The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution

Start of the Start of the Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution Copernicus in 1543, same time as pre-Copernicus in 1543, same time as pre-

modern religious wars are breaking out. modern religious wars are breaking out.

By 1687, the Enlightenment begins- a By 1687, the Enlightenment begins- a cultural movement that largely rejected cultural movement that largely rejected religion. religion.

People who are very advanced in one area People who are very advanced in one area of thought may be very archaic in other of thought may be very archaic in other areas.areas.

Before the Scientific RevolutionBefore the Scientific Revolution

Medieval traditions, and seeds of Medieval traditions, and seeds of what was to come. what was to come.

Pre-modernPre-modern ways of thought co- ways of thought co-existed with what we call existed with what we call modernmodern for long periods.for long periods.

Scientific ThoughtScientific Thought ScienceScience tries to explain the world without reference to tries to explain the world without reference to

gods.gods. Sees the world as an object, or series of objects, and tries Sees the world as an object, or series of objects, and tries

to explain how they move and interact.  to explain how they move and interact.   Science separate from Science separate from technologytechnology, ( way of manipulating , ( way of manipulating

the world) the world)  SScientific thinkingcientific thinking was first extensively developed by the was first extensively developed by the

Ancient Greeks.Ancient Greeks.

Ancient Greek thought dominated Europe until the Ancient Greek thought dominated Europe until the Scientific revolution.Scientific revolution.

Greeks tried to explain Greeks tried to explain how and why things movedhow and why things moved.. They believed everything happened for a reason, and They believed everything happened for a reason, and

it had to be an explanation for any motion at all. it had to be an explanation for any motion at all. Overturning this idea that was Isaac Newton's greatest Overturning this idea that was Isaac Newton's greatest

triumph. triumph.

The Impact of AristotleThe Impact of Aristotle AristotleAristotle (384-322 BCE) (384-322 BCE)

Great thinker in ancient Greece, set ways Great thinker in ancient Greece, set ways of thinking for thousands of years. of thinking for thousands of years.

Remained supreme in logic until the 19th Remained supreme in logic until the 19th century. century.

Rediscovered in Europe in 13th century Rediscovered in Europe in 13th century and he greatly affected scientific thought. and he greatly affected scientific thought.

Also influenced political science, literary Also influenced political science, literary criticism, biology, pure philosophy. criticism, biology, pure philosophy.

Aristotelian Theories +the Scientific Aristotelian Theories +the Scientific RevolutionRevolution

MotionMotion Rest is natural. Rest is natural. Motion only by continuous contact with mover. Motion only by continuous contact with mover. Needed angels to explain motion of the heavenly bodies.Needed angels to explain motion of the heavenly bodies.

Heaven and Earth Heaven and Earth

The heavens are different stuff from Earth - light, airy and The heavens are different stuff from Earth - light, airy and perfect. perfect.

Matter Matter Earth, Air, Fire, Water, The idea comes from from Empedocles Earth, Air, Fire, Water, The idea comes from from Empedocles

(d.c. 433BC)(d.c. 433BC)

Aristotle and the ChurchAristotle and the Church His ideas fitted in with some religious theories. His ideas fitted in with some religious theories. Due to great influence of Thomas Aquinas (1225-74)Due to great influence of Thomas Aquinas (1225-74)

The study of Aristotle.The study of Aristotle. Aristotle had an inquiring mind, and had looked at what Aristotle had an inquiring mind, and had looked at what

we now call science. we now call science.

William Ockham. William Ockham. Ockham's Razor- Ockham's Razor- an idea that cut away the surplus of an idea that cut away the surplus of

much speculative thoughtmuch speculative thought "Do not multiply entities more than necessary""Do not multiply entities more than necessary". .

Make your explanations as simple as will fit the facts.Make your explanations as simple as will fit the facts. Influenced Copernicus' reasons for making the Sun the Influenced Copernicus' reasons for making the Sun the

center of the Universe center of the Universe The tendency in science always to look for the most simple The tendency in science always to look for the most simple

explanation. explanation.

The University of PaduaThe University of Padua was to prove a particularly was to prove a particularly important center for modern thought.important center for modern thought.

It was under the control of Venice, a relatively free It was under the control of Venice, a relatively free thinking city. thinking city.

Ptolemaic SystemPtolemaic System Ptolemy, 90-168AD (Claudius Ptolemaeus)Ptolemy, 90-168AD (Claudius Ptolemaeus)   

Greek astronomer based in Alexandria, Egypt. Greek astronomer based in Alexandria, Egypt.

AstronomyAstronomyPtolemy's Ptolemy's AlmagestAlmagest was basis of pre-modern astronomy. was basis of pre-modern astronomy.

Based his system on Aristotle's theories. - Ptolemy was 400 Based his system on Aristotle's theories. - Ptolemy was 400 years later years later

Aristotle needed the Earth to be center of Universe.Aristotle needed the Earth to be center of Universe. Ptolemy explains everything else by cycles and epicycles - 80 Ptolemy explains everything else by cycles and epicycles - 80

in all. The whole universe revolves around the Earth. in all. The whole universe revolves around the Earth. Heavenly Spheres -The idea of crystalline spheres was ancient Heavenly Spheres -The idea of crystalline spheres was ancient

(Anaximenes), but the idea of each planet and start being fixed (Anaximenes), but the idea of each planet and start being fixed on a crystal sphere grew more popular in the Middle Ages. on a crystal sphere grew more popular in the Middle Ages.

Planets.- In his system it was not quite clear what the planets Planets.- In his system it was not quite clear what the planets and stars were. The system was quite small. and stars were. The system was quite small.

No idea that the Sun was star and the Earth a planet. No idea that the Sun was star and the Earth a planet. Perfection - Emphasis on perfection in both Aristotle and Perfection - Emphasis on perfection in both Aristotle and

Ptolemy; the emphasis on the perfect sphere, and perfect Ptolemy; the emphasis on the perfect sphere, and perfect motion in circles . motion in circles .

Magical ThoughtMagical Thought Magical thought Magical thought

World as filled and governed by spirits.  World as filled and governed by spirits.  Goal then is to control or influence the Goal then is to control or influence the

world through such spirits.  world through such spirits. 

Science was not clearly separate from Science was not clearly separate from magic. magic.

Renaissance - along with logic and the Renaissance - along with logic and the art of the past, the large amounts of art of the past, the large amounts of magical and magical and symbolicsymbolic thought of the thought of the past was retrieved. past was retrieved.

Examples of Magical Thought Examples of Magical Thought AlchemyAlchemy

Converting iron to gold or to find some elixir of life. Converting iron to gold or to find some elixir of life. Based on Greek science. Based on Greek science. Chemistry did not advance for a long time, possibly because of an Chemistry did not advance for a long time, possibly because of an

obsession with alchemy, obsession with alchemy,

AstrologyAstrology Events in the heavens effect events on Earth and was pre-Events in the heavens effect events on Earth and was pre-

AristotelianAristotelian Aristotle's idea of contiguous motion gave a scientific rationale to it. Aristotle's idea of contiguous motion gave a scientific rationale to it. The idea of a Chain of Being is important here. The idea of a Chain of Being is important here.

Fit into a Christian world view by saying that the stars affected the lower Fit into a Christian world view by saying that the stars affected the lower nature of people, while the higher parts still had free will.nature of people, while the higher parts still had free will.

WitchcraftWitchcraft    Witch craze in 16th and 17th century Europe. Witch craze in 16th and 17th century Europe.

Old women were killed in the hundreds, especially in Old women were killed in the hundreds, especially in Scotland. Scotland.

People at the time really believed that these women had magic People at the time really believed that these women had magic powers. powers.

For many, demons were in the air all around them. For many, demons were in the air all around them.

Origins of the Scientific Origins of the Scientific RevolutionRevolution

Scientific Revolution was the prelude Scientific Revolution was the prelude to the wider movement we call the to the wider movement we call the Enlightenment. Enlightenment.

Why a "Revolution"?Why a "Revolution"? Completely altered old ways of thinking. Completely altered old ways of thinking.

Causes of Scientific RevolutionCauses of Scientific Revolution Trade and Expansion of TradeTrade and Expansion of Trade Navigational problems of sea voyages generated Navigational problems of sea voyages generated

scientific research.scientific research. Overseas specimens aroused peoples interest in Overseas specimens aroused peoples interest in

different worlds. different worlds.

Medieval UniversitiesMedieval Universities Not all stuffy and unadventurous. Not all stuffy and unadventurous. Without the study of ancient texts it would have Without the study of ancient texts it would have

taken much longer to get off the ground. taken much longer to get off the ground. Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and later Democritus were Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and later Democritus were

essential. essential.

Modern Science started from the breaking old Modern Science started from the breaking old models of the world.models of the world.

The RenaissanceThe Renaissance Brought a heightened interest in mathematics as part of Brought a heightened interest in mathematics as part of

influence of Plato. influence of Plato. The importance of the notion of Order goes back to the Iliad. The importance of the notion of Order goes back to the Iliad. Idea of perfection in the heavens implies simplicity - an Idea of perfection in the heavens implies simplicity - an

important notion in science. important notion in science. The most mathematical sciences, astronomy and The most mathematical sciences, astronomy and

physics, that were most strongly effected by the physics, that were most strongly effected by the Scientific revolution.Scientific revolution.

Renaissance HumanismRenaissance Humanism Belief that there are no limits to human accomplishment (Pico Belief that there are no limits to human accomplishment (Pico

de Mirandola).de Mirandola). Precursor of modern ways of thinking. Precursor of modern ways of thinking.

ReformationReformation Reformation divided Europe.Reformation divided Europe. Science could go on in other countries when Catholic Science could go on in other countries when Catholic

Hierarchy opposed it. Hierarchy opposed it.

Notes on Scientific Revolution IndividualsNotes on Scientific Revolution Individuals Hopefully you know your individual fairly well.Hopefully you know your individual fairly well. Use the notes that you take in the Sci-Philo Fair for Use the notes that you take in the Sci-Philo Fair for

this section. this section. If every person was covered you should have the following If every person was covered you should have the following

people:people: Nicholas CopernicusNicholas Copernicus Tycho BraheTycho Brahe Johannes KeplerJohannes Kepler Galileo Galilei Galileo Galilei Isaac NewtonIsaac Newton Francis BaconFrancis Bacon Rene DecartesRene Decartes Thomas HobbesThomas Hobbes John LockeJohn Locke Margaret CavendishMargaret Cavendish

Use the text from 455-466 to enhance your notes, you can also use the Use the text from 455-466 to enhance your notes, you can also use the following slides, from Copernicus to Locke to also add to them. You will following slides, from Copernicus to Locke to also add to them. You will be responsible for knowing ALL the major individuals in this chapter. be responsible for knowing ALL the major individuals in this chapter.

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) Scientific Revolution starts with him. Scientific Revolution starts with him.

Polish priest Polish priest

Studied in Renaissance Italy at the Studied in Renaissance Italy at the University of Padua - Mathematics, University of Padua - Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine and Astronomy, Medicine and Theology made up the curriculum. Theology made up the curriculum.

De Revolutionibus Orbium De Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium Caelestium On the Revolution of On the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies 1543the Heavenly Bodies 1543

Idea of a heliocentric [sun-Idea of a heliocentric [sun-centered] universe was a centered] universe was a breakthrough, breakthrough,

Did not explain motion that Did not explain motion that Aristotle's' view of the world did. Aristotle's' view of the world did. This had been the reason Ptolemy This had been the reason Ptolemy rejected it. rejected it.

Theory was based on very conservative Theory was based on very conservative mathematics and not on much observation. mathematics and not on much observation.

Simpler to explain heavenly motion if the Simpler to explain heavenly motion if the Sun was at the center- Copernicus offered it Sun was at the center- Copernicus offered it as a hypothesis. as a hypothesis.

Reduced the number of spheres from 80 to Reduced the number of spheres from 80 to 34. 34.

Still loyal to Ptolemy's system in many ways. Still loyal to Ptolemy's system in many ways. Copernicus was obsessed with perfect Copernicus was obsessed with perfect

circular motion. (Platonic obsession with circular motion. (Platonic obsession with perfection) perfection)

Important was Copernicus' mental Important was Copernicus' mental breakthrough.breakthrough.

He was wrong but was the stimulus for future He was wrong but was the stimulus for future scientists to come up with something better.scientists to come up with something better.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Danish Royal Astrologer.Danish Royal Astrologer. Set new standards in observation without a Set new standards in observation without a

telescope.telescope. Disbelieved Copernicus because his observations Disbelieved Copernicus because his observations

showed that planets did not move in perfect showed that planets did not move in perfect circles. circles.

In 1572-73 a new star appeared (the Crab In 1572-73 a new star appeared (the Crab Nebula?) and in 1577 a new comet. Nebula?) and in 1577 a new comet.

Ruined crystal spheres idea. Neither event worked Ruined crystal spheres idea. Neither event worked with the idea of perfect unchangeable heavens with the idea of perfect unchangeable heavens

Junked the idea of perfect circular motion, and the Junked the idea of perfect circular motion, and the idea of fixed spheres in the heavens. idea of fixed spheres in the heavens.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Student of mathematics and astronomy and a student of Student of mathematics and astronomy and a student of

Brahe. Brahe. Put Brahe's observations into order. Put Brahe's observations into order. Tested hypothesis after hypothesis until he came up with an Tested hypothesis after hypothesis until he came up with an

answer that worked. Came up with the idea that planets answer that worked. Came up with the idea that planets move in ellipses. move in ellipses.

His His Three Laws of Planetary MotionThree Laws of Planetary Motion corrected Copernicus corrected Copernicus Started trend of scientists discovering laws. Started trend of scientists discovering laws.

Planets move in ellipses - of which Sun is one focus. Planets move in ellipses - of which Sun is one focus. One law:One law: An equal area of the plane is covered in equal An equal area of the plane is covered in equal

time by planet revolving around the Sun. (or the period of time by planet revolving around the Sun. (or the period of revolution around the sun is proportional to distance from revolution around the sun is proportional to distance from the Sun.)the Sun.)

Kepler had no explanation of why this was the caseKepler had no explanation of why this was the case. In . In

fact he was involved in number mysticism and explained it as fact he was involved in number mysticism and explained it as part of the mystery of numbers.part of the mystery of numbers.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Italian. Italian.

Studied at Padua, which was a hotbed of scientific discussion, on Studied at Padua, which was a hotbed of scientific discussion, on both the cause of motion and the scientific method. both the cause of motion and the scientific method.

Mathematician, and was also keen on ArchimedesMathematician, and was also keen on Archimedes

AstronomyAstronomy He used a telescope for better observation c. 1609-Did not He used a telescope for better observation c. 1609-Did not

invent it invent it Confirmed the heliocentric system. Confirmed the heliocentric system. Found surprises, like seeing the Moon with scars on, seeing Found surprises, like seeing the Moon with scars on, seeing

sun spots. This was in a supposedly perfect heaven. sun spots. This was in a supposedly perfect heaven. Difference between Earth and the heavens was disappearing. Difference between Earth and the heavens was disappearing. Tied in astronomy to motion on Earth, which had also been Tied in astronomy to motion on Earth, which had also been

the great achievement of Aristotle's system. the great achievement of Aristotle's system. Motion on EarthMotion on Earth

Did experiments about motion on Earth. Argued on the basis Did experiments about motion on Earth. Argued on the basis of tying two objects together and asking if they would fall of tying two objects together and asking if they would fall more quicklymore quickly

1638 - Discourse on Two New Sciences1638 - Discourse on Two New Sciences

At first passed Church Censors. At first passed Church Censors. Imagined Motion without the constraints of the real world, a “though Imagined Motion without the constraints of the real world, a “though

experiment” – radical methodexperiment” – radical method

Based theories on observation, but went beyond to the truth- Based theories on observation, but went beyond to the truth- recognized the constraints on simple observation. recognized the constraints on simple observation.

Notion of inertiaNotion of inertia - a body continues to move unless it is stopped - - a body continues to move unless it is stopped - vital. Not fully developed by Galileo. vital. Not fully developed by Galileo.

Thought motion was naturally in a circular direction, rather than a Thought motion was naturally in a circular direction, rather than a straight line. straight line.

Still had the old medieval idea ofStill had the old medieval idea of impetus impetus Did not offer a convincing explanation of heavenly motion. Did not offer a convincing explanation of heavenly motion. Attacked the whole Aristotelian system- saw the need for an entirely Attacked the whole Aristotelian system- saw the need for an entirely

new view. new view.

Conflict with the ChurchConflict with the Church In 1600, Giordano Bruno had been burnt for In 1600, Giordano Bruno had been burnt for

suggesting a plurality of worlds, and other heresies-suggesting a plurality of worlds, and other heresies- Increased fear about Copernicus' ideas just before Increased fear about Copernicus' ideas just before

Galileo became active. Galileo became active.

Galileo argued for separation of theology and science Galileo argued for separation of theology and science on the grounds that God endowed us with reason. on the grounds that God endowed us with reason. Opposition to Galileo Opposition to Galileo 1616 - hearings by Inquisition.1616 - hearings by Inquisition. 1632 Dialogue on Two World Systems 1632 Dialogue on Two World Systems 1633 - Galileo was banned by the Church and put 1633 - Galileo was banned by the Church and put

under house arrest. Decree from Holy Office, which under house arrest. Decree from Holy Office, which is not always infallible, says that it is heresy to is not always infallible, says that it is heresy to believe the Sun is at the center of the Universe. believe the Sun is at the center of the Universe. Galileo recanted to save his neck. Galileo recanted to save his neck.

Was Galileo Totally Right?Was Galileo Totally Right?  -Problems in his use of   -Problems in his use of scriptures. This was especially true for Bellarmine. scriptures. This was especially true for Bellarmine. Galileo was persistent - he raised the ire of the curia. Galileo was persistent - he raised the ire of the curia. Some supported him, including Pope Urban VIII. Some supported him, including Pope Urban VIII.

Opposition in Catholic Countries Opposition in Catholic Countries to Science?to Science?

Italy and Spain Italy and Spain There was more freedom in France (Gallicanism), There was more freedom in France (Gallicanism),

England and Holland (value of divisions in Europe.) England and Holland (value of divisions in Europe.) The University of Padua was under VeniceThe University of Padua was under Venice Most anti-clerical state in EuropeMost anti-clerical state in Europe

Copernicus, Galileo,Vassalius and William Harvey studied Copernicus, Galileo,Vassalius and William Harvey studied there. there.

Protestants had been as hostile to Copernicus as Protestants had been as hostile to Copernicus as Catholics, Catholics,

Less state control in Protestant countriesLess state control in Protestant countries Protestantism became more liberal than it was at Protestantism became more liberal than it was at

first. first.

The Problem of Method in ScienceThe Problem of Method in Science With the growth of practical knowledge, there With the growth of practical knowledge, there

was consideration of scientific method. was consideration of scientific method. Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes were Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes were especially important.. especially important..

Francis Bacon (1561-1625)Francis Bacon (1561-1625) English Lord Chancellor. English Lord Chancellor. Had an enthusiasm for the application of science; Had an enthusiasm for the application of science; Science = power - Promoted the modern idea of Science = power - Promoted the modern idea of

progressprogress 1620 Novum Organum (New Tools)1620 Novum Organum (New Tools)

The Inductive Method; make a lot of observations The Inductive Method; make a lot of observations and then generalize rules of nature. This leads to and then generalize rules of nature. This leads to scientific observation as a method. scientific observation as a method.

Problem with Induction- Problem with Induction- THERE IS NO LOGICAL REASON TO GO ARGUE FROM THERE IS NO LOGICAL REASON TO GO ARGUE FROM

ANY AMOUNT OF EXPERIENCE TO A GENERAL LAW. ANY AMOUNT OF EXPERIENCE TO A GENERAL LAW.

Problem of InductionProblem of Induction Science is not Science is not logicallogical, at least in its observational , at least in its observational

mode, but this does not mean it is false. mode, but this does not mean it is false.

Bacon and MathematicsBacon and Mathematics Never understood the importance of Never understood the importance of

mathematics, which is deductive since it mathematics, which is deductive since it proceeds from theorems to axioms without proceeds from theorems to axioms without empirical observation. empirical observation.

Although experimentation became the standard Although experimentation became the standard of science, the breakthroughs in the Scientific of science, the breakthroughs in the Scientific revolution in astronomy and mechanics were revolution in astronomy and mechanics were mentalmental

Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650)Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) Mathematician and philosopherMathematician and philosopher Showed any algebraic formula could be plotted on a graph- linked Showed any algebraic formula could be plotted on a graph- linked

algebra, with Geometry, algebra, with Geometry, Important in the future methods of science. Important in the future methods of science.

Stressed Mathematics was a general science, applicable to all other Stressed Mathematics was a general science, applicable to all other sciences which were concerned with order and measurement. sciences which were concerned with order and measurement.

Advanced the notion of DEDUCTION to get some certain Advanced the notion of DEDUCTION to get some certain knowledge (such as that you know you yourself exist and work from knowledge (such as that you know you yourself exist and work from there). there).

System was GOOD System was GOOD Stressed Mathematics in science, Stressed Mathematics in science,

BADBAD Allowed little room for testing ideas in the real world. Allowed little room for testing ideas in the real world. Descartes was not totally against observation, but his emphasis was Descartes was not totally against observation, but his emphasis was

different from Bacon. different from Bacon.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Professor at Cambridge, Professor at Cambridge, He was born the day Galileo died. He was born the day Galileo died.

Principia Mathematica, 1687 (Principia Mathematica, 1687 (Mathematical Mathematical Principles of Natural PhilosophyPrinciples of Natural Philosophy))

Brought together Galileo's discoveries about motion Brought together Galileo's discoveries about motion on Earth, and Kepler's discoveries about motion in on Earth, and Kepler's discoveries about motion in the heavens. the heavens.

Combined the Baconian stress on generating laws Combined the Baconian stress on generating laws by inductive arguing from experience and by inductive arguing from experience and Descartes' stress on deducing new ideas from Descartes' stress on deducing new ideas from things known well- To do this he invented calculus. things known well- To do this he invented calculus.

Provided an explanation for heavenly motion that Provided an explanation for heavenly motion that was tied to observed properties of motion on Earth. was tied to observed properties of motion on Earth. (Galileo + Kepler) (Galileo + Kepler)

Generalized laws from these observations, but Generalized laws from these observations, but based laws based on mathematics. based laws based on mathematics.

Newton had read Descartes and in fact attacked Newton had read Descartes and in fact attacked him, but uses his mathematical approach. him, but uses his mathematical approach.

A Better Synthesis than AristotleA Better Synthesis than Aristotle

Accounted for motion throughout the Universe. Accounted for motion throughout the Universe. Had to attack Descartes view on a plenum of matter, Had to attack Descartes view on a plenum of matter,

with vortices moving the planets. with vortices moving the planets. Explanation was based on idea of Explanation was based on idea of Inertial MovementInertial Movement

and and GravityGravity. - With . - With inertiainertia, you no longer had to , you no longer had to explain motion, you only had to explain explain motion, you only had to explain change.change.

All bodies moved as if every particle attracted every other All bodies moved as if every particle attracted every other particle with a force proportional to the product of the two particle with a force proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. distance between them.

NEWTON'S GENIUS WAS TO IMAGINE MOTION OUTSIDE NEWTON'S GENIUS WAS TO IMAGINE MOTION OUTSIDE THE REAL WORLD OF IMPEDIMENTS TO MOTION, AND A THE REAL WORLD OF IMPEDIMENTS TO MOTION, AND A WORLD OF VERY MANY PARTICLES, AND TO IMAGINE A WORLD OF VERY MANY PARTICLES, AND TO IMAGINE A UNIVERSE WITH ONLY TWO PARTICLES, BUT BASED UNIVERSE WITH ONLY TWO PARTICLES, BUT BASED THAT IMAGINATION ON OBSERVATIONTHAT IMAGINATION ON OBSERVATION

1672 Jean Picard, a Frenchman observed Mars from Paris and 1672 Jean Picard, a Frenchman observed Mars from Paris and Cayenne, and worked out its altitude. Helped Newton in his Cayenne, and worked out its altitude. Helped Newton in his calculations. calculations.

Newton could not explain why gravity existed. Newton could not explain why gravity existed.

Newton still had room for God; and he was very pious . Newton still had room for God; and he was very pious . The Three Laws of MotionThe Three Laws of Motion

1. A body moves in a straight line unless impeded. (Inertia). 1. A body moves in a straight line unless impeded. (Inertia). 2. Every action has equal and opposite reaction. 2. Every action has equal and opposite reaction. 3. Every body attracts every other body with a force 3. Every body attracts every other body with a force

proportional to the distance between. proportional to the distance between.

Motion is normal, and does not need explaining. Motion is normal, and does not need explaining. Force can be conveyed without physical touching. (Theory still Force can be conveyed without physical touching. (Theory still

unclear) unclear) Inertia drives out the angels and views the Universe a a large Inertia drives out the angels and views the Universe a a large

piece of clockwork. piece of clockwork.

Newton also worked on Optics - Opticks - Newton also worked on Optics - Opticks - 1704 1704

Newton was not, of course, "right". Newton was not, of course, "right". Einstein and Quantum Mechanics in the Einstein and Quantum Mechanics in the last century have shown that, but his last century have shown that, but his model was better than anything done model was better than anything done before. before.

Society- Natural RightsSociety- Natural Rights

Thomas Hobbes 1588-1662Thomas Hobbes 1588-1662 An Atheist - 2nd son of a vicar. An Atheist - 2nd son of a vicar. He was opposed to the English Revolution and had gone into He was opposed to the English Revolution and had gone into

exile in 1640. exile in 1640.

LeviathanLeviathan 1651, is his masterpiece. 1651, is his masterpiece. Based on the New Science and observation. Based on the New Science and observation.

Thought his new subject of study was equal with the work of Thought his new subject of study was equal with the work of his friends Harvey and Galileo. his friends Harvey and Galileo.

Concerned with the natural state of affairs. Concerned with the natural state of affairs.

His political science was based on reason - this was to be His political science was based on reason - this was to be future of this science. future of this science.

Hobbesian View of MenHobbesian View of Men

"The life of man is nasty brutish and short"."The life of man is nasty brutish and short". Need for a state to control, although the aim is the welfare Need for a state to control, although the aim is the welfare

of all. of all. Absolute power for a leader is needed. Absolute power for a leader is needed. His theoretical basis was absolute materialism. Hobbes His theoretical basis was absolute materialism. Hobbes

thought that matter was all that existed: men where just thought that matter was all that existed: men where just part of conflict in nature. part of conflict in nature.

The whole Universe including politics is mechanical. = The whole Universe including politics is mechanical. = NATURAL LAW element. NATURAL LAW element.

Wanted a tightly ordered commonwealth, not a Tyranny, Wanted a tightly ordered commonwealth, not a Tyranny, ruled by law and order. ruled by law and order.

Shows in detail what powers he thinks a state must have in Shows in detail what powers he thinks a state must have in order to do its job.order to do its job.

John Locke 1632-1704John Locke 1632-1704 Two Treatises on GovernmentTwo Treatises on Government 1690 1690

Written before the Glorious Revolution of Written before the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but is often seen as justifying it. 1688, but is often seen as justifying it.

Letter on TolerationLetter on Toleration 1689 1689Locke is less original than Hobbes but more Locke is less original than Hobbes but more influential. influential.

Opposed Hobbes Opposed Hobbes Influenced by Science, Newton, plus Influenced by Science, Newton, plus

medieval ideas opposing absolute power and medieval ideas opposing absolute power and supporting Natural Law. supporting Natural Law.

Philosophical Basis of Locke's ViewsPhilosophical Basis of Locke's ViewsLocke's view of man: Locke's view of man: Man is rational, born equal (one of implications Man is rational, born equal (one of implications

of a tabula rasa at birth). of a tabula rasa at birth). Motivation of people is pleasure and avoidance Motivation of people is pleasure and avoidance

of pain.of pain. Government should try to mold behavior with Government should try to mold behavior with

pleasure and pain: it should manipulate the pleasure and pain: it should manipulate the environment, and use education to make environment, and use education to make better people. better people.

Locke- Theory of GovernmentLocke- Theory of Government Man's NATURAL state was of harmony with Man's NATURAL state was of harmony with

each other and equality.each other and equality. Without a government there are Without a government there are

"inconveniences": no law or judges."inconveniences": no law or judges. People make a contract with government to People make a contract with government to

protect their rights. protect their rights. THIS WAS A RATIONAL NOT A THEOLOGICAL THIS WAS A RATIONAL NOT A THEOLOGICAL

reason for government.reason for government. The people have a natural(= Divine) right to The people have a natural(= Divine) right to

oppose governments that do not keep the oppose governments that do not keep the contractcontract

Locke- Natural Rights and Civil RightsLocke- Natural Rights and Civil Rights Man is born equal means he has rights: Man is born equal means he has rights: Government exists to protect these rights.Government exists to protect these rights. All should be equal before the law. All should be equal before the law. Locke's theory was that there were NATURAL Locke's theory was that there were NATURAL

RIGHTS - to "life, liberty and property" RIGHTS - to "life, liberty and property" People SHOULD have these rights to be fully People SHOULD have these rights to be fully

human.human. Natural Law is deduced, there was no empirical Natural Law is deduced, there was no empirical

basis for it. Locke has a rationalist not an empiricist basis for it. Locke has a rationalist not an empiricist approach to this aspect of his thought. approach to this aspect of his thought.

Slavery Slavery Did not oppose slavery. Connected to racism, - a Did not oppose slavery. Connected to racism, - a

slave is not fully able to realize his/her humanity, slave is not fully able to realize his/her humanity, he may have thought that black slaves did not he may have thought that black slaves did not require it in the same way as bourgeois require it in the same way as bourgeois Englishmen. Englishmen.

Other Sciences than Physics and Other Sciences than Physics and AstronomyAstronomy

Other sciences were less on the cutting Other sciences were less on the cutting edge.edge.

Less mathematical, but do exhibit a can-do Less mathematical, but do exhibit a can-do attitude. attitude.

Chemistry did not show advances until a Chemistry did not show advances until a century later.century later.

New Instrumentation did advanceNew Instrumentation did advance Clocks Clocks Galileo and Telescope Galileo and Telescope Leeuwenheok - microscope Leeuwenheok - microscope

MedicineMedicine Little Little practicalpractical progress until late 1700s, progress until late 1700s, Steady development in knowledge that eventually overthrew the demonic view Steady development in knowledge that eventually overthrew the demonic view

of illness. of illness. The rational views of Greek medicine helped here The rational views of Greek medicine helped here Influence of Galen (2nd Cent. AD). Influence of Galen (2nd Cent. AD).

Vesalius Vesalius doctor at Padua. doctor at Padua. In 1543 he published a textbook on anatomy - 16th Century Anatomical In 1543 he published a textbook on anatomy - 16th Century Anatomical

Drawing Drawing Surgeon in 1593 Surgeon in 1593

William HarveyWilliam Harvey studied at Padua. studied at Padua. 1628 - On the Movement of the Heart and the Blood 1628 - On the Movement of the Heart and the Blood Explained notion of continual circulation of the blood.Explained notion of continual circulation of the blood.

Malpighi (Italian)Malpighi (Italian)

1661 discovered Capillaries 1661 discovered Capillaries

Practical Effects of the Scientific Practical Effects of the Scientific RevolutionRevolution

Few practical effects on technology. Few practical effects on technology. The Industrial Revolution did The Industrial Revolution did notnot at first depend on at first depend on

this new scientific view of the world. this new scientific view of the world.

New mathematics and science did effect navigation, New mathematics and science did effect navigation, map making and artillery. map making and artillery. World DominationWorld Domination

Better ways of using weapons and better ways of knowing Better ways of using weapons and better ways of knowing where they were. where they were.

Guns could be fire more accurately using Newton’s lawsGuns could be fire more accurately using Newton’s laws

Science has innumerable practical ramifications: new Science has innumerable practical ramifications: new guns, bigger armies, more taxes, social discontent. guns, bigger armies, more taxes, social discontent.

A New attitude to past was probably more importantA New attitude to past was probably more important

With Newton modern civilization did something the ancients With Newton modern civilization did something the ancients had not been able to do. It explained motion and the had not been able to do. It explained motion and the heavens.heavens.

Sense of skepticism about beliefs held on old authority. Sense of skepticism about beliefs held on old authority.

The Powers of ReasonThe Powers of Reason New confidence in the powers of reason, New confidence in the powers of reason, A move away from faith, even if it was not rejected.A move away from faith, even if it was not rejected. Natural LawNatural Law Seeing a NATURAL LAW at work in Universe was confirmed Seeing a NATURAL LAW at work in Universe was confirmed

in the new Newtonian world view. in the new Newtonian world view.

Can-do approachCan-do approach The idea of progress had a part in the Industrial Revolution.The idea of progress had a part in the Industrial Revolution.

New Scientific Institutions New Scientific Institutions Universities tended to be very conservative in Universities tended to be very conservative in

their teachingtheir teaching Medical schools more modernMedical schools more modern

Innovations based in new groups of learningInnovations based in new groups of learning 1657- Academy of Experiments in Florence1657- Academy of Experiments in Florence 1660- Royal Society of London1660- Royal Society of London 1666- French Academy of Science1666- French Academy of Science

Groups tended to be a mix of social and Groups tended to be a mix of social and occupational classes occupational classes Met to debate, share and discuss new ideas, separated Met to debate, share and discuss new ideas, separated

natural philosophy from religion and politicsnatural philosophy from religion and politics Applied their ideas in any field where possibleApplied their ideas in any field where possible

Women and ScienceWomen and Science Women had been excluded from Women had been excluded from

universitiesuniversities Had some influence as royal patronsHad some influence as royal patrons Some women had some scientific Some women had some scientific

influenceinfluence NoblewomenNoblewomen

Margaret CavendishMargaret Cavendish Women married to ArtisansWomen married to Artisans

Maria Winkelmann - astronomyMaria Winkelmann - astronomy