The Salt Storage Handbook

The Salt Storage HandbookA Practical Guide for Storing and Handling Deicing Salt

Published by

Copyright © by the Salt Institute 1968, 1980, 1986, 1987, 1997, 2006700 North Fairfax Street, Suite 600, Alexandria, VA 22314-2040

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1 Foreword2 Why Bulk Storage?2 Why Store Salt Properly?2 How Much Salt Do You Need?3 Order Salt Early4 Select the Right Site6 How Much Space Will It Occupy?8 Put It On a Pad9 Put It Under Cover

13 Delivery Tips13 Work Safely13 Communicate13 General Safety Rules13 Belt Conveyor and Screw

Conveyor Safety Rules

Contents

14 Electrical Safety Rules14 Summary15 Storage Area Checklist17 Appendix

Standard Specification for Sodium Chloride

A Rapid Test Method for Sodium Chloride

InsideBackCover Metric to English and

English to Metric Conversion Chart

Salt Storage Handbook 1

ForewordSalt has been used for thousands of yearsas a food preservative and a taste enhancer.It is essential to human nutrition. Today ithas additional functions in food processingand is also used in animal nutrition, in watersoftening and in industry. The chemicalindustry uses it to make chlorine and causticsoda that, in turn, are used to producehundreds of products. One of the principaluses of salt is for deicing of streets andhighways to assure safe driving conditions.Use of salt and plowing prevents 7 of every8 crashes that would occur on untreatedsnow and ice-covered winter roadways.

Approximately 33 million tons of dry saltare produced each year in the United Statesand Canada. Some 15-25 million tons of itare used as deicing salt, the largest singleusage.

Salt has been used since the 1940s as amajor weapon in combating ice and snowon streets and highways. Today nearly allagencies responsible for winter mainte-nance in the United States and Canada usesalt as one of the major tools to removesnow and ice quickly from roads.

Salt prevents the bonding of ice and snowto pavement surfaces, permitting moreefficient and faster removal of hazardoussnow and ice. Mostly, salt is used inconjunction with plowing. Without salt,snowplows cannot completely remove snowand ice from road surfaces.

On ice, and in cases where snow isn’t deepenough, or where it isn’t practical to plow,salt often is used alone.

Salt is the ideal deicing material because:

❄ It is readily available❄ It is inexpensive❄ It is easy to store and handle❄ It is easy to spread❄ It is non-toxic and harmless to skin

and clothing❄ It is harmless to the environment

when used and stored properly.

Many deicing salt users are making everyeffort to ensure protection of the environ-ment through proper storage and applica-tion practices, something we call SensibleSalting.

Salt is abundant in the earth and the sea.However, getting it where it is needed andon time has become more difficult withtoday’s necessity for year-round mobility.The availability of ships, barges, railcars andtrucks, the time of ordering and the weatheritself all play an important role in saltdelivery.

Good storage facilities with adequatecapacity can go a long way toward guaran-teeing sufficient salt when it is needed tomaintain a high level of winter maintenancefor the safety and mobility of motorists andthe unimpeded movement of goods andservices. Because salt is so vital, properstorage must be provided to protect it fromthe elements and to protect the environ-ment. Good storage becomes even betterwith proper housekeeping around storageareas.

We hope this manual will help you inplanning or improving your salt storagefacilities and provide guidance for goodstorage and handling procedures.

Why Store Salt Properly?

Properly stored salt will:

❄ Prevent formation of lumpy salt thatis difficult to handle with loaders andto move through spreaders,

❄ Eliminate the possibility of contami-nating streams, wells or groundwaterwith salt runoff,

❄ Eliminate the loss of salt by runoffand dissolving by precipitation.

Anticaking Additives. The best way toprevent or minimize caking is to store saltunder cover. Most salt producers addanticaking agents. However, if left exposedto weather, anticaking agents can bewashed from the outer layer of salt.

Crushers. Avoid the necessity to usecrushers to get rid of lumps in salt bystoring salt under cover where anticakingagents will not be washed out and crustingwill be minimal. Crushers are not alwaysreadily available and they can be costly.

Adequate bulk storage assures enough saltto fight winter storms, without the problemof arranging emergency shipmentsthroughout the winter months.

How Much is Needed?

Order enough. Ideally, there should bestorage room for at least 100% of theestimated average winter’s saltrequirements.

It is wise to take early delivery of wintersupplies and store the material until it isneeded. Suppliers do their best to maintaindeliveries and service salt users fromstrategically located stockpiles. However,replenishment of salt stockpiles becomesdifficult during heavy demand periods, suchas during back-to-back winter storms. It isalways best to keep your sheds full toeliminate large backlogs of orders atstockpiles, speeding deliveries.

How Much Salt Will Be Needed ThisWinter?

Estimating future salt requirements is tough.Few public works officials ever hit the figureright on the nose. Here are a few guidelinesfor estimating future salt needs:

1. Never reduce last winter’s figuresimply because you hope next winterwill be milder. Make realistic esti-mates based on average needs overthe previous five or ten-year period.

2. Be sure to take into account newmileage added to your road or streetsystem. Don’t overlook new subdivi-sion streets, Interstate or expresshighways and routes acquired fromother political subdivisions.

Salt Storage Handbook2

Why Bulk Storage?

Why should a public works agency useproper bulk salt storage facilities?

There are three answers - economy,availability and convenience.

Bulk salt is the most economical deicingmaterial available. Initial cost is low.Handling and storage are simple. Spreadingis fast and easy.

Salt never loses its ice melting power nomatter how long it is stored or how old it is.Salt is already millions of years old when itis mined. Each year thousands of tons ofsalt are stored and carried over to be usedthe next year. It is just as effective as thoughfreshly mined or harvested. Neither is thereany loss to moisture from the air if salt isstored properly. Salt does not absorbmoisture until the humidity exceeds 75 percent. Moisture that is absorbed will laterevaporate, but there may be a thin crustingon the surface of the stockpile that is easilybroken up.

Salt, however, can be lost to precipitation.Stockpiles, whether large or small, shouldnever be left exposed to the elements - rainor snow. Storage should always be done onimpermeable pads, either in a building orcovered with one of the many types oftemporary covering materials, such astarpaulin, polyethylene, polyurethane,polypropylene or Hypalon. These materialsare also available with reinforcement foradded strength. Proper storage inside abuilding or under cover will also preventpossible detrimental effects on the environ-ment. When salt is stored outside, runoffmust be properly controlled.

3. Improve winter maintenance opera-tions. Going to straight salt, includingapplying liquid brine or pre-wet solids,or adding more salt routes cansubstantially influence salt require-ments while providing a higher levelof service.

Serious consideration should be given tothe possibility of unseasonably coldtemperatures, blizzard conditions, pro-longed cold spells and unusually largeamounts of snow. All of these conditions,though unpredictable, will affect your useof salt one way or the other.

Use the chart below to figure approximatesalt needs for your area.

Order Salt Early

Plan your salt program early. Summer isbest. Remember that your purchasingprocess can impose waiting periodsbetween the time bid notices are advertisedand a supplier is selected. Start yourprocurement process to allow sufficient timeto take pre-season delivery.

Work with your salt supplier to take deliveryin the summer or fall, taking advantage oflogistics factors in your supplier’s supplychain. Early delivery is generally better. Itensures a ready supply and allows yoursupplier to prepare a suitable stock point inyour area. Salt cannot be transported upthe Mississippi River, for example, once thewaterways are frozen and winter closesmost Great Lakes ports.

Should in-season re-supply be required,re-order before on-hand inventories aredepleted. Check inventory levels frequentlyand always before a forecasted storm.

TABLE 1: SALT REQUIRED PER SEASONSHORT TONS/METRIC TONS

Based on 4 applications per storm Per 2-lane Mi/Km

Two Lane Highway on Bare PavementNumberof Mi 100 200 300 400 500 600 700Storms Km 161 322 483 644 804 965 1126

400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800

363 724 1089 1452 1814 2177 2540

600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600 4200

544 1089 1633 2177 2722 3266 3810

800 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 5600

726 1452 2177 2903 3629 4355 5080

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

907 1814 2722 3629 4536 5443 6350

1200 2400 3600 4800 6000 7200 8400

1089 2177 3266 4355 5443 6532 7621

1400 2800 4200 5600 7000 8400 9200

1270 2540 3810 5080 6350 7621 8346

1600 3200 4800 6400 8000 9600 10200

1452 2903 4355 5806 7258 8709 9253

1800 3600 5400 7200 9000 10800 11600

1633 3266 4899 6532 8165 9798 10524

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000

1814 3629 5443 7258 9072 10886 12700

4

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18

20


Select the Right Site

Safety - Always make safety for workersand the general public a prime concern at astorage site. Equipment operators needgood visibility in all directions. Access roadsshould not open directly into heavilytraveled routes. Post signs to warn motoriststhat trucks enter and leave the area. Makesure the area is secure, preferably fenced, toprevent entrance by unauthorized persons.Children can be attracted by salt piles,which could be dangerous for them. It isalso essential to secure the area in such away as to provide safety for the surroundingenvironment.

Make it safe!

Accessibility - Storage sites shouldpermit easy access by trucks and otherequipment entering and leaving these areasduring storms, when visibility is low. Planaccordingly.

The storage area must be large enough forfront-end loaders to maneuver freely, safelyand expediently. If stored in a building,make sure the doors and openings are largeenough to prevent interference with loadingand unloading. Provide easy accessibility fordelivery trucks, keeping in mind theprevailing wind and weather pattern.

Keep it accessible!

Legality - You must comply with localzoning requirements, as well as local, stateand federal regulations governingenvironmental discharge concerns.

Keep it legal!

Salt storage yards shouldbe screened from adjacentroadways and residentialareas.

The most critical step in providing good storage is selecting the storage site. S-A-L-T-E-D is the key word in picking the right spot.


Tidiness - Make storage facilities blendwith local surroundings when possible,especially in residential areas. They shouldbe well kept, with no junk or scrap materialpiled around that would give an impressionof sloppiness or waste and allow thepossibility of getting foreign objects inspreaders.

“Live” fences offer an attractive alternativeto chain link or wood.

Salt spilled during delivery or loading mustbe cleaned up and returned to the storagestructure as soon as possible.

Be a good neighbor. Keep it tidy!

Economics - Locate and distributestorage facilities so that empty trucks don’thave to “dead-head” long distances toreload. This reduces operating costs andspeeds up spreading operations.

Permanent covered storage is a goodmethod. Unprotected piles waste salt andcould be harmful to the environment.

Keep it economical!

Drainage - Locate all storage structuresto provide good drainage away from thestockpile. Pads should have a slope of 1/4inch per foot away from the center. Pads,aprons and other adjacent work areasshould be capable of supporting thestockpile and equipment.

Ensure that your storage area does notaccidentally drain into a freshwater reser-voir, well or groundwater supply. If needed,curbs can be installed around the storagearea to direct drainage or run-off.

All drainage should be properly contained.The brine collected can be reapplied to thestockpile during dry seasons or applied tospreader loads prior to street applications.

Before disposing of brine, contactstate and local environmental ornatural resources agencies for properprocedures.

Control and/or collect all drainage!

Safety is a prime consideration inselecting salt storage locations.Adequate signs should be posed toalert motorists of trucks entering andleaving storage yards.


How Much Space Will ItOccupy?

There is a limit to how much salt you canstore in a given area. From certain factsabout salt’s physical characteristics, we candetermine in advance how much space aknown amount will occupy.

When deicing salt falls freely into a pile, itforms a cone with sides that slope at anangle of 32 degrees, salt’s natural angle ofrepose. Other types and gradations of salthave slightly different angles of repose butare within one or two degrees.

The density of deicing salt ranges from 72pounds per cubic foot loose to 84 poundscompacted. When calculating storage spacerequirements, use the figure 80 pounds percubic foot (equivalent to 1281.4 kg/m3).

When using 80 pounds per cubic foot, acubic yard of salt weights 2,160 pounds.Thus, a ton of salt would require 25 cubicfeet of storage space (equivalent to 21.06m3/metric ton of salt).

All calculations in this publication arebased on a density for salt of 80 poundsper cubic foot.

Space requirements in Stockpiles. It ispossible to calculate the area requirementsof any cone-shaped salt stockpile, since theslope of the pile is known.

Table 2 lists characteristics of conical saltpiles containing varying amounts of salt. Forexample, look at the column for 1,000 tonsof salt and read across to the right. Thismuch salt, stored in a cone-shaped pile, willoccupy a space 67’1'’ in diameter, or 3,540square feet. The pile’s height will be 21 feetand the length of its slope from ground topeak 40 feet. Volume of the pile would be25,000 cubic feet. It would have anexposed surface area of 4,180 feet(important if you wanted to cover the pileand needed to know how much polyethyl-ene, canvas or other covering material toorder).

It is also possible to calculate the dimen-sions required for salt stored in a windrowshape with conical ends. Table 3 showshow much salt may be stored per runningfoot in windrows of various heights. Widthrequirements are also shown. For example,2.4 tons of salt may be stored per runningfoot of a windrow-shaped pile with a base19’4'’ wide and a height of six feet.

TABLE 2: STORING SALT IN CONICAL PILESLength of

Space Slope from ExposedDiameter Occupied Height Ground to Volume of Surface

Salt of Pile by Pile of Pile Peak Pile In AreaShort Tons ft ft2 ft ft ft3 ft2

metric tons m m2 m M m3 m2

24 19.33 295 6.0 11 600 33921.8 5.89 27.41 1.83 3.35 17.00 31.4950 24.67 479 8.0 15 1,250 56545.7 7.52 44.50 2,44 4.57 35.38 52.4980 28.92 655 9.0 17 2,000 77372.6 8.81 60.85 2.74 5.18 56.60 71.81100 31.17 765 10.0 18 2,500 90490.7 9.50 71.07 3.05 5.49 70.75 83.98200 39.33 1,213 12.5 23 5,000 143.281.4 11.99 112.69 3,81 7.01 141.50 133.3300 45.00 1,595 14.0 27 7,500 1,877272.2 13.72 148.18 4.27 8.23 212.25 174.37400 49.42 1,916 15.5 29 10,000 2,260362.9 15.06 178.00 4.72 8.84 283.00 209.95500 53.33 2,240 17.0 32 12,500 2,640453.6 16.25 208.10 5.18 9.75 353.75 245.26600 56.67 2,530 18.0 34 15,000 2,980544.3 17.27 235.04 5.49 10.36 424.50 276.84700 59.58 2,790 18.5 35 17,500 3,290635.0 18.16 259.19 5.64 10.67 495.25 305.64800 62.33 3,050 19.5 377 20,000 3,610725.8 19.00 283.35 5.94 11.28 566.00 335.37900 64.83 3,310 20.5 38 22,500 3,900816.5 19.76 307.50 6.25 11.53 636.75 362.311,000 67.08 3,540 21.0 40 25,000 4,180907.2 20.45 328.87 6.40 12.19 707.50 383.322,000 84.50 5,620 26.5 50 50,000 6,6301,814.4 25.76 552.10 8.08 135.24 1,415.00 615.933,000 96.83 7,380 30.5 57 75,000 8,7102,721.6 29.51 685.60 9.30 17.37 2,122.50 809.64,000 106.50 8,880 33.5 63 100,000 10,4703,628.8 32.46 824.95 10.21 19.20 2,830.00 972.665,000 115.00 10,370 36.0 68 125,000 12,2304,536.0 335. 0 5 963.37 10.97 20.73 3,537.50 1,136.176,000 122.00 11,700 38.5 72 150,000 13,8105,443.2 37.19 1,086.93 11.73 21.95 4,245.00 1,282.957,000 128.33 12,960 40.5 76 175,000 15,2906,350.4 39.11 1,203.98 12.34 23.16 4,952.5 0 1,420.448,000 134.17 14,130 42.0 779 200,000 16,6807,257.6 40.90 1,312.68 12.80 24.0S 5,660.00 1,549.579,000 139.83 15,400 44.0 83 225,000 18,1708,164.8 42.62 1,430.66 13.41 25.30 6,367.50 1,687.9910,000 144.67 16,410 45.5 85 250,000 19,3709,072.0 44.10 1,524.49 13.87 25.91 7,075.00 17,911.47


Table 3 gives the capacity only for thewindrow section of the pile. Figure thedimensions of the cone-shaped end sectionsfrom Table 2.

Space requirements in buildings. Tofigure how much space will be required tostore salt in a bin or building, divide theweight in pounds of salt to be stored by 80to obtain the number of cubic feet requiredand deduct the amount of space lost due tothe slope of the pile at the front of thebuilding.

The amount of storage space that cannotbe used due to salt’s “angle of repose” willdepend upon the height of the pile and thewidth of the building. Here are some typicalcalculations:

32

The angle of repose ofdeicing salt is 32

TABLE 3: STORING SALT IN WINDROWED PILESSalt in Each Running Foot/Meter of Windrow

ExposedSurface

Width Height Volume Areashort tons ft ft ft3 ft2

metric tons m m m3 m2

2.4 19.3 6.0 59 232.18 5.89 1.83 1.67 2.143.8 24.7 8.0 96 293.45 7.52 2.44 2.72 2.695.2 28.9 9.0 131 344.72 8.81 2.74 3.71 3.166.3 31.1 10.0 158 375.72 9.50 3.05 4.47 3.449.7 39.3 12.5 243 468.80 11.99 3.81 6.88 4.2712.7 45.0 14.0 318 5311.52 13.72 4.27 9.00 4.9215.3 49.4 15.5 383 5813.88 15.06 4.72 10.84 5.3917.9 53.3 17.0 447 6316.24 16.25 5.18 12.65 5.8520.2 56.67 18.0 505 6718.33 17.27 5.49 14.30 6.2222.3 59.58 18.5 557 7020.23 18.16 5.64 15.76 6.5024.4 62.3 19.5 610 7422.14 19.00 5.94 17.26 6.8726.3 64.83 20.5 657 7723.86 19.76 6.25 18.60 7.1528.3 67.1 21.0 708 7925.67 20.45 6.40 20.04 7.3444.8 84.5 26.5 1,120 10040.64 25.76 8.08 31.70 9.2958.8 96.83 30.5 1,470 11453.34 29.51 9.30 41.60 10.59771.2 106.50 33.5 1,780 12664.59 32.46 10.21 50.37 11.7183.2 115.00 36.0 2,080 13675.48 35.05 10.97 58.86 12.6393.6 122.0 38.5 2,340 14484.91 37.19 11.73 66.22 13.38103.6 128.33 40.5 2,590 15193.99 39.11 12.34 73.30 14.03113.2 134.2 42.0 2,830 158102.70 40-90 12.80 80.09 14.68122.8 139.8 44.0 3,070 165111.4.0 42.62 13,41 80.88 15.33131.6 144.67 45.5 3,290 171119 .39 44.10 13.67 93.11 15.89.


TABLE 4Height Width Deductof Pile of Bay This Amount

ft ft short tonsm m metric tons

8 12 24.42.44 3.66 22.14

10 12 38.23.05 3.66 34.66

12 12 54.93.66 3.66 49.81

15 12 85.84.57 3.66 77.84

20 12 152.66.10 3.66 138.44

H x H x W x 0.0318 = Lost Tonnage due toAngle of Repose

Thus, storage capacity of a building 30 ft wide and40 ft deep, with salt piled ten ft high, would be384 tons.

30 x 40 x 10 x 80 2000

– (10 x 10 x 30 x 0.0318) = 384 Tons

o

o

Put It On A Pad

Permanent, covered storage is recom-mended, particularly for small piles whichare not actively managed. It is also accept-able to store salt in outdoor stockpiles onbituminous or concrete pads. This low-costmethod provides maximum storage spaceand easy access. Whether stored inside oroutside, salt always should be on a pad. Ifoutdoor storage is used, it must be properlycovered.

Curbing asphalt or concrete. Curbs candirect salt run-off into collecting basins toprevent problems with vegetation or watersupplies.

The pad site should be located away fromwells, reservoirs and groundwater supplies.If pads are constructed of concrete, theymust be high quality, air-entrained andtreated with sealants, asphaltic-typecoatings, or other treatments to keep saltout and prevent spalling. Total thickness ofsurface and base for asphalt pads will vary,depending upon the condition of thesubgrade and weight to be supported. Anyasphalt surfacing material used by highwaydepartments is satisfactory.

Slope pads to let surface water drain away.Let local conditions control the direction ofslope to avoid excessive grading. Minimumslope is one to two per cent. For gooddrainage, install ditches, pipes and tilewhere necessary. In some cases, it may benecessary to install pipes, tiles or asphaltberms to channel water to a collectionpoint, preferably a specially designed sumparea.

Pads may later be framed on three sides toform a bin, or storage buildings may beerected over existing pads.


Put it Under Cover

Salt stored in bins or on pads outdoorsmay be covered with a variety of materials,including:

❄ Polyethylene❄ Polypropylene❄ Hypalon❄ Polyurethane foam❄ Water-resistant canvas❄ Any other suitable waterproof cover

(All of the above may be reinforced foradded strength).

To join flexible coverings, lap and sewtogether with a two-inch standing seam,using a sewing machine suitable for suchpurpose. This gives a relatively waterproofand durable seam for most of these cover-ings. Taping of sewn seams improveswaterproofing.

Industrial adhesive tapes may also be used tojoin coverings but sewing is preferable.

Old tires (which are unacceptable in someplaces) or sand bags lashed together withrope or cable and placed uniformly over theflexible cover provide a suitable tie-downweighting method. Also available for tyingcovers are poly-cord nets. Be sure to weightdown the base of the cover to keep windfrom peeling covers off salt piles. Timbers orsand may be used.

A good method for covering smaller pilesof deicing salt is the ground level storageshed or building. Storage structure size willvary with individual needs. There are asmany types of storage buildings as there areideas. Many agencies have developed theirown particular style. Most buildings, ofcourse, are let for bid, but there are alsomany that are built with spare or usedmaterials and the agency’s own labor.

Various pre-fabricated buildings areavailable. If building your own, storagebuildings may be constructed of pressuretreated timbers, assorted lumber, old bridgetimbers and decking, concrete blocks,corrugated sheet metal or a variety of othermaterials on hand. Use treated posts andtimbers in pole-type buildings. Make sure allhardware is galvanized. Concrete blockbuildings should be treated inside with asuitable sealant or coated with asphalticmaterial. In case of open ends, cover shouldbe supplied for exposed salt.

A good, properly drained pad is just asimportant when salt is stored in a building aswhen stored on an open pad.

Doors on buildings must be high and wideenough to permit easy access by front-endloaders and delivery trucks. Door openingsshould be a minimum of 20 feet wide. Hingedoors to allow fastening in the “open”position so that high winds won’t hinderoperations.

Tie corner posts of storagebuildings together with under-ground galvanized cables withturnbuckles.

Make doors high and wide enough forloaders and delivery trucks. Provide away to fasten doors in “open” positionso wind won’t blow them shut.Buildings can be designed withdoors at both ends.

Make sure any overhang in front of thebuilding does not complicate truckunloading or loading.

Areas around the building must be welllighted. Inside of buildings, place lights tothe side and high to keep from coveringwiring or light fixtures with salt when thebuilding is full to avoid corrosion damage.

Painting the inside of the storage facilitywith light-colored or white paint willenhance light reflectance, providemaximum visibility and may be a veryworth-while expense.


Provide pull-down cover for open-endstorage buildings; one method isshown here.

The following design considerations shouldbe taken into account to allow for effects ofwind and snow:

1. Location and Arrangement - Treesand other barriers may help shield abuilding against strong winds andsnow, but putting a building too neara tree line may cause snow toaccumulate around the building.

2. Foundation and Anchorage - Buildingstend to move with the wind; strongwinds can lift a roof or collapse a wall.Buildings must be anchored securelyto resist these pushing and liftingforces. Common mistakes are failingto anchor sills securely to foundationsand using poles that are too small, toofar apart or not embedded deeplyenough.

A general guide is to embed sound,pressure-treated poles four feet or moreinto undisturbed soil or set in concrete. Usecloser pole spacings, heavier poles anddeeper embedment for very high polebuildings.

3. Construction practices - Poorconstruction causes many buildingfailures. Knee bracing may be skimpy,building crossties poorly located, jointspoorly fastened or framing memberstoo small.

Whole roof and wall sections may blow offas a unit because a building literally comesapart at the seams. Common failures occurwhen rafters give way at plate lines, buildingcorners become detached, or purlin andnailing girts are pulled loose from theirsupports. Framing members may notsupport their full load because of splicefailure, because too few or too small nailswere used, or because toe-nailing was usedinstead of a joint connector device.


Build it strong

Wind and snow are enemies of storagebuildings. For adequate building design,figure on a snow loading of 25 pounds ormore per square foot of roof and winds of80 miles per hour.

Think how often you have seen snow piledtwo to four feet deep on roofs, andwindstorms with gusts of at least 80 mph.And remember that wind blowing throughopen sides or wide doors can causepressure buildup inside the building, addingto stresses.

Provide building bracing and roof and wallanchorage to withstand internal windpressure.

You may not need a new building.Deicing salt may be stored economi-cally in vacant garages, sheds or otherstructures.

4. Building Materials - Lumber defects,such as knots or splits, may causemain supports to fail, especially underheavy snow weight. Failure of a weakmember means adjacent membershave to support more load, leading totheir failure.

Wind damage to corrugated sheet metal iscommon. Sheets come loose because of toofew nails, poor anchorage or nail headspulling through. Use 90 to 100 screw shanknails per 100 square feet of corrugated steelroofing. One-half to two-thirds of the nailshould be embedded in the supportmember.

Use only exterior type plywood for sheath-ing, gusset plates, braces, doors and otherbuilding parts exposed to moisture andweathering.

Building and bin walls must withstandpushing from front-end loaders andpressure from stored salt. This calls fordeep embedment of poles or properconstruction of concrete block sides.Exterior bracing or earthen support may be

To anchor sills, use 1/2-inch anchorbolts 16 inches long. 12-inches deepin 6- or 8-inch poured concretefoundation. Space not over 5 feet.Use 1 3/4-inch round washers; two2 x 4- or two 2 x 6-inch members forsill.

Diagram shows effect of wind blowinginto open doors of a salt storagebuilding.

Allow adequate tie-down for fasteningrafters to purlins. This is typicalbracing. Rafters and purlin sizes willvary with building sizes and polespacing during construction.


required to prevent loaders from pushingthe walls out. The salt alone creates somepressure on the walls, but the loader adds tothe pressure when forcing its way into thepile. Another way to lessen pressure onoutside walls is to build an interior bulkhead.

From the floor up, the pressure wallframing should be covered with 2" x 12"boards, which protect the supports fromdamage by loader buckets. Outside shedwalls should be tongue-and-groovecarsiding. The roof should be of half-inchplywood topped with 90 pound rollroofing mineral surface.

Vehicle exhaust fumes can become obnox-ious or hazardous if the storage facility isnot properly ventilated. Sufficient ventilationmust be provided to permit operation of afront-end loader and possibly a spreadertruck in the case of large under-roof storagefacilities. Forced ventilation should beinstalled in any building with a door openingsmaller than the total width of the structure.

Receiving Salt

Shape the pile properly. For coveredoutside storage on a pad, the stockpileshould be windrowed with well-sloped sidesso all water will drain off and away from thepile. Ease of re-covering during the courseof the winter should be considered indetermining the height and overall size ofthe pile.

For in-building storage facilities, the mostcommon method of filling is by dumpingthe salt directly in front of the building andpushing it inside with front-end loaders.Conveyors are sometimes used. Slingers,short conveyor belts capable of throwingthe salt some distance, are used by sometrucking firms. Use of either of these typesof equipment requires sufficient volume inorder to justify the cost of use. Whereconveyors are installed in buildings, supportstructures and loadings should be carefullyevaluated to avoid structural overloadingand possible damage or failure. Tallerstructures (17 plus ft.) are now being builtthat will allow trucks to empty their loadinside the building.


Delivery Tips

No matter how you store salt, it will likelybe delivered to the site by truck. There areseveral ways to speed delivery.

Allow enough room for maneuvering.The average length of large trailer trucksthat deliver deicing salt is 48 feet. Some are55 feet long.

Room for turning and backing should be atleast twice the length of the longest deliverytruck entering the site.

When dumping, trailer beds may rise 30feet above ground level. Allow for this whenplanning the front of storage buildings andwhen locating power lines and lights.

Provide enough support for heavyequipment. Large trailer trucks weigh upto 80,000 pounds when fully loaded. Totalthickness of the pads and base in storageareas served by large loaders and trucks willvary, depending upon the condition of thesubgrade.

Help truckers find the spot. A hard-to-find storage site may slow salt delivery.Place signs indicating locations of saltstorage points and furnish maps anddirections to truckers.

Don’t keep truckers waiting. If astorage facility is properly designed, atruckload of bulk salt can be unloaded inthree or four minutes. But truckers oftenstand idle waiting for someone to authorizedelivery. These delays can be costly.

Generally, shipments cannot be unloadedunless a delivery ticket is signed. Make suresomeone is available to accept andauthorize deliveries.

Post names and telephone numbers ofpersons responsible for receipt of deliveriesat storage areas.

Watch what you get. Salt is tested bysuppliers for shipping weight. It is suppliedin accordance with ASTM specificationD-632, which is shown on page 17 and 18.If additional tests are necessary, try to makethem quickly, using standardized equipmentand procedures.

All trucks should be tarped with a securecover during transit to prevent sifting, lossof salt and to keep salt dry.

The same trucks that deliver salt may haulother materials. Such foreign objects maydamage spreaders and could occasionallyget into salt.

Play it safe. Maintenance personnelshould stay clear of the rear of trucks at alltimes. Night deliveries require specialprecautions. Clearly mark entrances to thestorage site. Make sure yards and inside ofstorage facilities are adequately lighted.Place lights and wiring out of reach ofraised truck beds and loaders.

Work SafelyNot only is Safety the #1 listed concern inour S-A-L-T-E-D summary, worker safetymerits additional suggestions to support asafe work environment.

CommunicateOpen and forthright channels of communi-cation need to be established and main-tained between employees and supervisors,and between employees. Employees mustbe encouraged to take responsibility fortheir own safety and participate in all effortsto improve the overall safety of the facility.Employees must be able to report tomanagement any unsafe or questionableenvironmental condition without fear ofreprisal, and must be encouraged to makerecommendations to correct and improvethose concerns. Employees must beprovided with opportunities to attend safetymeetings and task training to improve theirknowledge, and encouraged to participatein the facility’s safety program. Manage-ment must act as a role model by adheringto all environmental, safety, and health rulesand all regulatory requirements governingthe site.

General Safety RulesSalt storage facility employees need toadhere to general industrial safety rules.These include:

❄ Inspect mobile equipment for hazardsand determine safe operatingcondition before use.

❄ Do not operate equipment orperform new tasks until properlytrained by a qualified person.

❄ Wear appropriate personal protectiveequipment to protect against thehazards that exist in the work area.Wear seatbelts when operatingmobile equipment.

❄ Always “lock, tag and test” anyequipment before you attempt torepair or troubleshoot.

❄ Follow required work practices andpermit systems for electrical repairsor confined space entry.

❄ Immediately report all unsafe acts orconditions to a supervisor or man-ager. Immediately report any workrelated incident, injury or illness toyour supervisor.

❄ Practice good housekeeping bykeeping assigned work areas cleanand orderly.

❄ Do not smoke in and aroundlubricant storage sites or refuelingvehicles.

Salt Stockpile Safety Rules (Rules applywhether stockpile is inside or outside abuilding)

❄ Never approach the vertical face of astockpile on foot or in a vehicle closerthan the vertical dimension of thepile; it might collapse and cover youin an avalanche.

❄ Never park next to a stockpile or nextto loaders or other equipmentworking a stockpile.

❄ Never position yourself between theface of a stockpile and an immovableobject (such as a loader or othervehicle).

❄ When working on top of a stockpile,never approach the crest closer than15 feet.

❄ Always ensure that you have properfooting when accessing the top of astockpile, and always be alert forsinkholes or other openings in thesurface of the pile.

Belt Conveyor and ScrewConveyor Safety Rules

❄ Employees must be especially carefulwhen operating and working aroundconveyors - especially when in closeproximity to head and tail pulley, idlerpulleys, and take-up pulleys.


Electrical Safety Rules❄ Only employees who are properly

trained should be allowed to work onelectrical equipment.

❄ Employees must be alert for electricalhazards and make an immediatereport to their supervisor whenelectrical hazards are identified.

❄ Always treat de-energized electricalequipment and conductors asenergized until lockout/tagout,grounding, and testing proceduresare implemented to verify a zeroenergy state.

❄ Determine the reason for fuse andbreaker trips before resetting circuits.

❄ Conveyors must be equipped withemergency stop devices or pull cords.These emergency stop devices andpull cords must be checked regularlyto ensure they are in working order.

❄ Conveyors must never be operatedunless all guards are in place andsecurely fastened. Screw conveyorsmust never be operated unless topcovers are in place and secured.

❄ Employees must never walk on top ofa screw conveyor. Employees mustnever step onto or ride an operatingconveyor belt.

❄ Before making repairs to a conveyor,it must always be de-energized andthen locked, tagged and tested toensure that it will not start unexpect-edly. Employees must never attemptto apply belt dressing, or to lubricatean operating conveyor, unlessprotected by guards and a remotesystem has been installed to facilitatethese procedures.


Summary

The proper storage of salt is extremelyimportant. Protection of salt and thesurrounding environment, and ease ofhandling salt, are necessary and can beensured through proper storage of salteither under roof or by covering outsidestockpiles.

Street and highway maintenance agenciesshould make a continuous effort to providegood salt storage. Good storage also mustinclude proper maintenance of facilities andgood housekeeping practices.

Storage capacity for 100% of your averagewinter’s needs can help eliminate the needfor delivery during critical storm periods andwill ensure that salt is available whenneeded.

Good planning is essential to good storageand proper storage is a vital part of SensibleSalting.

Storage Area Checklist

This sample storage area checklist can be used to keep a record of all your salt storage facilities, their capacities, their condition, andadditions or improvements needed. It can also be used to record your estimated salt requirement, salt in stock and salt on order. The formis shown merely as a guideline.

Storage Identification

Estimated Salt Requirement

Salt in Stock

Salt on Order

Remarks:

Facilities Available Facilities Needed

Total Number:(Specify pad, bin, building, other)

Total Number:(Specify pad, bin, building, other)

Capacity(tons)

Capacity(tons)Condition


Storage Area Checklist (continued)This part of the form provides a checklist for safety features, proper access, legality, tidiness, economics and drainage.

Yes No SAFETY. . .

❒ ❒ 1. Equipment operators have good visibility in all directions.

❒ ❒ 2. Access roads do not open directly into heavily traveled routes.

❒ ❒ 3. Signs are posted to warn motorist that trucks enter and leave the area.

❒ ❒ 4. Culvert headers, guard rails and other obstructions in storage area are marked so they can be avoided when covered with snow.

❒ ❒ 5. Outside areas are adequately lighted.

❒ ❒ 6. Lights are available inside storage buildings.

❒ ❒ 7. Storage yards are free of junk and other debris.

❒ ❒ 8. All mechanical parts of storage facility, such as hinges, slides, conveyors, are in safe working condition.

❒ ❒ 9. All mechanical equipment is in safe working condition.

Comment—

ACCESS. . .

❒ ❒ 1. Spreader trucks can easily enter and leave storage sites, even during periods of low visibility.

❒ ❒ 2. Storage areas are large enough for front-end loaders and trucks to maneuver.

❒ ❒ 3. Building doors and other openings are large enough to permit loading and unloading.

❒ ❒ 4. There are no low and weak spots in storage yard.

Comment—

LEGALITY. . .

❒ ❒ 1. All storage areas are on state or municipal property or on space for which there is a definite lease rental or use agreement.

❒ ❒ 2. All storage sites comply with local zoning ordinances and applicable building, environmental, discharge and sanitation codes.

Comment—

TIDINESS. . .

❒ ❒ 1. Storage yard is well maintained and clean.

❒ ❒ 2. Junk or scrap material is not piled around yards.

❒ ❒ 3. Storage sites are shielded from view of nearby roads or homes by plantings or fencing.

Comment—

ECONOMICS. . .

❒ ❒ 1. Storage is covered to prevent loss of material.

❒ ❒ 2. Sites are strategically located to avoid deadheading to reload.

Comment—

DRAINAGE. . .

❒ ❒ 1. Storage pads are on sites with proper drainage.

❒ ❒ 2. Storage runoff is properly contained, collected and provisions made for use or disposal.

Comment—


When ordering, specify sodium chloride as ASTMDesignation: D632 or AASHTO M143. Do notspecify year so the current specification willautomatically be followed.

AASHTO Designation M143 complies withASTM D-632.

Standard Specification for SodiumChloride: ASTM Designation D632-YEAR

This Standard is issued under the fixeddesignation D632; the number immediatelyfollowing the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, theyear of last revision. A number in parenthesesindicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorialchange since the last revision or reapproval.______________________________________________________________________________

1. Scope

1.1 This specification covers sodium chlorideintended for use as a deicer and for roadconstruction or maintenance purposes.

1.2 The values stated as SI units are to beregarded as the standard.

1.3 The following precautionary caveat pertainsonly to the test method portion, Section 9 of thisspecification: This standard does not purport toaddress all of the safety concerns, if any,associated with its use. It is the responsibilityof the user of this standard to establishappropriate safety and health practices anddetermine the applicability of regulatorylimitations prior to use.

2. Referenced Documents

2.1 ASTM Standards:

C 136 Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine andCoarse Aggregates2

E 11 Specification for Wire-Cloth Sieves forTesting Purposes2

E 534 Methods for Chemical Analysis of SodiumChloride3

3. Classification

3.1 This specification covers sodium chlorideobtained from natural deposits (rock salt) orproduced by man (evaporated, solar, other) andrecognizes two types and two grades as follows:

3.1.1 Type 1 - Used primarily as a pavementdeicer or in aggregate stabilization.

3.1.1.1 Grade 1- Standard gradation(Note 1).

3.1.1.2 Grade 2 - Special gradation(Note 1).

3.1.2 Type 11- Used in aggregate stabilization orfor purposes other than deicing.

Note Grade 1 provides a particle grading forgeneral application, and found by latestresearch to be most effective for ice control

and skid resistance under most conditions.Grade 2 is the grading typical of salt producedin the western U.S. and available in states ofthe Rocky Mountains Region and west whichmay be preferred by purchasers in that area.______________________________________________________________________________

4. Chemical Requirements

4.1 The sodium chloride shall conform to thefollowing requirement as to chemical composi-tion:

Sodium Chloride (NaCl), min %, 95.0

5. Physical Requirements

5.1 Gradation:

5.1.1 Type 1- The gradation of Type 1 sodiumchloride, when tested by means of laboratorysieves, shall conform to the followingrequirements for particle size distribution:______________________________________________________________________________

Weight % PassingSieve Size Grade 1 Grade 219.0 mm (3/4 in.) – 10012.5 mm (1/2 in.) 100 –9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 95 to 100 –4.75 mm (No. 4) 20 to 90 20 to 1002.36 mm (No. 8) 10 to 60 10 to 60600 mm (No. 30) 0 to 15 0 to 15______________________________________________________________________________

5.1.2 Type 11-The gradation of Type II sodiumchloride shall conform to the grading require-ments imposed or permitted by the purchaserunder conditions of the intended use.

6. Permissible Variations

6.1 In the case of sodium chloride sampled afterdelivery to the purchaser, tolerances from theforegoing specified values shall be allowed asfollows:

6.1.1 Gradation-5.0 percentage points on eachsieve size, except the 12.5 mm (1/2 in.) and 9.5mm (3/8 in.) for grade 1 and 19.0 mm (3/4 in.)for grade 2.

6.1.2 Chemical Composition 0.5 percentagepoint.

7. Condition

7.1 The sodium chloride shall arrive at thepurchaser’s delivery point in a free-flowing andusable condition.

8. Sampling

8.1 Not less than three sample increments shallbe selected at random from the lot (Note 2). Eachincrement shall be obtained by scraping aside thetop layer of material to a depth of at least 25 mm(1 in.) and taking a 500-g (approximately 1-lb)quantity of sodium chloride to a depth of at least150 mm (6 in.). Sampling shall be done bymeans of a sampling thief or other method whichwill assure a representative cross section of thematerial. The sample increments shall bethoroughly mixed to constitute a compositesample representative of the lot.

Note 2: A lot may be an amount agreed uponbetween purchaser and supplier at the time ofpurchase.______________________________________________________________________________

9. Test Methods

9.1 Chemical Test-Test for compliance with therequirements for chemical composition shall be inaccordance with the following methods:

9.1.1 Routine Control -The “Rapid Method”provided in Annex A1 may be used for routinecontrol and approval.

9.1.2 Referee Testing-In case of controversy,determine analysis in accordance with MethodsE534.

9.2 Gradation shall be determined by MethodC136.

10. Inspection

10.1 The purchaser or his representative shall beprovided free entry and necessary facilities at theproduction plant or storage area if he elects tosample sodium chloride at the source.

11. Rejection and Rehearing

11.1 The sodium chloride shall be rejected if itfails to conform to any of the requirements ofthis specification.

11.2 In the case of failure to meet the require-ments on the basis of an initial sample of a lotrepresented, two additional samples shall betaken from the lot and tested. If both additionalsamples meet the requirements, the lot shall beaccepted.

12. Packaging and Marketing

12.1 The sodium chloride shall be delivered inbags or other container acceptable to thepurchaser, or in bulk lots. The name of theproducer and the net weight shall be legiblymarked on each bag or container, or, in the caseof bulk lots, on the shipping or delivery report.

13. Keywords

13.1 salt; snow and ice removal; sodium chloride;stabilization; winter maintenance.______________________________________________________________________________1This specification is under the jurisdiction ofASTM Committee D-4 on Road and PavingMaterials and is the direct responsibility ofSubcommittee DO4.31 on Calcium, SodiumChlorides and Other Deicers.2Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.02.3Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 11.01.4Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 14.02.5Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 14.04.6Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 15.05.7Reagent Chemicals, American ChemicalSociety, Washington, DC. For suggestions ontesting of reagents not listed by the AmericanChemical Society, see Analar Standards forLaboratory Chemicals, BDH Ltd., Poole,Dorset, U.K., and the United States Pharma-copeia and the National Formulary, U.S.Pharmacopcial Convention, Inc., (USPC),Rockville, MD.8Supporting data have been filed at ASTMHeadquarters, Request RR: D04.1016.9These numbers represent respectively, the (ls %)and (d2s %) limits, as described in Practice C670.

Appendix/Salt Specification



ANNEX

(Mandatory Information)

A1 RAPID METHOD OF ANALYSIS FORSODIUM CHLORIDE

A1.1 Scope

A1.1.1 This annex covers a rapid method forchemical analysis of sodium chloride.

A1.2 Significance and Use

A1.2.1 The procedure for chemical analysis inthis annex determines the total amount ofchlorides present in the sample and expressesthat value as sodium chloride.

A1.2.2 This rapid method of analysis does notdistinguish between sodium chloride and otherevaporite chloride compounds with ice-meltingcapabilities. Typical rock salt and solar saltsometimes contains small amounts of CaCl2,MgCl2, and KCl, depending on the source of thematerial. When this rapid method is used oncontinuing shipments from a known source, it willprovide a fast, essentially accurate determinationof the sodium chloride content of the materialfurnished. Thus the need for testing by thereferee method, Test Method E 534 is reduced.

A1.3 Apparatus

A1.3.1 Glassware-Standard weighing bottles,volumetric flasks (conforming to Specification E288, Class B- or better), and burets (conformingto Specification E 287, Class B- or better).

A1.3.2 Balance, having a capacity of at least 20g, accurate and readable to 0.01 g.

A1.4 Reagents

A1.4.1 Purity of Reagents-Reagent gradechemicals shall be used in all tests. Unlessotherwise indicated, it is intended that all reagentsconform to the specifications of the Committeeon Analytical Reagents of the American ChemicalSociety where such specifications are available.7

Other grades may be used, provided it is firstascertained that the reagent is of sufficiently highpurity to permit its use without lessening theaccuracy of the determination.

A1.4.2 Purity of Water-Unless otherwiseindicated, references to water shall be understoodto mean reagent water as defined by Types I-IVof Specification D 1193.

A1.4.3 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)-lowchloride, powder.

A1.4.4 Nitric Acid (HNO3)-dilute (HNO3:H2O,1:4 by volume).

A1.4.5 Potassium Chromate (K2CrO4)Solution-(50 g K2CrO4/L).

A1.4.6 Silver Nitrate Solution-0.05 N AgNO3.

A1.4.7 Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

A1.5 Procedure

A1.5.1 Thoroughly mix the composite sampleobtained under 8.1, and reduce by quartering orby means of a sample splitter to approximately500 g. Pulverize the reduced sample to pass a300 µm (no. 50) sieve.

A1.5.2 Standardization-Standardize the silvernitrate (AgNO3) solution daily, using 10 g ofreagent grade sodium chloride (NaCl) followingthe applicable procedure in A1.5.3.

A1.5.3 From the pulverized sodium chloride,obtain a test sample with a mass of 10.00 ± 0.01g and place in a beaker with 250-mL distilledwater. Add 10 mL of the diluted nitric acidsolution (HNO3, 1 + 4 by volume) and stir for 20min at room temperature to put the salt insolution. Transfer the solution, including anyinsoluble material, to a 2-L volumetric flask, diluteto the mark with distilled water, and mix. With apipet, draw off 25 mL of the solution and placein a white porcelain casserole. Add 0.5 g ofcalcium carbonate (CaCO3) to neutralize theexcess HNO3, and adjust the pH to approxi-mately 7. Add 3 mL of the potassium chromate(K2CrO4) solution as an indicator and titratedropwise with the silver nitrate (AgNO3) solutionuntil a faint but distinct change in color occurs—apersistent yellowish brown endpoint (see NoteA1.1), comparable to standardization. Estimatethe titer from the buret to the second decimalplace.

Note: A1.1—The stirred sample solution, afteraddition of potassium chromate (K2CrO4) andcalcium carbonate (CaCO3) is a creamy lemon-yellow color. Addition of the silver nitrate(AgNO3) solution produces silver chloride, whichbegins to agglomerate as the titration progresses,and the lemon-yellow color will begin to havewhitish opaque swirls of silver chloride. As thetitration proceeds, the red color formed byaddition of each drop begins to disappear moreslowly. Continue the addition dropwise until afaint but distinct change in color occurs and theyellow-brown to faint reddish-brown colorpersists. The first stable presence of red silverchromate is the end point. If the endpoint isoverstepped, a deep reddish-brown color occurs.

A1.6 Calculate-Calculate the total choridesexpressed as percent NaCl as follows:

P = [(A/B) x (C/D)] x 100 (A1.1)

Where:

A = reagent grade NaCl used, g,

B = 0.05 N AgNO3 solution required to titrate thereagent grade NaCl, mL,

C = 0.05 N AgNO3 solution required to titratethe sample being tested, mL,

D = test sampling mass, g, and

P = total chlorides expressed as sodium chloridein the sample being tested, %.

A1.6.1 If moisture is apparent in the sample, drya duplicate 10-g sample of the pulverized salt at105° C and correct the mass of the sampleaccordingly.

A1.7 Precision and Bias

A1.7.1 Precision8 –An interlaboratory study wasconducted and an analysis was made thatincluded three materials ranging from approxi-mately 92 to 99 % NaCl. Ten laboratories wereincluded in the study.

A1.7.2 Single-Operator Precision (NaClcomposition 95.0 % and greater)—The single-operator standard deviation of a single test resultfor average NaCl composition 95.0 % andgreater has been found to be 0.248.9 Therefore,results of two properly conducted tests by thesame operator on the same material with thesame equipment and under the same conditionsshould not differ by more than 0.70 %.9

A1.7.3 Multilaboratory Precision (NaClcomposition 95.0 % and greater)—Themultilaboratory standard deviation of a single testresult for average NaCl composition greater than95.0 % has been found to be 0.633 %.9

Therefore, results of two properly conducted testsin different laboratories on the same materialshould not differ by more than 1.79 %.9

A1.7.4 Single Operator Precision (NaClcomposition 95.0 % and greater than 90.0 %)—The single-operator coefficient of variation of asingle test result for average NaCl compositionless than 95.0 % and greater than 90.0 % hasbeen found to be 0.427 %.9 Therefore, results oftwo properly conducted tests by the sameoperator on the same material with the sameequipment and under the same conditions shouldnot differ by more than 1.21 %.9

A1.7.5 Multilaboratory Precision (NaClcomposition less than 95.0 % and greater than90.0 %)—The multilaboratory standard deviationof a single test result for average NaCl composi-tion less than 95.0 % and greater than 90.0 %has been found to be 0.711 %.9 Therefore,results of two properly conducted tests indifferent laboratories on the same material shouldnot differ by more than 2.00 %.9

A1.7.6 Bias—No justifiable statement can bemade on the bias of this test method because thedata are not available.

American Society for Testing and Materialstakes no position respecting the validity of anypatent rights asserted in connection with anyitem mentioned in this standard. Users of thisstandard are expressly advised that determina-tion of the validity of any such patent rights,and the risk of infringement of such rights, areentirely their own responsibility.

This standard is subject to revision at any timeby the responsible technical committee andmust be reviewed every five years and if notrevised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Yourcomments are invited either for revision of thisstandard or for additional standards and shouldbe addressed to ASTM Headquarters. Yourcomments will receive careful consideration at ameeting of the responsible technical committee,which you may attend. If you feel that yourcomments have not received a fair hearing youshould make your views known to the ASTMCommittee on Standards.Reprinted with permission of ASTM,This standard is copyrighted by ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive,PO Box C700, West Conshonocken, PA 19428-2959, UnitedStates. Individual reprints (single or multiple copies) of thisstandard may be obtained by contacting ASTM at the aboveaddress or at 610-832-9585 (phone), 610-832-9555 (fax) orservice @astm.org (e-mail); or through the ASTM website(www.astm.org).

English/Metric Conversion ChartMETRIC TO ENGLISH

Multiply EnglishWhen You Know by to Find Symbol

millimeters 0.0394 inches incentimeters 0.394 inches inmeters 3.281 feet ftmeters 1.0936 yards ydskilometers 0.6214 miles mi

square centimeters 0.1550 square inches sq insquare meters 10.7639 square feet sq ftsquare meters 1.1959 square yards sq yds

hectare 2.4711 acressquare kilometers 0.3861 square miles sq micubic centimeters 0.0611 cubic inches cu incubic meters 35.3147 cubic feet cu ftcubic meters 1.3078 cubic yards cu yds

milliliters 0.0338 ounces (fluid) ozliters 2.1135 pints (fluid) ptsliters 1.0567 quarts (fluid) qtsliters 0.2641 gallons gals

liters 1.8162 pints (dry) ptsliters 0.9081 quarts (dry) qtscubic meters 28.3776 bushels bu

grams 0.0352 avoirdupois ounces avdp oz

kilograms 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds avdp lbsmetric tons (2204.6 lbs) 1.1023 short tons (2000 lbs) tnmetric tons 0.9842 long tons (2240 lbs) t

(Celsius temperature x 1.8) + 32 = Fahrenheit temperature

ENGLISH TO METRIC

Multiply MetricWhen You Know by to Find Symbol

inches 25.4 millimeters nuninches 2.54 centimeters cmfeet 0.3048 meters M

yards 0.9144 meters mmiles 1.609 kilometers km,fathoms 1.8 Meters msquare inches 6.4516 square centimeters cm2

square feet 0.0929 square meters m2

square yards 0.8361 square meters M 2

acres 0.4047 hectares hasquare miles 2.5899 square kilometers kM2cubic inches 16.3871 cubic centimeters cu 3

cubic feet 0.0283 cubic meters M 3

cubic yards 00.7645 cubic meters m 3

ounces (fluid) 29.5737 milliliters mLpints (fluid) 0.4732 liters L

quarts (fluid) 0.9463 liters Lgallons 3.7853 liters Lpints (dry) 0.5506 liters Lquarts (dry) 1.1012 liters Lbushels 0.0352 cubic meters m 3

bushels 35.2381 liters Lavoirdupois ounces 28.3495 grams gavoirdupois pounds 0.4536 kilograms kgshort tons (2000 lbs) 0.9072 metric tons (2204.6 lbs) t

long tons (2240 lbs) 1.0160 metric tons t

(Farenheit temperature -32) x 0.5555 = Celsius temperature

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The Salt Storage Handbook

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