g h t a 1 50 0

Basiagoh a e s t a t e a n d b u i l t t h e g a r d e n c i t y o f L e t c h w o r t hw i t h p l a n s p r e p a r e d b y B a r r y P a r k e r a n d R a y -m o n d U n w i n . A s e c o n d t o w n , W e l w y n G a r d e nC i ty , w a s f ound e d a f t e r W or ld W a r I ( P e p ler , c i-t e d i n G e d de s , 1948 ). The B r i t i sh gov e r nm e n t a c-c e p t e d t h e r u d i m e n t s o f H o w a r d ' s d e v e l o p m e n tpa t t e r n i n 1944 . H e nc e f o r th , i t s po l i c i e s w ou lda im a t de c on ge s t ing ci ti e s by c r e a t ing ne w u r ba nc e n t r e s f o r ' ove r sp i l l ' i ndus t r y a nd popu la t ion .G r e e n b e l t s w o u l d s e p a r a t e t o w n s a n d p r e s e r v ew i d e s w a t h e s o f th e c o u n t r y s i d e . F a r m o r e f a v o u r -a b l e c ond i t i ons c ou ld be s e c u r e d on r a w unc u l t i -va t e d l a nd . M or e ove r , t he e xodus f r om c i t i e sw ou ld c a use u r ba n l a nd va lue s t o f a l l , f u r the r s t i -m u l a t i n g u r b a n r e g e n e r a ti o n ( H o w a r d , 1 90 2).H o w a r d , b y e m p h a s i z i n g t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o ft o w n a n d c o u n t r y , t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f a g r ic u l t u ra ll a n d , a n d t h e d e c a n t i n g o f p o p u l a t i o n a w a y f r o mc r o w d e d c e n t r e s , i n t r o d u c e d f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t so f ' su s t a ina b i l i t y '. H i s s i t e p l a n f e a tu r e d l a nd w i thf e w bu i ld ings o r w or ks on i t . Th i s c a use s l ow e n -v i r onm e n ta l im pa c t . A s h i s c i t y g r e w , ' t he f r e eg i ft s o f N a tu r e ' , ' f r e sh a ir , sun l igh t , b r e a th ingr o o m a n d p l a y i n g r o o m ' , w o u l d b e ' r e t a i n e d i na l l n e e d e d a b u n d a n c e ' s o t h a t l i f e m i g h t b e c o m e' a n a b id ing joy a nd de l igh t ' ( H o w a r d , 1902 ). To -da y , t h i s w ou ld be c a l l e d ' ope n spa c e ' . The s a t e l -l i t e u r b a n i z a t i o n f o u n d i n H o w a r d ' s c h a p t e r o n'Soc ia l C i t ie s ' a l lows in te r s t i t ia l lands to be pre -s e rv e d a s w i l dl if e h a b i t a t o r c o m m u n i t y a m e n i t ya n d n a t u r a l s y s t e m s t o f lo u r is h . U r b a n f o r m o fth i s so r t i s a t ou c hs to ne o f ' s u s t a ina b i l i t y '.Geddes' 'Neotechnic City" (1915): Urbansustainability as completeness o f relation o forganism, funct ion and environmentF o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f H o w a r d , P a t r i c k G e d d e s ,t he dys f unc t iona l c i t i e s o f t he e a r ly 20 th c e n tu r yh a d b e e n s h a p e d b y s e v e r al e p o c h s o f u r b a n d e -g e n e r a t io n . I n h i s s e c o n d ' C i ti e s a n d T o w n P l a n -n ing Exh ib i t i on ' i n I nd ia , i n 1915, a nd in Cities inEvolution ( 1915 ) , G e dde s show e d how suc c e s s ives t a ge s o f w a r f a r e , f o r t i f i c a t i on , c e n t r a l i z a t i on , r e -g i o n a l i z a ti o n a n d i n d u s t r i a li z a t i o n h a d d e s t r o y e dthe v i t a l f o r m o f t he m e d ia e va l c i t y . G e dde s be -l i e ve d tha t t he m e d ia e va l c i t i e s t ha t m a r ke d thef i r s t n o t e w o r t h y s t a g e o f E u r o p e a n u r b a n i z a t i o nw e r e th e p r o d u c t o f a G o l d e n A g e o f ' q u i e t, d e -c e n t , c ons t r uc t ive a g r i c u l tu r a l c iv i l i s a t i on ' . The yposse s se d 'w e l l - p l a nne d s t r e e t s a nd ope n spa c e s ' ,' b e a u t i f u l a n d r o o m y d w e l l i n g s ' a n d a d m i r a b l ep u b l i c m o n u m e n t s . M e d i a e v a l t o w n s , s u c h a sT h o l e n i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y , h a d e n o r m o u s g a r -d e n s a n d o p e n s p a c e . T h e f o r m o f t o w n s s u c h a sR o t h e n b e r g , w i t h i t s p r iv a t e a n d p u b l i c b u i ld i n g s ,t ow e r s , f oun ta in s , t ow n ha l l a nd be l f r y , nu r tu r e da ' he a l thy , de m oc r a t i c c iv i c l i f e ' . H e love d S a l i s -b u r y , a ' s p a c i o u s g a r d e n t o w n w i t h s m a l l d e -t a c h e d h o u s e s ' , c e n t r e d a r o u n d a g r e a t c a t h e d r a lt h a t a n c h o r e d t h e l i fe o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ( G e d d e s ,1915).

13 9


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The search fo r the sus tainable c i ty in 20th century urban planningI n t h e s e c o n d s t a g e o f E u r o p e a n u r b a n i z a -t i on , t he m e d ia e va l c i t y w a s de s t r oye d by in t e ns i -f y ing m i l i t a r i z a t ion . A t t he e nd o f t he M id d leA ge s , t he f a vou r a b le qua l i t i e s o f t he m e d ia e va lc i t y ga ve w a y to i nc r e a s ing f o r t i f i c a t i on . B y thet i m e o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , t h e E u r o p e a n c i t y h a dbe c om e a l a r ge f o r t r e s s dom ina te d by a c i t a de l ,t h e t o w n i t s e l f ' a m e r e a p p e n d a g e ' . G e d d e s b e -l i e ve d th i s m i l i t a r i z a t i on c a use d ' t he m i se r y o fo v e r c r o w d i n g a n d m a t e r i a l d i l a p i d a t io n ' o f t h eM i d d l e A g e s . ' T h e p r o g r e ss o f w a r , a n d t h e w a rsp i r i t , ' h e w r o te , ' d e va s t a t e s r e g ions ' , a nd ' r u in sthe i r minor c i t ie s ' (Geddes , 1915) .I n t he t h i r d s t age , c e n t r a l i z a t i on f o l low e d f o r -t i f i c a t i on , a nd w i th i t im pe r i a l i sm a nd de spo t i sm .C i t ie s , suc h a s V e r sai l le s , N a n c y , V ie nna a n d B e r -l i n, e a c h ' a ne w I m pe r i a l R o m e ' , be c a m e p l a c e s topa r a d e the im p or t a nc e , w e a l th a nd p r e s t i ge o f le a -de r s ( G e dde s , 1915 ) . The e xe m pla r , H a ussm a nn ' sP a r i s, g lo r i f y ing N a po le o n I I I , c u lm ina t e d the f o r-t i f i c a t i on o f t he 16 th a nd 17 th c e n tu r i e s . H a uss -m a n n c u t b o u l e v a r d s t h r o u g h P a r i s ' g a r d e n s a n dw o r k i n g - q u a r t e r s t o p r o v i d e c o n t r o l b y N a p o -

l e on ' s a r t i l l e r y . I n i t i a l l y , H a ussm a nn ' s p l a n f o rP a r is b r o u g h t p r o s p e r it y . E v e r y t h i n g t h a t h e a n dN a p o l e o n h a d e n v i s i o n e d c a m e t o b r i g h t e st f ru i -t i on . L a b o u r w a s i n u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e m a n d . P o -p u l a t i o n g r e w . E m p l o y m e n t w a s r e g u la r . L a n d -lo r ds e n joye d r i s ing r e n t s a nd p r ope r ty va lue s ,a nd w i th the se , the c i t y 's budg e t g r ew . N e w pub l i cw o r k s w e r e c o m m i s s i o n e d a n d f o r t u n e s m a d e i nbu i ld ing , c on t r a c t ing , l a nd spe c u la t i on a nd f i -n a n c e . M i g r a n t s s u p p o r t e d n e w s h o p s , h o t e l s ,c a fe s , t he a t r e s a nd m us ic hal l s. B u t t he de p r e s s iono f 1870 unde r m ine d the se de ve lopm e n t s , a r e ve r -s al o f f o r t u n e G e d d e s a t t r i b u t e d t o H a u s s m a n n ' sp l a n a n d t h e c h a n g e s i t w r o u g h t . G a r d e n s a n dp l a y i n g n o o k s h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d b y s u f f o c a t i n gc o u r t s a n d d u s t y b o u l e v a r d s . T h e s e s i c k en e d w o -m e n a n d c h i l d r e n a n d l e d t o a l c o h o l i s m a n d t u b e r -c u l o si s a m o n g m e n . R e n t s i n n e w t e n e m e n t s sk y -r oc ke te d , e ve n f o r sm a l l f l a t s w i th t i ny r oom s .G e d d e s f o u n d P a r i s ( a n d B e r li n o r C h i c a g o ) a d e -qua te t o e xp r e s s ' the g r e a tne s s o f C a e sa r ' , b u t un -su i t a b l e f o r i ndus t r i a l w or ke r s ( G e dde s , 1915 ).I n t h e f o u r t h a n d m o d e r n s ta g e o f E u r o p e a nu r ba n iz a t ion , ' c onu r ba t ions ' sp r e a d a c r os s e n t i r er e g i o n s , c r o w d i n g o u t a n y g a r d e n a m e n i t y l e f tw i th in c i t i e s . G e dde s de sc r ibe d London , t he ' c on -u r b a t i o n ' t h a t d e s t r o y e d t h e v i t al i ty o f t h e T h a m e sV a l l e y , a s a n ' oc topus ' , ' a va s t i r r e gu la r g r ow th ' ,' a grea t cora l r ee f ' . Count less l i t t le v i l lages andb o r o u g h s w e r e ' s w a l lo w e d u p ' b y r e g i o n a l u rb a n i -z a t ion . Th e in t e g r i t y o f loc a l c om m u ni ty li fe ha dg ive n w a y to ' l oc a l f r i c t i on ' , ' ove r l a pp ing ' , ' w a -s t a ge ' , ' a r r e s t s ' , ' e nc ys tm e n t s ' , ' c onge s t ions ' , ' p a -r a l y s i s ' . T h e ' c o n u r b a t i o n s ' t h a t s p r e a d a r o u n dthe indus t r i a l c i t i e s o f B i r m ingha m , M a nc he s t e r ,a nd G la sgo w e a c h de ve lo pe d ne a r a c oa l fi eld .Th i s p r om ise d soc i a l p r og r e s s . B u t soo n the y e a c hh a r b o u r e d i m p o v e r i s h e d p o p u l a t i o n s , s o il t o o l im -i t e d f o r a g r ic u l tu r e , a nd 'm e a n a nd m ise r a b le c it ie s

s u b s i d i n g u p o n e x h a u s t e d m i n e s ' . C o a l h a d p r o -duc e d no t v i ta l l i v ing , bu t ' S lu m ' a nd 'S upe r - s lum '(Geddes , 1915) .F o r c oa l - f ir e d m od e r n c i ti e s, G e dde s i nv e n te dthe t e r m 'P a l e o t e c hn ic ' , m uc h a s ' P a l e o l i t h i c ' de -sc r ibe s t he S tone A ge . The se c i ti e s d i s s ipa t e d e n -e r gy to a c h ie ve m a r g ina l u t i l i t i e s . 'A s P a l e o t e c t sw e . . . e nde a vour t o d ig up c oa l s , t o r un m a c h in -e ry , t o p r o d u c e c h e a p c o t t o n t o c l o t h e c h e a p p e o -p l e, t o g e t u p m o r e c o a ls , t o r u n m o r e m a c h i n e r y ',h e w r o t e . T h i s w a s n o t r e s o u rc e d e v e l o p m e n t b u tna t iona l w a s t e . ' P a l e o t e c hn ic ' u r ba n iz a t ion ,f o u n d e d o n p o v e r t y a n d e x t e n d i n g m a r k e t s ,G e d d e s l i k e n e d t o ' m o u l d u p o n t h e j a m - p o t ,w h ic h sp r e a ds m a r ve l lous ly f o r it s s e a son ' , bu tu l t im a te ly p r oduc e s on ly ' f ungus - c i ty , f u l l o fth i r s ty l i f e a nd l a de n w i th i nnum e r a b le spo r e s ' .W a s te f u l a nd ine f fi c i en t i ndus t r i e s m a in t a in e d a' p o o r a n d d u l l ex i st e nc e '. E m p l o y m e n t w a s ' u n -s t a b l e a nd i r r e gu la r ' , f i na nc e f r a ugh t w i th ' p e c un i -a r y a nd c r e d i t i l l u s ions ' . ' [ C ] r ow de d luxu r y ' f o rt h e f e w w a s s u p p o r t e d b y ' d e t e r i o r a t i v e l a b o u rc ond i t i ons ' f o r t he m a ny . W i th a c c e s s t o na tu r a lc o n d i t i o n s ' t h r e e - fo u r t h s d e s t r o y e d ' , p a r k s p r o v e don ly ' b r igh t pa t c he s . . . a m id va s t l a by r in th s o fs t r ee t s '. A s a r e su l t o f suc h l i v ing c ond i t i ons , pe o -p l e w e r e phys i c a l ly de t e r io r a t i ng . A lc oho l i sm ,d r udge r y , m e a nne s s , ove r - indu lge nc e , i ndo le nc e ,s e x u a l p e r v e r s i o n a n d g a m b l i n g h a d b e g u n t of lou r i sh . The ' P a l e o t e c hn ic ' o r de r , by d i s s ipa t ingthe r e sou r c e s a nd e ne r g ie s o f na tu r e , w a s de p r e s -s i n g h u m a n l i f e a n d p r o d u c i n g u n e m p l o y m e n t ,d i s e a se , v i c e , a pa thy , i ndo le nc e a nd c r im e( G e dde s , 1915 ) . S uc h c i t i e s l a c ke d the ' a de qua ted e v e l o p m e n t o f r e al w e a l th ' , w h i c h G e d d e st h o u g h t w a s e m b o d i e d in ' h o u s e s a n d g a r d e n s ' .I n a 'N e o te c hn ic ' a ge , soc ie ty w o u ld ha ve to m a kea ' ge ne r a l a dva nc e to a h ighe r p l a ne o f i ndus t r i a lc iv i l i s a t i on ' . The pu r su i t o f c iv i c qua l i t y w ou ldha ve to supp la n t e c onom ic w a s t e . A ' va s t na t iona lm o v e m e n t o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ' w o u l d h a v e t o b r i n ghe a l th , w e l l -be ing a nd b e a u ty t o c i ti e s a nd r e g ions .N e w ga r de n v i l l a ge s , ga r de n subu r bs , a nd sm a l lga r de n c i t i e s w ou ld be bu i l t t o ' p r e se r ve the be s tt r a d i t i ons o f t he c i t y ' s pa s t, ye t pu r ge d o f i ts de -c a y , i ts a c t i ve sou r c e s o f c on t inue d e v il s '. A p r o -g r a m m e t o r e s t o r e m e d i a e v a l t o w n - p l a n n i n g a n dh o u s i n g , G e d d e s ' ' N e o t e c h n i c C i t y ' e v o k e d H o -w a r d ' s ' G a r d e n C i t y ' . G e d d e s a d m i r e d t h e N e wD o c k s a t F r a n k f u r t , w i t h it s c o - o r d i n a t e d s y st e mo f t r a n s p o r t a n d c o m m e r c e , a n d h o u s i n g , w i thga r de ns a n d pa r ks , f o r w or ke r s . B u t he re c ogn iz e dt h e l im i t at io n s o f G e r m a n m e t h o d s a n d n o t e d t h a tt h e E n g l i s h g a r d e n c i t y L e t c h w o r t h w a s a d m i r e di n G e r m a n y . H i s ' N e o t e c h n i c ' c i t y w o u l d b e ap l a c e o f h u m a n e c o t ta g e s i n g a r d e n s u b u r b s . L i k eS a l i sbu r y in t he 13 th c e n tu r y , w h ic h ha d s t r e a m stha t r a n t h r ough i t s s t r e e t s , 'N e o te c hn ic ' u r ba nf o r m w o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e n a t u r a l a m e n i t i e s . T h e' g r a n d m a r k e t s a n d p u b l i c p l a c e s ' , ' a m p l e g a r -d e n s ' , a n d ' b r o a d a n d m a g n i f ic e n t t h o r o u g h f a r e s 'o f m e d ia e va l c i ti e s w o u ld r e tu r n . S pa c ious dw e l l -

140 The Environmental&t


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i n g s a n d g a r d e n s w o u l d b r i n g w h o l e s o m e d e l i g h tto i nha b i t a n t s ( G e dde s , 1915 ) .I n h e r a l d i n g a ' N e o t e c h n i c ' a g e , G e d d e s e m -pha s i z e d c r uc i a l i s sue s i n t he s e a r c h f o r t he su s -t a i n a b l e c i t y . G e d d e s s u p p o r t e d p r e s e r v i n g w h a tr e m a i n e d o f t h e h i l l s a n d m o o r s b e t w e e n r a p i d l yg r ow ing c i t i e s . Th i s w ou ld g ive t he pub l i c a c c e s st o g r e e n b e l t s a r o u n d ' c o n u r b a t i o n s ' a n d p r o t e c tt h e p u r i t y o f t h e w a t e r s u p p l y . H e f a v o u r e d n a t -u r a l r e se r ve s to s e pa r a t e g r ow ing v i ll a ges a nd sub -u r b s a n d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f g a r d e n s t o s a ni ti z ethe m . I n ou r t im e , ' s u s t a ina b i l i t y ' r e c ogn iz e s t her e c r e a t iona l va lue o f u r ba n g r e e n be lt s a nd de -f e n d s w o o d l a n d s a n d w e t l a n d s o n t h e g r o u n d stha t t he y s e r ve a s na tu r a l bu f f e r s t ha t f i l t e r a ndr e c h a rg e a q u i f er s . G e d d e s ' c o m p l a i n t s t h a t ' t o w n sm u s t n o w c e a s e t o s p r e a d l i k e e x p a n d i n g i n k -s t a i n s a n d g r e a s e - s p o t s ' a n d t h a t g r o w t h ' t e n d sl a r ge ly t o subm e r ge a l l d i f f er e nc e s be ne a th i t s r is -i n g ti d e ' a r e e c h o e d to d a y b y p r o p o n e n t s o f u r b a ng r o w t h b o u n d a r i e s , c o m p a c t c i t y d e v e l o p m e n t ,a n d r e d e v e l o p m e n t th a t r e s to r e s i d e nt i fi a b le t o w nc e n t r e s. G e dde s f e a r e d tha t l a c k o f ac c e ss t o na t -u r e a n d i ts g r e a t o p e n s p a ce s w a s c a u s in g h u m a nhe a l th , e ve n ge ne t i c i n t e g r i t y , t o de t e r io r a t e . H ec a l l e d f o r ' a f u l l e r a nd f a r m or e v i t a l a c c e s s o fy o u t h t o t h e c o u n t r y a n d t o c o u n t r y l i fe a n d o c c u -pa t ions ' . . La r ge indus t r i e s shou ld be m ove d to t hec oun t r y , a nd spa c ious bu i ld ings in t he c i tya da p te d to sm a l l e r c r a f t s . S m a l l e r p l a n t s i n t hec i ty w o u l d t h e n b e d e m o l i s h e d . T h e r e s u lt i n g o p e nspa c e w ou ld b r ing ' a ga in t o he a l th , t o c h i ld r e n ' sh a p p i n e s s , a n d t h e r e fo r e t o c i v ic e c o n o m y a n dp r o d u c t i v i t y ' . G a r d e n c it ie s w o u l d p r o d u c e ' b e t te rc r o p s o f h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n ' . J u v e n il e d e li n q u e n c yw o u l d d e c l i n e a s y o u t h s r e c o v e r e d t h e ' t o u c h o ff i r s t - ha nd r u s t i c e xpe r i e nc e ' i n ' ope n a i r s c hoo l s. . . s i t ua t e d upon the m a r g in s o f . . . ope n spa c e s . 'H i s c onc e r n i s r e f l e c t e d toda y in t he de ba t e ove ro p e n s p ac e . F i n d i n g m o d e r n m e t r o p o l i s e s t o h a v e' no c e n t r e ' a nd ' no l im i t s ho r i z on ta l l y o r ve r t i -c a l l y ' a n d t h u s c o n d u c i v e o n l y t o ' c o n f u s i o n o fsou l a n t1 un f i t ne s s o f body ' , G e dde s de f ine d thea d v a n t a g e s o f t h e n e w s u s t a i n a b le t o w n p l a n s w i t h'w a lka b le s t r e e t s ' . Ju s t a s G e dde s c ou ld s e e t ha t' P a l e o t e c hn ic ' c iv i l i z a t i on w a s ba se d on m ine r a l stha t i t w a s sw i f t l y e xha us t ing , so ' su s t a ina b i l i t y 'r e je c t s f o ss i l fue l u se a n d e m br a c e s a l t e r na t ive e n -e r gy . G e d d e s c e l eb r a t ed t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f N o r -w e g ia n c i t i e s , w i th t he i r ' i nnum e r a b le ga r de n -tow ns a nd v i l l a ge s . . . e a c h l im i t e d in s i z e by tha to f it s s t r e a m ' , s e t a m ids t a ' c om pa r a t ive ly unde s -t r o y e d n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t ' , w h i c h u s e d ' l a k es a spow e r - r e se r vo i r s ' . H e obse r ve d tha t w a te r supp lyp l a ce s i n e x o ra b l e l im i t s o n p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h . H ethus un de r s too d the s ign i f ic a nc e o f p l a nn ing c i ti e sw i th in t he su s t a ina b le l im i ts o f w a te r c a t c hm e n t sa nd w f f h r e ne w a b le e ne r gy sys t e m s , a nd the r e l a -t i onsh ip , o f e a c h to r e g iona l e nv i r onm e n ta l qua l -i ty . B y a d v a n c i n g a p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h t h a t i s ' sy -nop t i c ' , t ha t i nvo lve s ' s e e ing the c i t y a s a w ho le '( G e dde , ; , 1915 ) , G e dde s p r e sa ge d the p r e oc c upa -

B a s i a g ot i on o f ' s u s t a ina b i l i t y ' w i th ' ho l i sm ' .G e d d e s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o fc i t i e s a nd the qua l i t y o f hum a n l i f e a r e c lo se lyin t e r l i nke d . The s e a r c h f o r t he su s t a ina b le c i t y i sa q u e s t t o b o t h r e s t o r e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d r ev i -t a li z e hu m a n l i f e, a syne r gy o f ge og r a phy , i ndu s t r ya nd soc i ety . 'H e a l thy l if e is c om p le t e ne s s o f r e la -t i o n o f o r g a n i s m , f u n c t i o n a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , a n da l l a t t he i r be s t ' , G e dde s w r o te . 'C i t i e s i n Evo lu -t i o n a n d p e o p l e in E v o l u t i o n m u s t t h u s p r o g r e s stoge the r " ( G e dde s , 1915 ) .W r i g h t ' s ' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' ( 1 9 3 4 ) : U r b a ns u s t a i n a b i l i t y a s d e c e n t r a l iz e d d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n i n a nu r b a n f o r m n e a r e s t o r g a n ic a s p o ss i b leT h e q u e s t b y H o w a r d t o f re e h u m a n s f r o m o v e r-c r o w d e d u r b a n c e n t r e s a n d r e t u r n t h e m t o t h ec o u n t r y w a s a l s o t a k e n u p b y t h e A m e r i c a n a r c h i-t e c t F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t . I n 1 93 4, W r i g h tb r o u g h t a g r o u p o f h i s T a l i e s i n f e l l o w s t o aC h a n d l e r , A r i z o n a w o r k s h o p , w h e r e t h e y c re a t e da n e w u r b a n f o r m , a n e w c o m m u n i t y p l a n ' B r o a d -acre Ci ty ' (Wr ight , 1935) . Ha l l (1984) wr i tes tha tw h a t W r i g h t f o r e s aw w a s ' a r e t u r n t o t h e s i m p l e rr u r a l s o c i et y o f h i s W i s c o n s in b o y h o o d ' . C h e a pe le c t r i c i t y a nd un ive r sa l c a r ow ne r sh ip w ou ld de -c e n tr a li z e t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d p l a c e it b a c k o n a na g r a r i a n ba se ( W r igh t , 1935 ) . A no the r a t t e m p t t oa c c o m m o d a t e t h e u n n a t u r a l c i t y t o t h e n a t u r a lr e g ion , 'B r o a da c r e C i ty ' w a s , i n a se nse , H o w a r d ' s' G a r d e n C i t y ' b e r e f t o f a n y u n i f y i n g c e n t r a l i t y .I n t e g r a t e d de c e n t r a l i z a t i on , u t i l i t a r i a n l a nd t e n -u r e , m u n i c i p a l p r o p e r t y o w n e r s h i p , p r iv a t e h o m eow n e r sh ip , f u ll e m p lo ym e n t a nd sm a l l s ca l e a r t i-s a n s h i p w e r e t h e c h i e f e l e m e n t s o f ' B r o a d a c r eC i ty ' . W r igh t ' s w a s a r a d i c a l de m o c r a t i c v is ion .W r i g h t w r o t e t h a t ' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' w o u l d b eba se d on ' ge ne r a l de c e n t r a l i z a t i on a s a n a pp l i e dp r i n c i p l e a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l lu n i t s i n t o o n e f a b r i c ' . T h e l a n d w o u l d b e h e l do n l y f o r ' u s e a n d i m p r o v e m e n t s ' . P u b l i c u t i l i t i e sa n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d b e ' o w n e d b y t h e p e o -p l e ' . P r i v a c y w o u l d b e p r o t e c t e d ' o n o n e ' s o w ng r o u n d f o r a l l '. T h e e c o n o m y w o u l d o f f e r 'a f a i rm e a n s o f s u b s i s te n c e fo r a l l b y w a y o f t h e i r o w nw o r k o n t h e i r o w n g r o u n d o r i n t h e ir o w n l a b o r a -to r y o r i n c om m on o f f i c e s s e r v ing the l i f e o f t hewhole ' (Wr ight , 1935) .' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' w o u l d a r r e s t G o t h a m b yd i sa s se m bl ing it a nd sp r e a d ing i t ou t . The 'w a s t e 'a n d ' u g ly s c a f f o ld i n g ' o f t h e m e t r o p o l i s w o u l d b et o r n d o w n a n d r e p l a ce d w i t h s t r u c tu r e s in ' f o r m sne a r e s t o r ga n ic ' a s pos s ib l e . D e hum a n iz ing ex i s -t e nc e in b ig c i t i e s , i ndus t r i a l a nd c r ow de d , w ou ldg ive w a y to a s e m i - r u r a l l i f e , pa s to r a l a nd un f e t -t e r e d . Te n km 2 o f l o w - d e n s i ty d e v e l o p m e n t w o u l dsup por t 1400 f a m i l ie s , w i th a r e a d e t e r m ine d byfamily s ize . A c i ty of ' sm al l f a rms, sm al l f ac tor ies ,s m a l l h o m e s , s m a l l s ch o o l s , a n d s m a l l w o r k s h o p s 'w o u l d b e t h e s e t t i n g o f a c u l t u r e b a s e d o n i n d e -pe nde n t a r t i s a nsh ip a nd sm a l l - s c a l e c o l l a bo r a t ion .

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T h e s e a r c h f o r t h e s u s ta i n a b l e c i t y i n 2 0 t h c e n t u r y u r b a n p l a n n i n gE c o n o m i c i n d e p e n d en c e w o u l d f r e e th e A m e r i c a np e o p l e f r o m t h e m i n e s , t h e m i l ls a n d t h e f a c t o r ie sa n d g i ve t h e m a s e c o n d c h a n c e a t d e m o c r a t i c li v-i n g ( W r i g h t , 1 9 35 ). T h e v e h i c l e o f l i b e r a t i o nw o u l d b e t h e a u t o m o b i l e , w h i c h w o u l d l i n k t h ed i s t a n t p o i n t s o f W r i g h t ' s s p r a w l i n g c it y - r eg i o n .' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' w o u l d b e a m e t r o p o l i s o f o n e -f i v e - c a r h o u s e s . A g r e a t a r t e r i a l, s u s p e n d e d o v e rt h e c i ty l ik e a b r i d g e, w o u l d a c c o m m o d a t e t w e lv el a n e s o f a u t o m o b i l e s , t h r e e t r u c k l a n e s a n d a l o n g -d i s t a n c e m o n o r a i l t r a v el l in g a t 3 55 k m h q . I nt i m e , a n a i r t r a n s p o r t w i t h r o t o r s c a p a b l e o f tr a -v e l l in g i n a n y d i r e c t i o n a t 3 2 0 k m h - a w o u l d b ed e v e l o p e d , f u r t h e r e n h a n c i n g r e g i o n a l t r a n s i t(Wright , 1935) .D e s p i t e a n e m p h a s i s u p o n s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n -s h ip s , ' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' w a s n o t m e r e l y a d e si g nc o n c e p t . L i k e H o w a r d ' s ' G a r d e n C i t y ', it w o u l db e c a r r ie d a l o ft o n w i n g s o f U t o p i a n r e f o rm . L a n du s e i n t h e t o w n w o u l d b e g u i d e d b y t h e v i s i o n a r yg u i d a n c e o f a p o p u l a r l y e l e c te d p l a n n e r - a r c h i te c t .A n e w f o r m o f m o n e t a r y e x c h a ng e w o u ld b eb a s e d o n s o c i a l c r e d i t . L a n d w o u l d b e h e l d o n l yf o r u se a n d i m p r o v e m e n t . T h e p u b l i c w o u l d o w nt h e p a t e n t t o n e w i n v e n t i o n s . A s o c i e ty o f c o - o p -e r a t i v e a r t i s a n s , h a v i n g r e j e c t e d t h e s t r i f e o f ' t h eo l d s u c c e s s i d e a l s ' , w o u l d e x p l o r e ' o n e s m o r e n a t -u r a l t o t h e b e s t i n m a n ' ( W r i g h t , 1 9 3 5) . M a n yd i m e n s i o n s o f ' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' p e r s is t i n s u s ta i n -a b l e u r b a n i z a t i o n t o t h is d a y . W r i g h t t h o u g h t t h a td e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n a n d r e d i s t r i b u t i o n w o u l d a l l o ws o c i e t y ' t o c o r r e l a t e t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l i f e o fm a n o n e a r t h t o h i s b i r t h r i g h t - t h e g r o u n d i ts e lf '( W r i g h t , 1 9 3 5 ) . A r a d i c a l E a r t h c o n s c i o u s n e s s o ft h i s ty p e p e r v a d e s s u s t a i n a b i l it y . W r i g h t b e l i e v e dt h a t u r b a n s p a t i a l s m a l ln e s s - ' s m a l l g a r d e n s ' , ' as m a l l z o o ' , ' s e g r e g a t i o n o f . . . s t u d e n t s i n t o s m a l lg r o u p s ' ( W r i g h t, 1 93 5) - w o u l d p r o t e c t a n d n u r -t u r e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y . T h is c o n c e r n f o r a p p r o -p r i a t e n e s s - e v e n s m a l l n e s s - o f s c a le r e m a i n s a na b i d i n g p a r t o f t h e s u s t a i n a b le c i ty . W r i g h t ' s p r o -p o s a l t h a t u r b a n d e s i g n b e g u i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o ap l a n n e r - a r c h i t e c t ' s ' se n s e o f t h e w h o l e a s o r g a n i ca r c h i t e c tu r e ' , a n d t h a t t h is a r c h i t e c t w o u l d a d v i set h e ' r e g i m e n t a n d r o w ' o f l i n e a r d e s i g n o n l y i np l a n t c u l t i v a t i o n a n d i n w a l l s ( W r i g h t , 1 9 3 5 ) , e x -e m p l i f y t h r e e r e c u r r e n t p a t t e r n s i n t h e f ie l d : t h er o l e o f i m a g i n a t i v e p l a n n e r - v i s i o n a r i e s , h o l i s m ,a n d t h e p u r s u i t o f n a t u r a l f o r m . A m u n i c i p a l s u b -s i d y t o p l a n t u s e f u l t r e e s l i k e w h i t e p i n e , w a l n u t ,b i r c h , b e e c h , f i r . . . a s w e l l a s f r u i t a n d n u t t r e e s 'w o u l d y i e l d ' a p r o f i t a b le c r o p ' a n d g i v e ' c h a r a c t e r ,p r i v a c y a n d c o m f o r t t o t h e w h o l e c i t y ' ( W r i g h t ,1 93 5) . W r i g h t k n e w t h e m a n i f o l d b e n e f it s o f u r b a nf o r e s t r y , w h i c h i s t o d a y s e e n a s f u n d a m e n t a l t oa n y s u s t a i n a b l e t o w n p l a n . W r i g h t ' s i n s i s t e n c et h a t h o u s i n g b e a v a i l ab l e f o r p e o p l e o f d i ff e r e n ti n c o m e l e v e ls ( W r i g h t , 1 9 35 ) p e r s is t s i n c o n t e m -p o r a r y ' s u s ta i n a b i ti t y '. L o c a l s u f fi c ie n c y t h r o u g hp r o d u c t i o n a t o r n e a r t h e p l a ce o f c o n s u m p t i o n ,t h u s e l i m i n a t i n g t h e w a s t e f u l h a u l i n g o f g o o d so v e r v a s t d i s t a n c e s ( W r i g h t , 1 9 35 ), w a s b u t a n -

o t h e r s u s t a i n a b l e a t t r ib u t e o f ' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' .I n r e t r o s p e c t , h o w e v e r , m a n y a s p e c t s o f' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' w e r e c l e a r ly n o t s u s ta i n a b le .T h e l o w d e n s i t y c a l l e d f o r i n t h e p l a n i s i n c o n s i s -t e n t w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t u r b a n c o m p a c t n e s s c o n -s e rv e s la n d a n d a l lo w s f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f h a -b i t a t . W r i g h t b r a g g e d t h a t e l e c t r i c i t y , o i l a n d g a sw o u l d b e ' t h e o n l y p o p u l a r f u e l s ' i n ' B r o a d a c r eC i t y ' ( W r i g h t , 1 9 3 5 ) , b u t f o s s i l f u e l s a r e n o t r e -n e w a b l e a n d t h u s t h e i r u s e i s n o t s u s t a i n a b l e .W r i g h t ' s h o p e t h a t c o p p e r r o o f s w o u l d g i v e ' ap e r m a n e n t c o v e r c a p ab l e o f b e in g w o r k e d i n m a n y. . . w a y s a n d g i v i n g a g e n e r a l h a r m o n i o u s c o l o u re f f e c t t o t h e w h o l e ' ( W r i g h t , 1 9 35 ) m a y h a v e e x -p r e s s e d t h e i n s p ir a t i o n o f a g r e a t a r t i s t b u t s h o w e dl i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n .W r i g h t ' s s c h e m e w a s l e a s t s u s t a i n a b l e i n t r a n s -p o r t . W r i g h t c e l e b r a t e d t h e a u t o m o b i l e a s a li b e r-a t i n g t e c h n o l o g y . ' E v e r y B r o a d a c r e c i ti z e n h a s h i so w n c a r ' , W r i g h t c r o w e d . ' M u l t i p l e - la n e h i g h w a y sm a k e t r a v e l s a f e a n d e n j o y a b l e ' ( W r i g h t , 1 9 35 ). B yp r o v i d i n g t w e l v e la n e s o f a u t o m o b i l e t r af f ic a n d am o n o r a i l f o r l o n g - d i s t a n c e t r a v e l , W r i g h t d e n i -g r a t e d t h e i n h e r e n t e f f ic i e n cy o f t r a i n s f o r m a s st r a n si t . I n t h is w a y h e p r e f i g u r e d m o d e r n A m e r i -c a n u r b a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h g iv e s t h e m o s t p r o - s o c i a la n d e c o n o m i c a l f o r m s o f t r a n s it s h o r t e s t s h r if t .T o d a y i t is r e c o g n i z e d t h a t l i v in g i n c o n u r b a t i o n si n u n d a t e d b y c a r s is n o t m e r e l y n o n - s u s t a i n a b l eb u t i s , i n f a c t , m i s e r a b l e . W r i g h t b e l i e v e d t h a t h ew a s n o t s o m u c h i n v e n ti n g a f o r m o f u r b a n i za t i o na s h e r al d i n g o n e t h a t w o u l d e m e r g e. T h e a u t o m o -b il e, t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d i z e d p r o -d u c t i o n w e r e ' a l r e a d y a t w o r k b u i l d i n g B r o a d -a c r e s ' ( W r i g h t , 1 9 3 5 ) . I n t h i s h e c o u l d n o t h a v eb e e n m o r e p r e s c i e n t . ' B r o a d a c r e C i t y ' a n t i c i p a t e dt h e s p r a w l i n g s u b u r b s t h a t d e v e l o p e d a f t e r W o r l dW a r I I i n A m e r i c a a n d t h e ' f r e e en t e r p r is e , o w n e r -o c c u p i e r s o ci e ti e s' o f C a n a d a a n d A u s t r a l i a ( H a l l,1 9 84 ). H i s s c h e m e is s u c h a m i x o f s u s t a i n a b l e a n dn o n - s u s t a i n a b l e e l e m e n t s t h a t i t s e e m s t o m a r k ac r o s s - r o a d s . F o r a l l i t s i n v e n t i v e n e s s , ' B r o a d a c r eC i t y ' l e d n o t t o t h e s u s t a i n a b l e c i t y , b u t t o t o d a y ' sd y s t o p i a n r e a l i t y o f s u b u r b a n s p r a w l a n d e i g h t -l a n e e x p r e s s w a y s .M u m o r d ' s ' B io t ec h n ic C i t y ' ( 1 9 3 8 ) : U r b a nsus ta inab i l i t y a s ' de c e n t ra l i za t ion in a l i f e -c e n t re do r d e r 'I n h i s w r i t i n g s , L e w i s M u m f o r d u r g e d t h e a d o p -t i o n o f a r e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g p a r a d i g m t h a t w o u l df o s te r h u m a n e v a l u es . F o r M u m f o r d , t h i s h in g e du p o n t h e i n t e g r a te d d e c e n t r a l iz a t io n o f u r b a nl a n d u se p a tt e rn s . E c h o e s o f H o w a r d r e d o u n d e di n M u m f o r d ' s in s i st e n c e t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n o fm a j o r c i ti e s b e d e c a n t e d i n t o s m a l l e r c e n tr e s , u n t ilt h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e r e f o r m e di n t o a c o n s t e l la t i o n o f s e l f - c o n t a in e d c o m m u n i t i e ss e p a r a t e d b y p a r k s a n d g r e e n b el ts . L i k e h is m e n -t o r , G e d d e s , M u m f o r d i d e a li z e d t h e m e d i a e v a lE u r o p e a n c i ty . H e b e l ie v e d t h a t t h e t r a n s i e n c e a s-

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soc i a t e d w i th c a p i t a l i sm ' s e m e r ge nc e in t he 12 thc e n tu r y c a use d the se c i t i e s t o de ge ne r a t e . C i t i e sha d de ve lo pe d in t h r e e d i s t i nc t a ges o f u r ba n iz a -t i o n . M u m f o r d c a l l e d th e s e t h e e ra s o f t h e ' P a le o -t e c h n i c ' , t h e ' N e o t e c h n i c ' a n d t h e ' B i o t e c h n i c 'c i t y . B y ' P a l e o t e c h n i c ' , M u m f o r d m e a n t e s s e n -t ia l ly w h a t G e d d e s m e a n t : t h e g r i m y c o n u r b a t i o n so f t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n . P a l e o t e c h n i c c u l t u r eh a d ' s u b m e r g e d h u m a n i t y a n d i t s v a l u e s i n a no r gy o f f i l t h , ove r c r ow d ing , c l a t t e r a nd e nv i r on -m e n t a l d e s t ru c t i on ' . W h e n M u m f o r d w r o t e o f t h e' N e o t e c h n i c ' c u l t u r e t h a t f o l l o w e d , h e m e a n t n o tH o w a r d ' s ' G a r d e n C i t y ' , b u t t h e ' m e g a l o p o l i s ,t h a t m a r v e l o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n ' , ' s p r a w l ' , ' f a n t a s ti cs k y s c r a p e r p a l a c e s ' . T h i s n e w f o r m o f u r b a n i z a -t i o n w a s m e c h a n i s t i c a n d d e h u m a n i z i n g . I n t h e' B i o t e c h n i c ' ag e , h u m a n s w o u l d r e b e l a g a i n s t t h isf o r m a n d ' c o n t r o l m a c h i n e s f o r s o c i a l e n d s ' ( W i l-son, 1983).M u m f o r d ' s w r i t i n g s r e v e a l t h a t b y ' B i o t e c h -n i c ', M u m f o r d m e a n t a n u r b a n f o r m , s m a ll , r u ra l ,g e n i al a n d i n t e g r a t e d , t h a t w o u l d n u r t u r e t h e h u -m a n sp i r i t . I n The Culture of Cities (1938) , Mum-f o r d de sc r ibe d W r igh t ' s a r c h i t e c tu r e a s ' a m ic r o -c o s m o f th e n e w B i o t e ch n i c e c o n o m y ' . I t s h o w e dt h e w a y t o t h e ' B i o t e c h n i c C i t y ' b y w o r k i n g ' as y n t he s is o f n a t u r e, t h e m a c h i n e , a n d h u m a n a c -t i v it i e s a nd pu r po se s ' . B y f a i l i ng to de v e lop suc h as y n t h e s i s a n d d e s t r o y i n g n a t u r e , m o d e r n h u m a n sw e r e t e a r ing a pa r t t he f a b r i c o f a sym bios i s t ha tf i r s t d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n h u m a n s a n d p l a n t s i nN e o l i t h i c t im e s . M um f or d p r e d ic t e d tha t ' [ t] he a n -c i e nt s y m b i o t i c re l a ti o n , s o h e l p f u l t o b o t h h u m a na nd p l a n t l i f e , m a y be d i s so lve d in a n e xc e s s o ft e c h n o l o g i c a l d y n a m i s m , w i t h i n o u r l i f e t i m e '( M um f or d , 1972 ) . W r igh t ' s ' p r a i r i e a r c h i t e c tu r e 'a nd l a t e r ' d e se r t a r c h i t e c tu r e ' w e r e , f o r M um f or d ,m o d e l s o f 't r u e r e g i o n a l f o r m ' b a s e d o n ' re s p e c tf o r t he so i l , t he s i t e , t he c l im a te , t he e nv i r on ingr e g ion ' ( M u m f o r d , 1938) . 'B io t e c hn ic ' u r b a n f o r mw o u l d b e r e g i o n a l i n s c o p e . T h e m e d i a e v a l c o m -p a c t n e ss a n d i n t e g r a t io n e n v i s io n e d b y M u m f o r dw ou ld a l l ow the c oun t r y s ide t o be ke p t ' a n a c t ive ,d y n a m i c e l e m e n t i n c i t y l i f e ' . F o o d w o u l d b eg r o w n c . lo s e t o t h e u r b a n m a r k e t o n t h e g r o u n d st h a t ' f r e s h f o o d s o f f e r m o s t n o u r i s h m e n t ' . I n ap a s s a g e ev o c a ti v e o f H o w a r d ' s ' G a r d e n C i t y ',M u m f o r d w r o t e o f ' l o c a ti n g a p p r o p r i a t e f a c t o ri e sa n d w o r k s h o p s i n t h e c o u n t r y ' . T h i s w o u l d g i v ea g r i c u l tu r a l f a m i l ie s a l te r na t ive oc c up a t ions , m a ket h e l a n d m o r e e c o n o m i c a l l y p r o d u c t i v e , l ea d t othe be t t e r u t i l i z a t i on o f na tu r a l r e sou r c e s , a ndm a k e r u r a l a r e a s m o r e culturally p r o d u c t i v e( M u m f o r d , 1 94 5). M u m f o r d ' s ' B i o t e c h n i c C i t y 'w o u l d e n j o y ' a g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e m a -c h i n e ' a n d ' d i m i n u t i o n o f t h e . .. w o r l d m a r k e t ' .I n t h e ' B i o t e c h n i c' e c o n o m y , ' c o n s u m p t i o n a n ds e r v i c e ' w o u l d t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r ' p r o d u c t i o nf o r s a le a n d p r o f it '. P r o d u c t i o n w o u l d b e d i r e c te d' i n to c ha nne l s w he r e a su r p lu s o f e ne r gy i s m a deava i lable , e i the r for d i rec t use in l i f e , a s house , a s

Basiagoc i ty , a s r e g iona l ha b i t a t , o r f o r s to r a ge a ga in s tf u t u r e v i ta l u s es '. C o n s u m p t i o n w o u l d b e d i r e c te dt o w a r d s ' t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n a n d e n h a n c e m e n t o fl if e' ( M u m f o r d , 1 93 8). M u m f o r d s p o k e o f t h e'B io t e c hn ic C i ty ' w i th a p e c u l i a r b io log ic a l im pe r -a t i v i sm . M um f or d be l i e ve d tha t c i t i es ha ve a m a x-i m u m , p r a c t i c a b l e p o p u l a t i o n l i m i t . B e y o n d t h a tl im i t , c i t i e s f r u s t r a t e hum a n de ve lopm e n t , e x -p r e s se d i n s o m e t h i n g as f u n d a m e n t a l a s r e p r o d u c -t i on . ' [ T ] he b io log ic a l no r m o f c i t y g r ow th ' , t he' d e g r e e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e y o n d w h i c h t h e c o m -m u n i t y f a i l s i n r e p r o d u c i n g t h e f u l l q u o t a o f i t sm e m b e r s ' , M u m f o r d s e t a t b e t w e e n 2 5 0 0 0 a n d50 000 c i ti z e ns . Th i s w a s t he ' upp e r l im i t f o r t hes ize of the Biotechnic c i ty ' . Sprawl ing c i t ie s werea n t a g o n i s t i c t o h u m a n l i f e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r es t e m m i n g p r o c r e a t io n . T h e n e e d t o b a l a n c e t h es i z e o f h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t s , r e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e sa n d n a t u r e p r e s e r v a t i o n m i g h t b e r e l a t e d t o h u -m a n s u rv i v al . T h e ' e c o n o m i c d i s o r g a n i z a ti o n s ' ,t he ' r e t r og r a de t e nd e nc ie s ' re f l ec t e d in m o de r n u r -ba n f o r m m igh t e a s i l y r e p r e se n t t he e nd o f c iv i l i -z a t i on i t s e l f ( M um f or d , 1938 ). To p r e ve n t soc i a ld i s i n te g r a t io n , t h e ' B i o t ec h n i c C i t y ' w o u l d e m p h a -s i z e ' t he c e n t r a l b io log ic a l ne e ds o f t he f a m i ly ' .M um f or d be l i e ve d tha t W e s te r n c i t i e s f a i l e d t oa dd r e s s pe op le ' s ne e ds f o r l ove , s e xua l i n t im a c y ,a n d c o n d i t i o n s f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e p h y s i c a l a n d p s y -c h o l o g i c a l g r o w t h o f c h i l d r e n . T h e s e c o n d i t i o n sinc lude d a ' s t a b l e , r e a s su r ing e nv i r onm e n t o fh o m e a n d g a r d e n ' . P o s t - w a r u r b a n r e c o n s t r u c t io n ,t h e r e f o r e , w o u l d h a v e t o ' g i v e t i m e a n d t h o u g h ta n d m o n e y a n d l o v e t o t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e f am i l y '.The f a m i ly m us t ha ve ' t he e s se n t i a l spa c e a nde q u i p m e n t it n e e d s ', M u m f o r d w r o t e. A s a f ir s tp r inc ip l e , t he 'B io t e c hn ic C i ty ' w ou ld p l a c e t hef a m i ly a t t he c e n t r e o f c iv i c l i f e ( M um f or d ,1 9 4 5 ) . M u m f o r d i d e n t i f i e d h o u s i n g r e f o r m a n dthe e l e va t ion o f e duc a t ion a bove a l l o the r soc i e t a lp r io r i t ie s a s ha l lm a r ks o f h i s 'B io t e c hn ic C i ty ' .T h e d w e l li n g h o u s e , M u m f b r d f el t, h a d b e e n ' t h eb a c k w a r d p o i n t o f m o d e r n t e c h n i cs ' . In s t e a d , itw o u l d b e t h e p h y s i c a l f o c a l p o i n t i n t h e c h a n g ef r o m a p e c u n i a r y t o a B i o t e c h n i c e c o n o m y , j u s ta s e d u c a t i o n w o u l d b e t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l f o c u s o fthe 'B io t e c hn ic C i ty ' . The f a m i ly re s ide nc e a nd thesc hoo l w ou ld be c om e ' t he e s se n t i a l nuc l e us o f t hen e w c o m m u n i t y ' , a c t in g a s ' o r g a n s o f th e w h o l ec o m m u n i t y ' ( M u m f o r d , 1 9 3 8 ) .A r e t u r n t o t h e m e d i a e v a l f o r m c e l e b r a te d b yH o w a r d a n d G e d d e s w o u l d r e - h u m a n i z e u r b a nl iv ing . The sm a l l , s e l f - c on ta ine d , ga r de n c om m u-n i ti e s e n v i s i o n e d b y M u m f o r d w o u l d ' r e s to r e t othe c i t y t he m a te r na l , l i f e - nu r tu r ing f unc t ions '( M u m f o r d , 1 9 6 1 ) . B y t h e s e M u m f o r d m e a n t ' t h eb i r t h a n d n u r t u r e o f c h il d r e n , t h e p r e s e r v a ti o n o fh u m a n h e a l t h a n d w e l l - b e i n g , t h e c u l t u r e o f t h eh u m a n p e r s o n a li t y , a n d t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f th e n a t -u r a l a n d c iv i c e nv i r onm e n t as t he t he a t r e o f al lt he se a c t iv i t i e s ' ( M um f or d , 1938 ) . The pa th t othe su s t a ina b le c i t y l i e s i n u r ba n f o r m tha t w i l l

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The search fo r the sustainable city in 20th century urba n planning

S C E N IC V A L U E S

F O R E S T V A L U E S

RECREATION VALUES

W I L D L I F E V A L U E S

R E S I D E N T I A L V A L U E S

I N S T I T U T IO N A L V A L U E S

Fig. 5. M cH arg's plann ing overlays used to evaluate potent ial urba n s i tes - scale in miles (one mile = 1.61 km).(F rom McHarg , 1969) .s u s t a in t h e h u m a n s p ir it .

T h e s e a r c h f o r t h e e c o l o g ic a l c i t yMcHarg ' s 'Ci t y Des igned wi th Nature ' (1969):Urban sustainability as environmentally sensitiveplanningW h a t is t h e p la c e o f n a t u r e i n h u m a n i t y ' s w o r l d ?I n Design with Nature ( 1 9 6 9 ) , I a n M c H a r g a d -d r e s s e d t h i s v i t a l q u e s t i o n , t h e a b i d i n g q u e s t i o no f t h e e r a o f th e ' E c o l o g i c a l C i ty ' . M c H a r g l a-m e n t e d t h e d e g e n e r a t i o n o f m o d e r n c i t ie s l ik eN e w Y o r k . H e f o u n d t h e m p l a c es o f 'u g li n es sa n d d i s o r d e r ' c r e a t e d ' f o r p r i v a t e g r e e d ' , m a x i -m u m e x p re s si o n s o f 'm a n ' s i n h u m a n i t y t o m a n ' .M c H a r g b l a m e d h u m a n i t y ' s ' a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c ,a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c ' w o r l d v i e w f o r t h e ' d e a d g r e yt is s u e ' o f c i ti e s e n c ir c l in g A m e r i c a . C o r p o r a t e c a -

p i t a l i s m w a s a l s o t o b l a m e f o r n a t u r e ' s p i l l a g e . I nt h e n a m e o f p r o f i t, t h e l a n d w a s r a p e d , t h e r iv e r sa n d a t m o s p h e r e p o l l u t e d , t h e l a n d s c a p e s te r il iz e d ,t h e g r e a t f o r e s t s fe l l ed , t h e m a r s h e s f i ll ed . M o d e r ne c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n i s m h a d f r a m e d ' a n i m p e r f e c tv i e w o f t h e w o r l d ' b y f a i li n g ' to i n c o r p o r a t e p h y -s i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s ' . S i n c e n a t u r e s u s -t a in s c i ti es , a n d t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f n a t u r a l p r o -c e s s e s m a d e c i t i e s d y s f u n c t i o n a l , a n e w f o r m o f' e c o l o g i c a l ' u r b a n i z a t i o n w a s r e q u i r e d . I t w o u l db r i n g a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f b io l o g i c al p r o c e s se s -t h e p l a n t s , t h e d e c o m p o s e r s , e c o s y s t e m s , o t h e r l i fef o r m s , t h e g e n e p o o l - t o t h e p l a n n i n g o f c it ie s . An e w f o r m o f c it y w o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d b a se d o n t h ea p p r a i s a l o f t h e n a t u r a l s y s t e m s w i t h in w h i c h h u -m a n s l i v e . I t w o u l d b e a c i t y d e s i g n e d with n a t u r ea n d n o t a g a i n s t it . O n l y s u c h a n e w c o s m o g r a p h yw o u l d s u s t ai n t h e p o p u l a c e ( M c H a r g , 1 96 9) .M c H a r g ' s q u e s ti o n o f w h e r e n a t u r e b e l o n g si n t h e w o r l d l e d t o t h e m o r e p r a c t i c a l q u e s t io n o f ,



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Basiagow h e r e a r e t h e b e s t p l a c e s t o p l a c e c i t i e s ? S o m el o c a t i o n s o n E a r t h p o s s e s s a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d o rw i l dl if e h a b i t a t t h a t u r b a n i z a t i o n w o u l d d e s t r o y .O t h e r s h a r b o u r n a t u r a l h a z a r d s , s u c h a s f l o o dp l a i n s o r s e i s m i c fa u l t s t h a t m i g h t d e s t r o y c i t ie s( B e ll , 1 99 4 a) . P l a n n i n g s h o u l d n o t m e r e l y a d d r e s se c o n o m i c ' , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , b u t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o fd e v e l o p m e n t f o r p h y s i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i a lp r o c e ss e s . I f th e g o a l o f d e v e l o p m e n t i s t o a c h i e v e' t h e m a x i m u m s o c ia l b e n e fi t a t t h e l e a st c o s t' , d e -v e l o p m e n t ' s i m p a c t u p o n t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y ,h e a l t h , a m e n i t y , s a f e t y , c o m m u n i t y i n t e g r i t y , in s ti -t u t i o n s , r e s i d e n t i a l q u a l i t y , a n d s c e n i c , h i s t o r i ca n d r e c r e a t i o n a l v a l u e , i n c l u d i n g t h e c o s t s t o s o -c i e ty o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f n a t u r e , m u s t e n t e r t h ee q u a t i o n ( M c H a r g , 1 96 9) . M c H a r g , t h e r e f o r e , i n -t r o d u c e d a n e w m e t h o d t o e x p r es s b o t h s o c ia l a n dn a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a l v a l u e s . T h i s m e t h o db e g i n s b y e v a l u a t in g a n d r a n k i n g l a n d , t id a l i n u n -d a t i o n , h i s t o r i c , s c e n i c , r e c r e a t i o n , w a t e r , f o r e s t ,w i l d l i f e , r e s i d e n t i a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l v a l u e s f o r ag i v e n a r e a . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e e a c h p o r t r a y e d g r a -p h i c a l l y o n t r a n s p a r e n c i e s ( F i g . 5 ) . T h e i n d i v i d u a lm a p s a r e t h e n o v e r l a i d , f o r m i n g a c o m p o s i t e . T h i sc o m p o s i t e r e p r e s e n t s , M c H a r g w r o t e , ' t h e s u m o fs o c i a l v a l u e s , p h y s i o g r a p h i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n dc o n s t r a i n t s ' . T h e o p t i m u m l o c a t i o n t o d e v e l o p i si d e n t i f ie d w i t h a v i e w t o i n c u r r i n g t h e l e a s t n a t u r a la n d s o c i a l c o s t a n d c r e a t i n g n e w s o c i a l v a l u e s .N a t u r e p o s s e s s e s ' a v a l u e s y s t e m w i t h i n t r i n s i c o p -p o r t u n i t i e s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s t o h u m a n u s e ' . T h em o s t e c o n o m i c a l p l a c e o n E a r t h t o d e v e l o p isw h e r e i t 'w i ll b e l e a s t d e s t r u c t i v e t o n a t u r e ' s ' s e a m -l es s w e b ' ( M c H a r g , 1 9 69 ).U r b a n i s t J i m B e ll , d i r e c to r o f th e E c o l o g i c a lL i f e S y s te m s I n s t i t u te o f S a n D i e g o , j o i n s a g r o w -i n g c a d r e o f s u s t a in a b i l it y p l a n n e r s w h o a r e e m -p l o y i n g t h e M c H a r g m e t h o d t o p l a c e c e n t r e s o fi n t e n s e h u m a n a c t i v i t y i n i n t e r s t i t i a l a r e a s . O v e r -l a y m a p s d e t a i l b o t h n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s (g r o u n d -w a t e r l o c a t i o n s , o p t i m a l a g r i c u l t u r a l s o i l s , p l a n ta n d a n i m a l h a b i t a t s ) a n d n a t u r a l h a z a r d s ( f l o o dp l a in s a n d s e is m i c f a u lt s ). H u m a n s e t tl e m e n t s a r et h e n p l a c e d o n l a n d t h a t c o n t a i n s t h e f e w e s t i n t er -s e c t i o n s o f t h e s e d y n a m i c a t t r i b u t e s ( B e ll , 1 9 94 a) .B y p r e s e r v i n g t h e ' e c o l o g i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . . . u n -d e r l y i n g t h e h u m a n - c r e a t e d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ' ( N e l -son , 1994), ge ne t i c d ivers i ty , so i l fe r t i l i t y an dm i n e r a l r e s e r v e s a r e p r o t e c t e d f r o m d e v e l o p m e n t(Bell, 1994a).M c H a r g ' s s y s t e m is u n i q u e l y s u i te d t o r e g i o -n a l p l a n n in g b a s e d o n w a t e r c a t c h m e n t b o u n d -a r i e s . T h e p l a n t a n d a n i m a l c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t i n -h a b i t w a t e r c a t c h m e n t s p r o t e c t c i t i e s f r o m f l o o d sa n d s o il s f r o m e r o s i o n . T h e y c r e a t e t h e o r g a n i cm a t e r i a l i n s o i l s a n d p l a y a v i t a l r o l e i n g r o u n d -w a t e r r e c h a r g e . I n a p l a n t h a t B e l l h a s d e v e l o p e df o r t h e S a n D i e g o - T i j u a n a r e g i o n , w a t e r c a t c h -m e n t b o u n d a r i e s , n o t a r b i t r a r y p o l i t i c a l b o u n d -a r ie s , f o r m t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f r e g io n a l p l a n n i n g .A s e t o f w a t e r c a t c h m e n t b a s e m a p s i s u s e d u p o nw h i c h s e ts o f tr a n s p a r e n t m a p s a r e o v e r l a id . E a c h

t r a n s p a r e n c y i d e n t i f i e s a n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e o r h a -z a r d . A r e a s o f th e w a t e r c a t c h m e n t w i t h o u t s i g n if -i c a n t n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s o r h a z a r d s q u i c k l y b e c o m ea p p a r e n t a s t h e b e s t l o c a t i o n s f o r n e w d e v e l o p -m e n t . D e v e l o p m e n t s t o b e r e l o c a t e d t o m o r e o p t i-m al a rea s a re a l so ident i f i ed (Be ll , 1994a). O ncet h e o p t i m u m p l a c e t o u r b a n i z e i s i d e n t i f i e d , t h es e c o n d m a j o r f o c u s o f th e e m e r g i n g d e s ig n p h i l o -s o p h y b a s e d o n M c H a r g ' s p r e c e p t s i s t o s t r i v e t om a k e c i t i e s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t . R e g i o n s l i k e S a n D i e -g o - T i j u a n a , w h i c h i m p o r t s 9 0 p e r c e n t o f i ts w a t e ra n d 9 5 p e r c e n t o f it s p o w e r , a r e v u l n e r a b l e t oe a r t h q u a k e s , f l o o d s , f i r e s a n d t e r r o r i s m . C i t i e st h a t a r e r e s o u r c e a n d w a t e r e f f i c ie n t a n d s t o r e r e -s o u r c e s l o c a l l y w i l l la s t l o n g e r i f s u p p l i e s a r e i n t e r -r u p t e d . D e s i g n i n g c i t i e s t o u t i l i z e l o c a l r e s o u r c e si n a s u s t a in a b l e w a y - f o r e x a m p l e , b y r e q u i r i n gs o l a r c e ll s o n r o o f s a n d t h e r e c y c l i n g o f s e w a g e t og r o w f o o d , m a t e r i a l s a n d c r o p s - n o t o n l y m a k e sr e g i o n s l e ss v u l n e r a b l e t o d i s a s t e r , b u t c r e a t e s j o b sa n d s a ve s m o n e y o n i m p o r t s ( N e l s o n , 1 99 4).A c c o r d i n g t o B e ll , s u s ta i n a b l e l a n d u s e g o v -e r n a n c e d e p e n d s u p o n r e so l v in g a n u m b e r o f l a n du s e i s su e s . F i r s t , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d t h e o p t i m a ls i t e s f o r u r b a n a n d i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s . T h e a l t e r -n a t i v e to d o i n g s o is e c o n o m i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a ld e cl in e . M c H a r g ' s m e t h o d ( p e r f o r m e d o n G e o g r a -p h i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t em s ) , b y i d e n t i f y i n g w h e r en a t u r e h a s p l a c e d w a t e r c a t c h m e n t b o u n d a r i e s ,w i l d l i f e c o r r i d o r s , a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s , t h e b e s t a g r i -c u l t u r a l s o i l s , a n d c o a s t a l f e a t u r e s s u c h a s k e l pb e d s , i d e n t i f i es w h e r e s o c i e t y ' s a c t u a l w e a l t h i s l o-c a t e d . S e c o n d , t h e c o s t a c c o u n t i n g s y s t e m o f n a t -u r e m u s t b e a d o p t e d i n a f i n a n c i a l s y s t e m . ' T r u ec o s t p r i c i n g ' a c c o u n t s f o r t h e t r u e e n v i r o n m e n t a lc o s t s o f a g o o d o r s e r v ic e , it s l if e c y c le c o s t , n o ts t r i c t l y i t s f i r s t c o s t . T h i s w o u l d c r e a t e e c o n o m i ci n c e n t i v e s t o s e e k e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y b e n e f i c i a l a l t e r -n a t i v e s . T h i r d , ' s u s t a i n a b l e ' b u i l d i n g s m u s t b e -c o m e t h e b a s ic u n i t o f u r b a n i z a t io n . A ' s u st a in -a b l e ' b u i l d i n g d o e s n o t p r o m o t e s i c k n e s s , i s s e i s -m i c a l l y s a f e, is n o t b u i l t o n a f l o o d p l a i n , c o n t a i n sa r a i n c i s t e rn t o c o n s e r v e w a t e r , i s s u r r o u n d e d b yc l i m a t i c a l l y s u i t a b l e e d i b l e l a n d s c a p e a n d r e l ie s o ne n e r g y in c o m e f r o m t h e s u n. A s im p l e m o d e l o f ac i t y ' d e s i g n e d w i t h n a t u r e ' i s o n e t h a t u s e s s o l a re n e r g y t o d i s ti l it s c le a n w a t e r , b u t w h i c h d i r e c t sc o n t a m i n a t e d w a t e r, w a s te h e a t a n d C O 2 to p r o -d u c t i v e g r e e n h o u s e s a n d a q u a c u l t u r e p o n d s . S o l a re n e r g y h a s f r e e d i ts i n h a b i t a n t s t o p u r s u e m o r ec r e a t i v e a n d p u r p o s e f u l l i v in g ( B e l l, 1 9 94 b ).Canfield's 'Prototype Symbiotic Community'(1974): Urb an sustainability as design based onnatural carrying capacitiesM c H a r g ' s e c o l o g i c a ll y se n s it iv e p l a n n i n g i n s p i r e dC e r r o G o r d o , O r e g o n , a t o w n o f 25 00 f o u n d e d b yC h r i s C a n f i e ld in 1 97 4. C e r r o G o r d o w a s b a s e do n a s t u d y o f t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t ie s o f t h e v a l l e yi n w h i c h i t i s l o c a t e d . T w o d o z e n d i f f e r e n t e n v i r -o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s a n d i n t r i n s i c l a n d u s e s u i t a b i l -

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The search fo r the sustainable city in 20th century urba n planningi t i e s w e r e e xa m ine d . L ine s w e r e d r a w n be tw e e nle s s p r oduc t ive so i l s ne a r t he c e n t r e o f t ow n a ndf o r e s t r y so i l a t i t s pe r iphe r y , w he r e a pe r pe tua l -y i e ld fo r e s t w a s e s t a b l i she d . Th e s i t e m os t su i t a b l ef o r t he v i l l a ge c e n t r e ( a s i nd i c a t e d by 24 f a c to r s )w a s a ba ndone d to p r e se r ve a m a jo r w i ld l i f e c o r r i -do r ( C a n f i e ld , 1993) . A no t ion o f 's ym bio t i c c om -m u n i t y ' t h a t C a n f i e l d t r a c e s t o M u m f o r d ' s T h eCity in History ( 1961 ) a l so i n sp i r e d C e r r o G or do .M u m f o r d w r o t e t h a t b y t h e t i m e o f t h e N e o l i t h i cv i ll ag e , h u m a n i t y h a d t w o f o r m s o f u r b a n i z a t i o nto pu r sue . Th e w a y o f t he c i t a de l s e es t he c i ty a s af o r tr e s s, a n i n s t r u m e n t t o d o m i n a t e p e o p l e a n dt h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d a m a s s e c o n o m i c s u r-p l u s. T h i s M u m f o r d d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e w a yo f t h e v i l la g e , in v o l v i n g c o - o p e r a t i o n a m o n g p e o -p l e a n d b e t w e e n p e o p l e a n d t h e i r e n v i r o n s . T h ew a y o f t h e c it a d e l i s ' p r e d a t o r y ' a n d h a s l e d t othe dow nf a l l o f a nc i e n t c iv i li z a t ions t ha t ha ve e x -c e e de d na tu r a l c a r r y ing c a pa c i t i e s . I t i s e m bod ie dtoda y , he t h inks , i n non - sus t a ina b le g loba l i ndus -t r ie s w h ic h bu r n f o s s il f ue ls a m i l l i on t im e s f a s t e rt h a n t h e y w e r e a c c u m u l a t e d . B y c o n t r a s t, t h e w a yof t he v i l l a ge i s ' s ym bio t i c ' . R e c ogn iz ing tha t t heb i o s p h e re , a s t h e s o u r c e o f e v e r y t h i n g p r o d u c e d ,r e p r e se n t s r e a l w e a l th , i t s e e ks a w a y o f l iv ing inh a r m o n y w i t h n a t u r a l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s ( C a n f i e l d ,1 99 3). A s a ' p r o t o t y p e s y m b i o t i c c o m m u n i t y ' ,C e r r o G o r d o is f o u n d e d in s y m b i o s is , o r m u t u a l l ya d v a n t a g e o u s p a r t n e r s h i p , w i t h t h e b i o s p h e r e .The to w n b r ings t o ge the r vi l la ge , f a r m a n d f o r e s t .I t i s p l a n n e d w i t h i n w a t e r c a t c h m e n t b o u n d a r i e s .P e r pe tua l f o r e s t r y a nd o r ga n ic a g r i c u l tu r e a r ep r a c ti s e d . T h e t o w n ' s p l a n f e a t u r e s a n a t u r a l p r o -g r e s s ion o f c i rc l es ( hom e , c lu s t e r, ne ig hb ou r ho oda nd v i l l a ge ), w i th a c o u r ty a r d o n one s ide o f e a c hc l u s te r h o u s i n g u n i t a n d a 4 0 0 h a c o m m o n s o n t h eo the r . R e s ide n t s e a r n t he i r l i v ing on s i t e . P ha se da nd l im i t e d g r ow th o f a s e l f -su f fi c ie n t , m ixe d - usep e d e s t r i a n v i l l a g e a n d p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t i o n o fthe va l l e y i n w h ic h the t ow n i s s i t ua t e d a r e e nv i -s ioned (Canf ie ld , 1994) .C e r r o G or d o i s t yp i c a l o f t he c i t y de s igne d inn a t u r e . M a n y a l t er n a t iv e c o m m u n i t i e s o f t h is s o r tf ounde d du r ing the 1970s ba se d on ' e c o log ic a l 'p r inc ip l e s w e re bu i l t i n r u r a l a r e a s , w he r e t he m i s -t a k e s o f th e p a s t w o u l d n o t i m p i n g e . T h e g r o w t ha n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f m a n y w e r e g u i d e d b y a s ta t e-m e n t o f p r inc ip l e s o r a n ' e c o log ic a l ' m a s t e r p l a n .F o r m f o l lo w e d p h i l o s o p h y i n a n e x p e r i m e n t d e -s igne d to de m ons t r a t e how a l l c i ti e s m ig h t be ' e c o -log ic a l ' . The se c om m uni t i e s sough t t o e s t a b l i shsus t a ina b i l i t y i n a bso lu t e t e r m s . The C e r r o G o t -d a rt s h o p e t o d e m o n s t r a t e s u s ta i n a b le c o m m u n i t yd e v e l o p m e n t b y b u i l d i n g a p r o t o t y p e . W h i l s tw o r l d p o p u l a t i o n h a s g r o w n t o o l a r g e t o a c h i e v eu r b a n s u s t a i n a b i l i t y b y w a y o f a p r o g r a m m e o fne w tow ns in f o r e s t e d e nc l a ve s , t he p r inc ip l e su p o n w h i c h C e r ro G o r d o a n d t o w n s l ik e i t w er ef o u n d e d r e v e r s e t h e d e p l e t i o n a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o fna tu r a l suppo r t sy s t e m s in e x i s t i ng c i t i e s . The sea r e : c o n v e r s i o n , t o i n d u s t r y m a n u f a c t u r i n g o n l y

non- tox ic , non - de s t r uc t ive a nd non - e xp lo i t a t i vep r oduc t s ; c onse r va t ion , t he r e use , r e duc t ion a ndr e c yc ling o f r e sou r c e s; r e ne w a b le e ne r gy , suc h a sso l a r; r e ge ne r a t ion , t he r e g r ow th o f na tu r a l sup -po r t sy s t e m s ; a nd sym bios i s , de f ine d a s pa r tne r -sh ip , qua l i t a t i ve g r ow th a nd c o - e vo lu t ion ( C a n -field, 1994).

Corbet t ' s 'Vi l lage Homes' (1975): Urbansustainab

The Search for the Sustainable City in 20th Century Urban Planning - Basiago - 1996

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