The Science of Consequences

From Nature-Nurture Systems

to Large Scale Behavior Change

Susan M. Schneider, PhDUniversity of the Pacific

Consequences Are Consequences Are EverywhereEverywhere

Overfishing on the Grand Overfishing on the Grand BanksBanks

Consequences and SustainabilityConsequences and Sustainability

Lamiot

Part OnePart One

Origins and BiologyOrigins and Biology

Part TwoPart Two

Applications EverywhereApplications Everywhere

OutlineOutline

Part OnePart One

Origins and BiologyOrigins and Biology

gina pina at http://flickr.com/photos1406748@N00/4381185218

Variety rocks!Variety rocks!

Reinforcing Reinforcing Variability Variability

Rats on left Rats on left and leversand levers right right leverslevers

vs vs

People choosing People choosing "1" or "2" on "1" or "2" on keyboardskeyboards Neuringer, A., Deiss, C., & Imig, S. (2000). Comparing choices

and variations in people and rats: Two teaching experiments. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 32, 407-416.

ChoiceChoice

Rats on left andRats on left and right levers right levers

vs vs People choosing People choosing

"1" or "2" on "1" or "2" on keyboardskeyboards Neuringer, A., Deiss, C., & Imig, S. (2000). Comparing choices

and variations in people and rats: Two teaching experiments. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 32, 407-416.

ChoiceChoice

Banna, K. M., DeVries, D., & Newland, M. C. (2011). Choice in the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus). Behavioural Processes, 88, 33‑43.

Consequences and Consequences and "Instincts""Instincts"

Consequences and Consequences and InstinctsInstincts

-in Bobwhite Chicks-in Bobwhite ChicksHow flexible is a chick's preference for How flexible is a chick's preference for

its own species' imprinting call?its own species' imprinting call?

Bobwhite chickBobwhite chick Bobwhite Bobwhite fatherfather

Consequences and Consequences and InstinctsInstincts

Imprinting Call PreferenceImprinting Call Preference

Condition Condition BobwhiteBobwhite JapaneseJapanese NoPrefNoPref

Naive Naive 2828**** 4 8**** 4 8

55-min Japanese Quail call 13 12 12-min Japanese Quail call 13 12 12

--contingent--contingent

5-min Japanese Quail call 5-min Japanese Quail call 1818** 8 5** 8 5 --noncontingentnoncontingent

Harshaw, C., Tourgeman, I. P., & Lickliter, R. (2008). Stimulus contingency and the malleability of species-typical auditory preferences in Northern

bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) hatchlings. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 460-472.

OriginsOrigins

►Primeval breakthrough! Primeval breakthrough!

Presumably only a few effective Presumably only a few effective consequences for only a few behaviorsconsequences for only a few behaviors

►Greater variety of consequences, Greater variety of consequences, motivating behaviors of greater varietymotivating behaviors of greater variety

►Arbitrary behaviors began to work: Arbitrary behaviors began to work: Different behaviors, same consequence Different behaviors, same consequence

►Generalized pleasure and pain centers Generalized pleasure and pain centers

OriginsOrigins►DiscriminationDiscrimination►Delays Delays ►GeneralizationGeneralization►Concrete categories like “berries”Concrete categories like “berries”►Abstract categories like “red” Abstract categories like “red” ►Arbitrary categories linked only by common Arbitrary categories linked only by common

consequencesconsequences►Weighting choices (bigger consequences Weighting choices (bigger consequences

count more, delayed count less) count more, delayed count less) ►Consequences for vocalizations, gestures, Consequences for vocalizations, gestures,

and tool use - leading to true animal and tool use - leading to true animal culturescultures

"Pleasure Centers,""Pleasure Centers,"the Mesocorticolimbic System, & the Mesocorticolimbic System, &

MoreMore

Kelley, A. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2002). The neuroscience of natural rewards. Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 3306-3311.

"Pleasure Centers""Pleasure Centers"

"Pleasure Centers""Pleasure Centers"Direct pleasure center Direct pleasure center stimulation is reinforcing for:stimulation is reinforcing for:

Snails Snails

GoldfishGoldfish

Iguanas Iguanas

DogsDogs

DolphinsDolphins

PeoplePeople

Turning on GenesTurning on Genes

Operant learning activates a Operant learning activates a synaptogenesis genesynaptogenesis gene

Stress reduces mRNA activity in Stress reduces mRNA activity in interleukin 2 receptor (immune interleukin 2 receptor (immune system response)system response)

Exercise activates Exercise activates pgc1-alphapgc1-alpha gene gene (metabolism adjustment)(metabolism adjustment)

Epigenetics: A New Epigenetics: A New FrontierFrontier

Chromatin marks - like DNA Chromatin marks - like DNA methylation methylation

(Also other epigenetic mechanisms)(Also other epigenetic mechanisms)

**********

Affected by behavior & Affected by behavior & environment, environment,

reversible,reversible,

--and sometimes inheritable! --and sometimes inheritable!

Epigenetics: A New Epigenetics: A New FrontierFrontier

The Dutch "Hunger Winter"The Dutch "Hunger Winter"

of World War IIof World War II

Epigenetics: A New Epigenetics: A New FrontierFrontier

The Case of the Stressed-out MomsThe Case of the Stressed-out Moms

Tania Roth's rat foster moms, pup abuse,Tania Roth's rat foster moms, pup abuse,

& epigenetic changes (e.g., & epigenetic changes (e.g., BDNFBDNF))

Michael Meaney's stress research Michael Meaney's stress research

- Includes epigenetic changes- Includes epigenetic changes

- Similar mechanisms in humans- Similar mechanisms in humans

Operant learning & classical conditioning Operant learning & classical conditioning involvedinvolved

Roth et al. (2009). Lasting epigenetic influence of early-life adversity on the BDNF gene. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 760-769.

Chris Salt

EnrichmenTEnrichmenTIn rats, performance on a schedule of In rats, performance on a schedule of

reinforcement: reinforcement:

* Reversed behavioral & physiological * Reversed behavioral & physiological effects of stress (restraint, cold, new effects of stress (restraint, cold, new environment)environment)

* Reversed some of the effects of lead * Reversed some of the effects of lead exposure (Cory-Slechta et al., 2009)exposure (Cory-Slechta et al., 2009)

Cory‑Slechta, D. A., Virgolini, M. B., Rossi‑George, A., Weston, D., & Thiruchelvam, M. (2009). Experimental manipulations blunt time‑induced changes in brain monoamine levels and completely reverse stress, but not Pb+/‑stress‑related modifications to these trajectories. Behavioural Brain Research, 205, 76‑87.

IT'S A SYSTEM: Genes & IT'S A SYSTEM: Genes & Neurotransmitters+Neurotransmitters+

Rhesus monkeys raised by (unrelated) mothers Rhesus monkeys raised by (unrelated) mothers or by each other (peers)or by each other (peers)

Serotonin transporter gene 5-HTT, short & long Serotonin transporter gene 5-HTT, short & long formsforms

Short gene form - problematic for peer-rearedShort gene form - problematic for peer-reared

- - beneficial beneficial for mother-rearedfor mother-reared

Impulsivity and aggression - "subject to major Impulsivity and aggression - "subject to major modification by specific early modification by specific early experiences . . ." experiences . . ."

- - Suomi, 2003Suomi, 2003

Dominance hierarchies & parentingDominance hierarchies & parenting

EpigeneticsEpigeneticsAiwok, Rhesus Macaque with two babies in Shimla Himachal Pradesh near the Jakhu temple.

Acrobatic RatsAcrobatic Rats1. Acrobatic group1. Acrobatic group

- lots of operant - lots of operant

learninglearning

2. Exercise group2. Exercise group

3. Inactive control 3. Inactive control

groupgroup

Acrobatic RatsAcrobatic RatsMean # of motor cortex synapses per neuron

Kleim, J. A., Lussnig, E., Schwarz, E. R. , Comery, T. A. ,& Greenough, W. T. (1996). Synaptogenesis and FOS expression in the motor cortex of the adult rat after motor skill learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 4529-4535.

©1996 by Society for Neuroscience

Braille while BlindfoldedBraille while BlindfoldedPlasticity in the Visual CortexPlasticity in the Visual CortexfMRI z-score differences between groups

Merabet, L. B. et al. (2008). Rapid and reversible recruitment of early visual cortex for touch. Merabet, L. B. et al. (2008). Rapid and reversible recruitment of early visual cortex for touch. PLoS PLoS One, 3. eOne, 3. e3046.3046.

Part TwoPart TwoApplications EverywhereApplications Everywhere

Help for Stroke VictimsHelp for Stroke Victims

Taub, E. et al. (2006). A placebo-controlled trial of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy for upper

extremity after stroke. Stroke, 37, 1045-1049.

(Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy)

Autism Spectrum DisordersAutism Spectrum Disorders

Early Intensive Behavioral TreatmentEarly Intensive Behavioral Treatment(Applied Behavior Analysis)(Applied Behavior Analysis)

Lovaas (1987)Lovaas (1987)

Cohen, Amerine-Dickens, & Smith (2006)Cohen, Amerine-Dickens, & Smith (2006)

- and many more- and many more

Surgeon General: "the treatment of choice"Surgeon General: "the treatment of choice"

Many children can be mainstreamed! (but Many children can be mainstreamed! (but not all)not all)

Addiction to Illegal Drugs Addiction to Illegal Drugs 2008 meta-analysis: "Contingency management" 2008 meta-analysis: "Contingency management"

had "had "the strongest effectthe strongest effect""

Percentage of Negative Drug TestsPercentage of Negative Drug Tests

DeFulio et al. (2009). Employment-based abstinence reinforcement as a maintenance intervention for the treatment of cocaine dependence: A randomized controlled trial. Addiction, 104, 1530-1538.

Smoking Cessation (& more) Smoking Cessation (& more) on a Large Scaleon a Large Scale

Real-time video streams twice per dayReal-time video streams twice per day

Quick feedback; payments for Quick feedback; payments for abstinenceabstinence

Stoops, Dallery, et al. (2009). An internet-based abstinence reinforcement smoking cessation intervention in rural smokers. Alcohol & Drug Dependence, 105, 56-62.

Language Has Language Has ConsequencesConsequencesBaby BabblingBaby Babbling

Routh, D. K. (1969). Conditioning of vocal response differentiation in infants. Developmental Psychology, 1, 219‑226.

The Case of "Eve"The Case of "Eve"Mom: "What is the child doing?" Mom: "What is the child doing?"

Eve: "She is running."Eve: "She is running."

Mom, approvingly: "She is running."Mom, approvingly: "She is running."►Natural teaching frequently Natural teaching frequently

throughout each daythroughout each day►Each sentence type: 100,000 times per Each sentence type: 100,000 times per

monthmonth►Reinforced imitation: up to 100 times greater Reinforced imitation: up to 100 times greater

than chancethan chance

Moerk, E. L. (1990) . Three‑term contingency patterns in mother-child verbal interactions during first‑language acquisition. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 54, 293‑305.

Hart & Hart & Risley'sRisley's Meaningful Meaningful DifferencesDifferences42 families, kids observed 1 hour/42 families, kids observed 1 hour/

month, from 9 months to 3 years oldmonth, from 9 months to 3 years old

Five critical factors including guidance Five critical factors including guidance style, feedback tone, and responsivenessstyle, feedback tone, and responsiveness

Professional families: 3 times the number Professional families: 3 times the number of words as welfare families (of words as welfare families (hundreds hundreds more words per more words per hourhour))

Working class: the whole range in betweenWorking class: the whole range in between

Meaningful Differences Meaningful Differences Prediction PowerPrediction Power

CorrelationsCorrelations

.77 .77 Combined measure at age 3 Combined measure at age 3 vs.vs. IQ at age 3 IQ at age 3

******************************************************************

.78.78 Combined measure at age 3 Combined measure at age 3 vs.vs.

Test of Language Development at age 9-10Test of Language Development at age 9-10******************************************************************

Hope: Harlem Children's Zone Hope: Harlem Children's Zone

Meaningful DifferencesMeaningful DifferencesThe Positives-Negatives RatioThe Positives-Negatives Ratio

Average Number per Hour

The Positives-Negatives The Positives-Negatives RatioRatio

ParentingParenting““Most of us are quick to criticize and slow to praise. We Most of us are quick to criticize and slow to praise. We

have a responsibility as parents to reverse this order.” have a responsibility as parents to reverse this order.”

- Faber & Mazlish, - Faber & Mazlish, How to Talk So Kids will Listen and Listen So How to Talk So Kids will Listen and Listen So Kids will TalkKids will Talk

**********

Gerald Patterson's Research on Violent Teens:Gerald Patterson's Research on Violent Teens:►Appropriate behaviors seldom got Appropriate behaviors seldom got

reinforcedreinforced►Inconsistent consequencesInconsistent consequences

The Positives-Negatives The Positives-Negatives RatioRatio

Other Human ApplicationsOther Human Applications Teaching Relationships

Prisons Workplaces

Consequences in Consequences in EducationEducation

Robert Rosenthal and the case of the Robert Rosenthal and the case of the

self-fulfilling expectationsself-fulfilling expectations

Teachers with expectations did Teachers with expectations did MOREMORE

interactinginteracting

nodding nodding

smiling smiling

Consequences at WorkConsequences at Work

Applied Behavior Analysis at Applied Behavior Analysis at WorkWork

Costs from Accidents and InjuriesCosts from Accidents and Injuries

Fox, D. K., Hopkins, B. L., & Anger, W. K. (1987). The long‑term effects of a token economy on safety performance in open‑pit mining. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 215-224.

The Positives-Negatives The Positives-Negatives RatioRatio

Stress-free Medical Care for Stress-free Medical Care for MonkeysMonkeys

Cortisol LevelsCortisol Levels

Before blood testBefore blood test After After testtest

TraditionalTraditional 20.120.1 33.833.8

Positive Reinf. 19.6Positive Reinf. 19.6 22.3 22.3

- and the training can take as little as 1 - and the training can take as little as 1 hour!hour!Reinhardt, V. (2003). Working with rather than against macaques during blood collection.

Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 6, 189-197.

That Sinking Feeling That Sinking Feeling Delay DiscountingDelay Discounting

Richards, J. B., Mitchell, S. H., de Wit, H., & Seiden, L. S. (1997). Determination of discount functions in rats with an adjusting-amount procedure. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 67, 353-366.

Context and Delay Context and Delay DiscountingDiscounting

Dixon, M. R., Jacobs, E. A., & Sanders, S. (2006). Contextual control of delay discounting by pathological gamblers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 413-422.

The Problem with DelaysThe Problem with Delays SocietalSocietal

►Overfishing Overfishing

IndividualIndividual ►ObesityObesity►AddictionsAddictions►DebtDebt

Consequences and Self-Consequences and Self-ControlControl

►Recording progress on Recording progress on checklists checklists

and charts and charts ►Social supportSocial support►Healthier alternative rewardsHealthier alternative rewards►Successful models to followSuccessful models to follow►Informal commitments Informal commitments ►Behavioral contracts Behavioral contracts ►Rules, laws, and social normsRules, laws, and social norms

Applied Behavior Analysis Applied Behavior Analysis

for Sustainability on a Large for Sustainability on a Large ScaleScale

Bekker et al. (2010). Encouraging electricity savings in a university residential hall through a combination of feedback, visual prompts, and incentives. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43, 327-331.

Consequences Are Consequences Are EverywhereEverywhere

►Critical role in the nature-&-nurture systemCritical role in the nature-&-nurture system --influencing genes, neurophysiology, etc.--influencing genes, neurophysiology, etc.

►Language development and educationLanguage development and education►Everyday and societal self-controlEveryday and societal self-control--as in --as in

weight management and sustainabilityweight management and sustainability►"Catch 'em being good" and timeouts"Catch 'em being good" and timeouts --instead of harsher parenting methods--instead of harsher parenting methods►More positive workplacesMore positive workplaces--with wiser incentive --with wiser incentive

systems and improved safety programssystems and improved safety programs

►Help for medical and psychological conditionsHelp for medical and psychological conditions►Animal applicationsAnimal applications

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