The Scientific Approach “Science” = from Latin “to know” Ways of asking & answering...
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Transcript of The Scientific Approach “Science” = from Latin “to know” Ways of asking & answering...
The Scientific Approach
• “Science” = from Latin “to know”
• Ways of asking & answering questions
• Scientific thinking reduces emotional reactions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2MhMsLn9B0&feature=related (Holy Grail)
The Scientific Approach
• Max Weber = “Value-free sociology”
• Researchers not to allow personal beliefs or biases to interfere:• Religion
• Racism
• Sexism
• Social class
• Science• Bases knowledge on:
• Direct
• Systematic
• Observation
• Study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior
• Empirical Evidence
• Can verify with our senses
• Sight, hearing, touch, smell
Quantitative Research Methods
• Numbers • Objective
• Deductive
• Generalizable
• Examples:
• U.S. Census
• GSS
Data File
Qualitative Research Methods
• Non-numerical data
• Texts
• Interviews
• Photos
• Recordings
• Visual media (movies, TV)
• Examples: Anne Frank’s Diary, Political Speeches, TV shows
Examples of Qualitative Data Sources
Field NotesText
Examples of Qualitative Data Sources
Mural in Northern Ireland
Qualitative Research
• Characteristics: • Systematic
• Subjective
• Analyze words or images
• Inductive
• Not generalizable
Steps of the Scientific Method
The Real World: An Introduction to Sociology, 2nd EditionCopyright © 2010 W.W. Norton & Company
• Concept: Mental construct• Deception• Love• Honesty• Happiness
• Variable: Concept which changes
Concepts and Variables
• Measurement• Procedure to determine value of a
variable in a specific case
• Operationalize • Stating exactly what is being
measured
Measurement
Example
• Concept• Mental construct that represents some part
of the world (Deception)
• Variable• Concept that changes from case to case
(Frequency of lying)
• Measurement• Procedure for determining the value of a
variable in a specific case (How often…)
Example
• Operationalize• Deception=Responses to questions about
frequency of various types of lies
• White lies
• Lies to protect partner
• Lies to protect self
• Lies that might end the relationship
Cause and Effect
• Scientists refer to the cause as the:• Independent Variable
• And the effect as the• Dependent Variable
• Understanding cause and effect is valuable because it:• Allows researchers to predict how one
pattern of behavior will produce another
Cause and Effect
Dependent & Independent Variables (Example)
• Dependent Variable=Frequency of lying
• Range: Never (1) to All the time (7)
• Independent Variables:
• Love
• Trust
• Commitment
• Dependency
• Expressiveness
Correlation & Causation
• Correlation: A relationship between two variables (they change together)
• Causation: A relationship where one variable causes another variable to change
• Spurious Correlations: Two variables appear to be correlated, but relationship caused by a third variable
Three Criteria for Causation
1. Correlation• Positive (Ice cream consumption increases; Crime
increases)
• Negative (SES increases; Infant mortality rate decreases)
2. Time Order• Cause must occur before the Effect• Independent variable Dependent Variable
3. Other possible causes eliminated• No spurious correlations
Spurious Correlation
Research Methods How do we gather data?
• Several research methods
• Each has benefits & limitations
• Which method works best?• Depends on your project
Ethnographic Methods
• Study people in their environments
• To understand meanings they give their activities
Ethnographic Methods
•Product research
•http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9tHgNXzS2EY&feature=related
•Good qualitative researchers
•http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&feature=endscreen&v=jSdxYb2IVwg
Ethnographic Methods
• Ethnography usually has two steps:
Researcher:
1. Observes a social setting
2. Creates written account (field notes) of observed activity
Ethnographic Methods
• In participant observation
• Researcher both:
• Observes and
• Participates• Fraternity
• AA
Interviews
• Interviews: Direct, face-to-face contact with respondents
• Generate large amounts of data
• Researcher identifies target population
• Selects sample of people to interview
Sampling
To acquire information about a population--two basic Options:
1. Gather data from every member of the population (a census)
2. Sample—Gather data from selected members of the population
Populations and Samples
Know How the Sample was Selected: The Hite Report
• 84% of respondents (women) are not satisfied emotionally with their relationships (with men)
• 95% report "emotional and psychological harassment" from male partner
• 98% desire more communication from partner
• Only 13% of women married more than two years are still “in love” with husband
The Hite Report
• In 1972 a behavioral researcher, Shere Hite, initiated a large-scale study of female sexuality
• Sample size was 4,500 women• Questionnaires distributed through women's
groups • e.g., NOW, Ms. Magazine, and the Village Voice,
church groups, political organizations
•
The Hite Report
• 100,000 surveys distributed
• 4,500 returned
• Response rate of Hite's survey is 4.5 %
• Should have response rate of 70% to 80% to generalize to population
Problems
• Survey--127 essay questions
• Motivation of respondents?
• What about the 95.5% who did not respond?
• How did respondents differ from non-respondent?
Interviews
• Open-ended:• Respondents say as much as like
• What do you think about gay marriage?
• Closed-ended questions:• Respondents choose answers
• “I support gay marriage” Yes or No
Surveys
• Questionnaires given to sample from target population (Quantitative data)
• Survey research focus:• Large-scale social patterns
• Political opinions• Marriage & divorce • Crime
• Analyzes data using statistics
Experimental Methods
• Experiments: • Tests of specific variables and
effects
• Performed in controlled setting
• Laboratory
Experimental Methods
• Experimental & Control Groups
• Experimental group:• Participants receive treatment or intervention
Experimental Methods
Control group: • Participants receive no intervention
Compare experimental & control group results
• Did intervention have an effect?
Experimental Design
Existing Sources
• Existing Sources:• Data already collected by earlier
researchers:• U.S. Census
• FBI Uniform Crime Report
• National Health Interview Study
• General Social Survey (GSS)
Content Analysis
Verbal print media - newspaper, magazines, books, plays
Visual media - videos, television, film
Visual print media - drawings, cartoons
Artistic productions - painting, sculpture, musicPersonal documents - autobiographies, letters, and diaries
Conducting Sociological Research: Ethics
• Institutional Review Board (IRB)
• Group of scholars who review colleagues’ research proposals
• Recommendations for protecting human subjects from harm:
• Physical
• Psychological
For you: Evaluating Research Findings
• Know source of data
• Find out how sample or participants were selected
• Other possible limitations of data and results