The Role of TThe Role of TThe Role of TThe Role of TThe Role of Teacher Efficacyeacher Efficacyeacher Efficacyeacher Efficacyeacher Efficacyand Characteristics on Tand Characteristics on Tand Characteristics on Tand Characteristics on Tand Characteristics on TeachingeachingeachingeachingeachingEffectiveness, Effectiveness, Effectiveness, Effectiveness, Effectiveness, PPPPPerformance,erformance,erformance,erformance,erformance,and Use of Learnerand Use of Learnerand Use of Learnerand Use of Learnerand Use of Learner-Centered Practices-Centered Practices-Centered Practices-Centered Practices-Centered PracticesCarlo Magno and Josefina SembranoCarlo Magno and Josefina SembranoCarlo Magno and Josefina SembranoCarlo Magno and Josefina SembranoCarlo Magno and Josefina SembranoDe La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, Philippines

The study tested two models on the interaction of teacher variables using Structural EquationsModeling (SEM). In the first model, the effect of teachers personality characteristics andteaching efficacy on teachers performance and effective teaching was tested. In the secondmodel, the effects of learner-centered practices on teachers performance, effective teaching,and teaching efficacy were included. 296 teachers from a community college were assessedby their students on their teaching performance using the Student Instructional Report (SIR),the Effective Teaching Inventory (ETI), and the Learner-centered Practices Questionnairewhich were devised by the researchers. On the other hand, the teachers assessed themselvesusing Osgoods Personality Characteristics Scale and the Teacher Efficacy Inventory by Gibsonand Dembo (1984). In the SEM analysis, the two models did not change on their measures ofgoodness of fit with a RMSEA of .045 indicating that both models have a rather good fit. It wasfound that the teachers practicing learner-centered approaches use their self-efficacy in orderto be effective in teaching, but it was also found that being effective does not result in highteaching performance ratings. The use of learner-centered practices is seen as effective butdoes not warrant having high ratings based on student assessment.

A teachers general performance in teaching isinfluenced by various internal and external factors.These different teaching factors are measured andassessed in order to come up with indicators ofsuccessful teaching that would effectively regulatestudents learning and serve as success indicatorsfor a school. Various studies have proposeddifferent criteria on how to assess teachingperformance and they differ according to differentschools specific objectives. However, in explainingteaching performance, there are important commonfactors that need to be considered. Teacher

performance is influenced by the teacherspersonality characteristics (Polk, 2006; Curtis &Liying, 2001; Mullins, 1992; Hughes, Costner, &Douzenis, 1988; Mayhew, 1986; Sherman &Blackburn, 1975; Bridgwater, 1982) and theirefficacy beliefs in teaching (Yeh, 2006; Fisler &Firestone, 2006; Onafowora, 2005; Rogalla,2004; Yoon, 2002; Weasmer & Woods, 1998;Gibson & Dembo, 1984). The studies investigatingthe effects of teachers personal characteristics onteaching performance became few and far after the1980s at which point no conclusions were arrived

74 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

at because of the lack of coherence of the variablesfor personal characteristics.

On the other hand, the effect of teachingefficacy on teaching performance is established,although teaching performance has differentconstructs in studies investigating the effects ofefficacy and personal characteristics of teachers.There is a need to further separate the differentdimensions of teaching performance because theeffects of personal characteristics and efficacy mayvary according to different domains in assessingperformance. Teaching performance in differentstudies may mean both effective and ineffectivecharacteristics (Young & Shaw, 1999). Effectivecharacteristics of teachers consist of a different setof items as compared with general measures thatassesses the level of teachers performance inteaching (Magno, 2006a). For example, teachingmethodologies and strategies may be effective orineffective depending on the implementation of theteachers and hence, should only be used for generalassessment and not for surveying the effectivecharacteristics of teachers. Conversely, items onbeing enthusiastic, well-prepared., genuine, self-confident etc. are seen as positive and effectivecharacteristics that exist in the relationship betweenthe teacher and the student. In the study, teacherperformance and effective teaching characteristicsare separated where the former refers to the generalrating of teachers using a scale and the latter iscomprised of positive characteristics referring tothe teacher.

Another educational outcome that has gainedattention in recent studies on teaching effectivenessis the use of learner-centered practices. Beinglearner-centered in the course of teaching meansproviding the most supportive learning context fordiverse students. In a learner-centered approach,the teacher understands and values studentdifferences and needs (McCombs, 1997). Studieshave shown that the use of learner-centeredapproaches inside the classroom has an impact onthe personal efficacy of teachers (Sariscsany, 2005;Morrell & Caroll, 2003; Yost, 2002; Cannon &Scharmann, 1996). The present study tested amodel on (1) the effect of learner-centered

practices on teaching efficacy, (2) the effect ofpersonal characteristics and teaching efficacy onteacher effectiveness and performance, and (3) therelationship of teaching efficacy and personalcharacteristics.

Effects of Teaching Efficacy on TeachingPerformance and Effectiveness

The literature explaining the effects of teachingefficacy on teaching performance is established onthe grounds of the social cognitive theory (Bandura,1977). Bandura (1997) concluded that theevidence across studies is consistent in showingthat perceived self-efficacy contributessignificantly to level of motivation and performanceaccomplishments. Bandura (2000) embraced anintegrated perspective for human performancein which social influences operate throughpsychological mechanisms. Teachers ownbeliefs and convictions about their ownperformance have much influence on the actualperformance (Magno, 2005; Jinks & Morgan,1999). It was explained by Gibson and Dembo(1984) that teachers who believe studentlearning can be influenced by effective teaching(outcomes expectancy beliefs) and who alsohave confidence in their own teaching abilities(self-efficacy beliefs) would persist longer,provide a greater academic focus in theclassroom, and exhibit different types of feedbackthan teachers who have lower expectationsconcerning their ability to influence student learning.Enochs, Smith and Huinker (2000) were amongthose who contextualized self-efficacy for teaching.They explained that personal teaching efficacy hasbeen defined as a belief in ones ability to teacheffectively and teaching outcome expectancy as thebelief that effective teaching will have a positiveeffect on student learning. Research on efficacy ofteachers suggests that behaviors such aspersistence on a task, risk taking, and use ofinnovations are related to degrees of efficacy(Ashton, 1985; Ashton & Webb, 1986). Forexample, highly efficacious teachers have beenfound to be more likely to use inquiry and student-

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 75TEACHING PERFORMANCE

centered teaching strategies, while teachers with alow sense of efficacy are more likely to useteacher-directed strategies, such as lecture andreading from the text (Czerniak, 1990). Inclassrooms where teachers have high levels ofteaching efficacy, high levels of learning occur(Weasmer & Woods, 1998).

The research trend on teaching efficacy at theonset of the 21st century concentrated more onestablishing reliable and valid measures of self-efficacy contextualized in teaching and it was usuallymade domain specific, for instance, formathematics and science teaching. One is theScience Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument-Preservice (STEBI-B) by Enochs & Riggs(1990) which was further enriched in the studiesof Wingfield, Freeman, and Ramsey (2000),Tosun (2000), Bleicher (2001, 2002) andBleicher and Lindgren (2002), and Settlage(2000). STEBI-B is a one-page, 23-iteminstrument containing items such as, I willtypically be able to answer students sciencequestions. Preservice teachers indicate thatthey either agree or disagree with such astatement by choosing from a 5-point Likertscale, ranging from strongly agree to stronglydisagree. Their responses totaled over the 23items provide a measure of their self-efficacybeliefs. Another version was also applied inmathematics by Enochs, Smith, and Huinker(2000). This time, each of the instruments wassubject specific and had factorial validityestablished by a more rigorous confirmatory factoranalysis, utilizing a structural modeling program.Across the studies, the two-factor structureremained stable proving that teaching efficacy iscomposed of personal efficacy and outcome. Thus,it is not only the effect of teaching efficacy onperformance that is established, but also its factorstructure.

Effects of Personal Characteristics onTeaching Performance and Effectiveness

There is a wide variation on how personalitycharacteristics of teachers are conceptualized

in different studies. Because of this wide arrayof differences, different components ofpersonality characteristics have also been used.This is primarily due to a wide selection oftheories explaining an individuals personality.For example (1) Grindler and Straton (1990),Grant & Cambre (1990), and Katz (1992) usedthe Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) resultsto help teachers develop different teachingmethods and more readily accept a variety ofmaterials and technology; (2) Henson andChambers (2003) also used the factors of theMBTI to predict teaching efficacy andclassroom control orientation; (3) Erdle,Murray, and Rushton (1985), Henry andRohwer (2004) , Murray, Rushton, andPaunonen (1990), and Teachout (1997) studiedpersonality as a collective of individual behavior,such as ambition, intelligence, sense of humor,or others; (4) Madsen, Standley, and Cassidy(1989), and Yarbrough and Madsen (1998)operationalized personality as teacher intensityor enthusiasm. Despite the different ways ofoperationalizing personality as a variable amongteachers, there is evidence of the relationshipbetween personality of teachers and effectiveteaching. There are numerous studies showingthat personality is a significant predictor ofeffective teaching (Krueger 1972; Murray,Rushton, & Paunonen 1990; Schmidt, Lewis,& Kurpius-Brock, 1991) although these studiesare from latter years of the previous century andthus need to be established in the presentperiod. There is a need to further investigatethe impact of personality on effective teaching.According to Polk (2006) the personality of theteacher is a pervasive element in the classroom,and attention as to its impact on learningoutcomes is well deserved.

Relationship of Teaching Efficacyand Personal Characteristics

There is consistent evidence that personalitycharacteristics have an effect on teaching efficacy.In a recent study by Yeh (2006), it was found that

76 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

teaching efficacy is a reliable predictor in theimprovement of the personality characteristics ofteachers. The findings suggest that personalitytypes such as intrapersonal intelligence, critical-thinking dispositions, and a judicial thinking styleresults in a more reliable outcome in reflectiveteaching and mastery performance (which is self-efficacy). Moreover, the study of Flores and Clark(2004) found that personality (character),interests, occupational activity, interpersonal style,and moral worth using multivariate regression analysisshowed an effect on teacher efficacy. Even studiesthat investigated the effect of teaching efficacy aloneon performance recognized the need to see whatpropels teaching efficacy such as the study ofOnafowora (2005) where she recommends thatfurther investigation on novice teachers selfconfidence at different times and to note consistencypatterns, or growth as it relates to teacher-efficacyattributes. Fisler and Firestone (2006) furtherexplained the role teacher factors play in classroomchange and improvement. They found thatindividual teacher factors such as self-efficacy couldmediate the influence on teacher learning andpedagogical change. However, the study of Hensonand Chambers (2003) used personality types aspredictors of self-efficacy and classroom controland in their findings using canonical analysis, theoverall model was not significant and the effect forthe first function was considered substantive. Intheir study it appeared that personality may not beas strongly related to efficacy. In the present studyit is hypothesized that personal characteristics willhave an effect on teaching efficacy as they lead tobetter teaching performance and effectiveness.

Learner-Centered Practices

Learner-centered practices have gainedattention as a way of enhancing the outcomes ofteaching and learning among students. There is ashift from a directive approach in teaching torecognizing more the needs of the learners.According to McCombs (1997) learner-centeredis defined for the learner and the learning processas a positive learning environment that is created

facilitating the success of students. There are 14learner-centered psychological principles that wereformulated by the American PsychologicalAssociation task force that are related to studentslearning, motivation, and individual differences. Theintegrating factors that affect the learner and hislearning are metacognitive and cognitive, affective,developmental, personal and social, and individualdifferences. The major features of learner-centeredness practices are: (1) the learners areincluded in the educational decision makingprocess; (2) diverse perspectives of learners areencouraged; (3) individual differences of thelearners are accounted for and respected; and (4)learners are co-creators of the teaching andlearning process.

Much has been studied on the effects of learner-centeredness in the classroom setting focusing onstudent outcomes. There is a need to study howlearner-centered practices interact with teacherfactors such as teaching efficacy and performance.There is little evidence explaining the impact of usinglearner-centered practices on teaching efficacy;there is definitely a call for more studies in this lineof research. One is Sariscsanys (2005) study onthe influences of learning-centered methodologieson preservice teachers personal teaching efficacy.In the study, students are engaged in a creativeproblem solving environment using games forunderstanding interjected between pre- and post-measurement of teacher efficacy. Preliminary dateanalysis indicates a statistically significant (p < .05)gain in teaching efficacy from pre- to post-testscores. This finding also indicates that preserviceteachers with higher levels of teaching efficacyattribute their gains to a number of active ratherthan passive instructional strategies used within thecourse.

Yeung & Watkins (2000) mentioned in theirstudy that experiences of teaching practice,electives, pupils, and teaching practicesupervisors (Electives) are the major sourcesfor the development of a sense of teachingefficacy. Although it was not exactly mentionedthat learner-centered practices affects teachingefficacy, the discussion provided by Yeung &

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 77TEACHING PERFORMANCE

Watkins (2000) explains the direction of learner-centeredness leading to teaching efficacy.

Teaching Performance and Effectiveness

There is a growing call for teacher evaluationto focus not only on teacher-related behaviors butalso to translate it into student outcome (Ellet &Teddle, 2003; Ovando, 2001). The most widely-used measures of teacher performance arecomposed of multiple dimensions and used factoranalysis to arrive at sources of variation (Pike,1998; Allison-Jones & Hirt, 2004; Howard,Helms, & Lawrence, 1997, Centra, 1998; Scriven,1994; Li-Ping Tang, 1997; Marsh & Bailey, 1993;Young & Shaw, 1999; Heckert, Latier, Ringwald,& Silvey, 2006; Stringer & Irwing, 1998; Wanous& Hudy, 2001). The most typical function ofteacher performance is to serve as an indicator of

school success and for the promotion of teachers,thereby improving teaching and personneldecisions (Magno & Tangco, 2006; Magno,2006b; Staples, 1998; Szeto, 1995). There is amarked difference on how teacher performance ismeasured with the components of measuringteacher effectiveness. Teacher performanceincludes measures of general teaching practicessuch as teaching methods and strategies, classroommanagement, planning and organization of teaching.Often, the results of these measures are used forpromotion and feedback. The measures forperformance are interpreted as levels whereteachers achieve to a certain degree the criteriaspecified (Centra, 1998). Teacher effectiveness onthe other hand is composed of characteristics thatdiscriminates good teachers from bad teachers(Young & Shaw, 1999). The content of teachereffectiveness includes some aspects of the

PersonalityCharacteristics

TeachingEfficacy

Learner-centeredness

EffectiveTeaching

TeachingPerformance

Figure 1. Diagram Showing the Connections of Teacher Factors Leadingto Teaching Performance and Teaching Effectiveness.

78 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

teachers personality that are necessary in teachingsuch as being tolerant, having a good sense ofhumor, being warm and friendly, and beingconcerned about students. This distinctionbetween performance and effectiveness is notyet well-defined in literature. Studies use theseconcepts interchangeably due to the nature oftheir seeming relationship, where teacherperformance is rated highly and hence must beeffective.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The study tested a model showing the effect ofpersonality characteristics of teachers on theirperformance in teaching, effective teachingcharacteristics, and teaching efficacy. This isexplained in Banduras social cognitive theory(1977, 1986) where personal beliefs areconcerned with the conviction that one cansuccessfully execute the behavior required toproduce the outcomes such as teacherperformance. Changes in the teachers effortand achievement are attributed to the way theyconceptualize themselves (Gorrell, 1990).Personality plays a role in the way teachers arerated on their teaching performance and theirbeing effective in teaching. The behaviorattributed to good teaching coincides withcertain personal characteristics such as beingfr iendly, approachable , warm, k ind ,appreciative, and inspiring (Young & Shaw,1999). This is explained in the personal constructstheory where each person construes (interprets)and anticipates the occurrence of events inaccordance with his own construction systemof constructs (Kelly, 1955). The effect ofpersonality on teaching, effective teachingcharacteristics, and teaching efficacy is studiedtogether since the effect of personality alone onteaching is not yet conclusive (Murray et al.,1990). Certain personality characteristics allowa teacher to be effective and to be rated highlyby their students (Young & Shaw, 1999, Szeto,1995).

The effect of learner-centeredness used byteachers on self-efficacy, performance and effectiveteaching characteristics are also tested in a model.These connections are anchored on the socialcognitive theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986) where theteachers belief of their behavior (self-efficacy) leadto certain outcomes (teaching performance andteaching effectiveness). The influence of learner-centered practices on teaching efficacy is explainedin the outcome expectancy model of Bandura(1977) where teachers believe that the environmentcan be controlled and their abilities bring aboutpositive student change. Learner-centeredness issuitable in the model because its design is consistentwith the current views of learning, motivation, andindividual differences where teachers can bestcreate an ideal learning environment by supportingthe learning context (McCombs, 1997). The socialcognitive theory, when applied to teaching, explainsthat teachers using authentic and student-directedactivities such as learner-centered practicesdevelop the conviction to be successful and thusperform well (Sariscsany, 2005). The use of alearner-centered approach in teaching enables theteacher to be more effective and perform better(Yeung & Watkins, 2000).

The evidence across different studies isconsistent in showing that perceived self-efficacycontributes significantly to level of motivation andperformance accomplishments.

METHOD

ParticipantsA sample of 297 teaching faculty and 7,093

students from a community college participated inthis study. The list of all teaching faculty for thefirst term, school year 2006-2007 was obtainedto randomly select the faculty members to beincluded in the sample. After the random selectionof faculty members, one class was randomlyselected for each faculty member. Out of the 297selected faculty members, 55 were full-time facultymembers while the rest (N=242) were teaching ona part-time basis.

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 79TEACHING PERFORMANCE

InstrumentsFive instruments were used in the study: The

Osgoods Personality Characteristics Scale(OPCS), Teacher Efficacy Inventory (TEI),Effective Teaching Inventory (ETI), StudentInstructional Report (SIR), and Learner-CenteredPractices Questionnaire (LCPQ).

Osgoods Personality Characteristics Scale(OPCS). The OPCS was used to measure thepersonality characteristics of teachers asdeveloped by Sherman and Blackburn (1975).They were able to extract four factors composedof 22 items using orthogonal rotation as a result oftheir factor analysis. The factors are four distinctpersonality components: personal potency (items1-8), pragmatism (9-10), amicability (11-15), andintellectual competency (16-22). The items underthe four personality components are bipolaradjective-pair items descriptive of variouspersonality characteristics. Based on Sherman andBlackburns (1975) study, the descriptions of thefactors are as follows:

(1) Personal potency - Factor loadings rangedfrom .84 to .54. One with high personal potencyis characterized as one who is highly attractive andwho, by virtue of this attractiveness, is able to exertconsiderable influence over his students. Such aperson is a dynamic, outgoing individual, who, atthe same time communicates well with students andhas a relaxed attitude.

(2) Pragmatism High levels in this factorindicate a common sense or down-to-earthdimension to the teaching situation, which studentsperceive as an important ingredient in effectiveness.The factor loadings of the items are .73 and .75.

(3) Amicability Describes an individual interms of his friendliness and goodwill towardsothers. There is interpersonal sensitivity reflectedin this factor. Factor loadings are from .76 to .72.

(4) Intellectual competency This factorreflects expertise, knowledge, wisdom,decisiveness, stability, rational, and sensiblebehavior. Factor loadings range from .47 to .85.

The instrument had an overall internalconsistency of .887 using Cronbachs alpha.

Teacher Efficacy Inventory (TEI). The TEIwas used to measure teaching efficacy. Thisinstrument was constructed by Gibson and Dembo(1984) and they were able to extract two factors.Factor 1 is called Personal Teaching Efficacy (items1 to 9), which reflects the teachers sense ofpersonal responsibility in student learning and/orbehavior and corresponds to Banduras self-efficacy dimension. Factor 2 is called TeachingEfficacy (items 10 to 16), which represents howa teachers belief that his or her ability can bringabout change is significantly limited by factorsexternal to the teacher such as externalenvironment, family background, and parentalinfluences. Analysis of internal consistencyreliability yielded a Cronbachs alpha coefficientof .78 for the Personal Teaching Efficacy factor,.75 for the Teaching Efficacy factor and .79 forall the items. For each item the students respondedusing an 8-point scale ranging from strongly agreeto strongly disagree. The overall internalconsistency of the items using Cronbachs alpha is.806.

Effective Teaching Inventory (ETI). The ETIwas constructed by Young and Shaw (1999) andwas used to measure effective teachingcharacteristics. The items were based on extensiveliterature on student evaluation and effectiveteaching. The measure is composed of 20 items.The items are unidimensional since only one factorwas extracted using principal component analysis.All items, including the global measure, were ratedusing a scale from 1 to 9, where 1 is not at alldescriptive, and 9 is very descriptive. The itemswere able to discriminate between effective andineffective teachers. The discrimination functiongenerated using the items predicted groupmembership 97% correctly for the ineffectiveteachers and 99% for the effective teachers. Theoverall internal consistency reliability of the itemsusing Cronbachs alpha is .994.

80 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

Student Instructional Report (SIR). The SIRwas used to assess the performance of teachers infive areas: Classroom organization, classroomresources, response to student needs, evaluation,and enrichment activities. The items of the SIRwere based on the Student Instructional Report2 by Centra (1998) of the Educational TestingService. In the ETS version the Cronbachsalpha was uniformly high ranging from .89 to.98. In the current study the Cronbachs alphavalue obtained was .998 indicating that the itemsare highly consistent. Interclass correlationswere also conducted having acceptablecorrelation coefficients. In Centras SIR, a studyof several multiple sect ion courses diddemonstrate that learning gains were related tothe overall evaluation of the instructor as wellas to some of the scale scores as evidence ofcriterion validity. The construct validity isdemonstrated where the factors produced closelyduplicated the scales designed. However, thescales did correlate significantly with each other,

as has been typical of other student rating forms,and this reflects a response set by students. Thatis, students have a tendency to rate goodinstructors as effective on all items and scalesrather than differentiating their performances. Aconfirmatory factor analysis was conducted inthe preset study to prove the factor structure ofthe SIR.

Learner-Centered Practices Questionnaire(LCPQ). The LCPQ is based on the principles ofthe learner-centered practices by McCombs(1997). The items were constructed under theareas of (1) pos i t ive in terpersonalcharacteristics (items 1 to 5), (2) encouragespersonal challenge (items 6 to 10), (3) adoptsclass learning needs (items 11-15), and (4)facilitates the learning process (items 16 to 19).The overall reliability of the scale is .994indicating high internal consistency of the items.The description and scale reliability for the areasare as follows:

M Scale S D S E NPersonality Characteristics

Personal Potency 5.42 7 7.22 0.42 296Pragmatism 5.20 7 2.09 0.12 296Amicability 5.88 7 4.46 0.26 296Intellectual Competency 5.04 7 5.31 0.31 296

Teacher EfficacyPersonal Efficacy 4.88 6 6.28 0.36 296Teaching Efficacy 3.66 6 5.86 0.34 296

Student Instructional ReportSIR-Part 1 3.98 5 0.38 0.02 296SIR-Part 2 4.11 5 0.42 0.02 296SIR-Part 3 4.08 5 0.43 0.03 296SIR-Part 4 4.13 5 0.42 0.02 296SIR-Part 5 4.07 5 0.42 0.02 296

Effective Teaching InventoryEffective Teaching 7.50 9 16.62 0.97 296Overall Effectiveness 7.52 9 0.89 0.05 296

Learner-Centered PracticesPositive Interpersonal Characteristic 7.49 9 4.64 0.27 296Encourages Personal Challenge 7.43 9 4.16 0.24 296Adapts Learning Needs 7.25 9 4.69 0.27 296Facilitates the Learning Process 7.36 9 3.73 0.22 296

Note. SIR-Part 1-Classroom Organization, Part2-Use of classroom resources, Part 3-Response to student needs, Part 4-Evaluation, Part 5-Enrichment Activities.

Table 1Mean and Standard Deviation.

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 81TEACHING PERFORMANCE

(1) Positive interpersonal characteristics the items reflect the ability to develop positiveinterpersonal relationships with students and theinstructors ability to value and respect studentsas persons. The internal consistency of the itemsusing Cronbachs alpha is .986.

(2) Encourages personal challenge the itemsshow how students are expected to take chargeof their learning. The internal consistency of theitems using Cronbachs alpha is .983.

(3) Adopts class learning needs the itemsshows the ability to be flexible in order to addressstudents needs. The internal consistency of theitems using Cronbachs alpha is .975.

(4) Facilitates the learning process the itemsreflect the instructors ability to encourage studentsto monitor their own learning process. The internalconsistency of the items using Cronbachs alpha is.990.

The confirmatory factor analysis conductedproved the factor structure of the four areas oflearner-centered practices.

ProcedureIndividual letters were circulated to the faculty

members to formally inform them about the studybeing conducted prior to the actual administrationof the survey instruments to their selected classes.The letter also indicated the date and time of thesurvey administrations. The administration of thetwo sets of instruments (First wave: OsgoodsPersonality Characteristics Scale and LearnerCentered Practices Questionnaire; Second wave:Teaching Efficacy Inventory, Student InstructionalReport, Effective Teaching Inventory) took placeon two different time frames. In the communitycollege sampled, the students evaluate theirteachers on a regular basis during the 8th to 9th

week of the term using the Student InstructionalReport questionnaire (SIR). During the studys run,the ETI was administered together with theadministration of the SIR. The faculty on the otherhand completed the Osgoods PersonalityCharacteristics Scale during the first wave andTeaching Efficacy Inventory on the second wave

outside of the classroom while the students wereresponding to the other set of instruments.

Data AnalysisThe mean and the standard deviation were used

to report the levels of each of the scales. All the factorsof the measures were intercorrelated to establish therelationship of the factors to be entered in theStructural Equations Modeling.

The Structural Equations Modeling or SEM wasused as the major analysis in the study. Two modelswere tested in the study. In the first model, theeffects of personality characteristics on teachingefficacy, effective teaching, and teachingperformance were tested. The effect of learner-centered practices on teaching efficacy was alsotested. In Model 2, the same paths were tested butthis time the effects of learner-centered practices oneffective teaching and teaching performance weretested. The obtained Root Mean Square ErrorApproximation (RMSEA) was used to determine thebest fitting model, as well as measures of noncentralityand single sample fit indices. Single samplegoodness of fit indices were also used to evaluatethe models (Joreskog GFI/AGFI, AkaikeInformation Criterion, Schwarzs BayesianCriterion, Browne-Cudeck Cross Validation Index,Bentler-Bonett, James-Mulaik-Brett ParsimoniousFit Index, and Bollens Rho).

The Sobel test was used to test for mediationeffects. The study further tested whether the latentfactors carry the effect of a given exogenous latentvariable to an endogenous latent variable. TheSobel values were likewise tested for significance.

RESULTS

In the analysis, the mean and the standarddeviation were used to determine the levels of thefactors and intercorrelation of the factors areconducted to establish the relationship and thepatterns that exist in among the factors.

All of the factors for the measures wereintercorrelated (see Appendix A). In the correlationmatrix, all of the factors of the SIR, effective

82 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

teaching characteristics, and learner-centeredpractices were not significantly correlated withall of the factors of teaching characteristics(personal potency, pragmatism, amicability,intellectual competency) and personal efficacy.The factors of SIR, effect ive teachingcharacteristics, learner-centeredness andteaching efficacy were all significantlyintercorrelated with each other, p

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 83TEACHING PERFORMANCE

Figure 3. Model 2

values consistent with the RMSEA indicating arather good fit.

In model 2, most of the parameters for goodnessof fit were the same with those of model 1. TheRMSEA obtained was also .045 indicating a rathergood fit. The values of the noncentrality fit indicesfor model 2 were also the same with model 1. Forthe measures of single sample fit indices as shownin Table 2, there were no changes on the estimatesfrom model 1 to model 2. Since the only differencein model 2 is that the effects of learner-centerednesson teaching efficacy, teaching effectiveness, andSIR are included, restricting three more effectsamong the latent variables does not change thegoodness of fit of the model.

Model 1 shows that all the factors of each latentvariable and the errors for each manifest variable

are significant. This means that the proposedfactors are significant components of the constructmeasured. As proposed, all effects of one latentfactor on another have significant paths. Thepresent study shows that (a) personalitycharacteristics have a significant direct effect onteacher efficacy, effective characteristics and SIR,p

84 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

The characteristics on the left side of the scale are(1) bold, aggressive, extrovert, active, energetic,strong, good communicator, and relaxed forpersonal potency; (2) practical and predictable forpragmatism; (3) sensitive, open-minded, accepting,reasonable, and gracious for amicability; and (4)expert, knowledgeable, wise, decisive, stable,rational, and sensible for intellectual competency.The direct effect of personality characteristics onthe SIR and effective teaching characteristics arenegative but when mediated by teaching efficacy,the effect is positive. In testing whether personalitycharacteristics have a significant indirect effectusing the Sobel test, the value obtained was 2.86which is significant, p

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 85TEACHING PERFORMANCE

variable between personality characteristics andteaching effectiveness, p

86 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

student outcomes and not really on teachingperformance per se because learner-centeredness is assumed to be equated withperformanceand this assumption is notsupported in this study. The items of the SIRmay not fit well with the use of learner-centeredness and o ther measures ofperformance can be used in future studies.Learner-centeredness having no effect onteaching performance seems to show that thestudents do not see the learner-centeredness ofthe teacher translated in their teaching. Thisphenomenon of learner-centeredness having aneffect on effective teaching and not on performancefurther bolsters the existence of a distinctionbetween the two constructs.

Given the findings of the study, it isrecommended that the principles of learner-centeredness and items on teaching effectivenessin the current teacher performance measures to beintegrated. The use of learner-centeredness is idealin classroom situations and the teacher assessmenttools needs to be able to capture it. To trainteachers to enhance their personality in order tobe more accepting in the use of authenticpedagogies such as learner-centeredness is vitalgiven the findings that effective teaching strategiescoincide with certain teachers personality types.It is recommended for potential researchers toconduct an in-depth study on the nature of studentsas raters to determine if their culture and orientation(and other student factors) affect the way they ratethe teachers. It is also important to include ameasure of teaching efficacy in the screeningprocess and hiring of teachers.

AUTHOR NOTE

The data used in the study is part of a researchproject at the Center for Learning and Performanceand Assessment of De La Salle-College of SaintBenilde. Special thanks to the staff of thePerformance Assessment Services Unit forconducting the data gathering and Ms. NicoleTangco for editing the manuscript.

Correspondence can be addressed to CarloMagno at the Center for Learning Performance andAssessment, De La Salle - College of St. Benilde,2544 Taft Avenue, Malate, 1004 Manila (e-mail:magnoc@dls-csb.edu.ph) or to Josefina Sembranowith the same address (e-mail: sembranoj@dls-csb.edu.ph).

REFERENCES

Allison-Jones, L.L. & Hirt, J. B. (2004). Comparingthe teaching effectiveness of part-time & full-timeclinical nurse faculty. Nursing EducationPerspectives, 25, 238-242.

Ashton, P. T. ( 1985). Motivation and the teacherssense of efficacy. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.),Research on motivation in education: Vol. 2. Theclassroom milieu (pp. 141-174). Orlando, FL:Academic Press.

Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Makinga difference: Teachers sense of efficacyand student achievement. New York:Longman.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifyingtheory of behavioral change. PsychologicalReview, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations ofthought and action: A social cognitivetheory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exerciseof control. New York: W.H. Freeman.

Bandura, A. (2000). Self-efficacy: Foundation ofagency. In W. Perrig & A. Gorb (Eds.), Controlof human behavior, mental processes, andconsciousness (pp. 17-33). Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.

Bleicher, R.E. (2001, March). Building scienceteaching conf idence in preserv iceelementary teachers. Paper presented at theannual meeting of the National Associationof Research in Science Teaching Association,St. Louis, MO.

Bleicher, R.E. (2002, April). Increasingconfidence in preservice elementaryteachers. Paper presented at the annual

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 87TEACHING PERFORMANCE

meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, New Orleans, LA.

Bleicher, R.E., & Lindgren, J. (2002). Buildingconfidence in preservice elementary scienceteachers. In P. Rubba, W. DiBiase, & B.Crawford (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2002Annual International Conference of theAssociation for the Education of Teachersin Sc ience (pp 1549-1562) . ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED 465602.

Bridgwater, C. A. (1982). Personalitycharacteristics of ski instructors and predictingteacher effectiveness using the PRF. Journalof Personality Assessment, 46, 164-168.

Cannon, J. R. & Scharmann, L. D. (1996).Influence of a cooperative early field experienceon preservice elementary teachers science self-efficacy. Science Education, 80, 419.

Centra, J. A. (1998). The development of thestudent instructional report II. Princeton, NJ:Educational Testing Service.

Curtis, A. & Liying, C. (2001). Teachers self-evaluation of knowledge, skills and personalitycharacterstics needed to manage change. Asia- Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 29,139-143.

Czerniak, C. M. (1990, April). A study of selfefficacy, anxiety, and science knowledge inpreservice elementary teachers. Paperpresented at the annual meeting of the NationalAssociation for Research in Science Teaching,Atlanta, GA.

Ellet, C. D. & Teddle, C. (2003). Teacherevaluation, teacher effectiveness and schooleffectiveness: Perspective from the USA.Journal of Personnel Evaluation inEducation, 17, 101-128.

Enochs, L. G., & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Furtherdevelopment of an elementary science teachingefficacy belief instrument: A preserviceelementary scale. School Science andMathematics, 90, 695-706.

Enochs, L. G., Smith, P. L., Huinker, D. (2000).Establishing factorial validity of themathematics teaching efficacy beliefs

ins t rument . School Sc ience andMathematics, 100, 194-203.

Erdle, S., Murray, H. G., & Rushton, J. P. (1985).Personality, classroom behavior, and studentratings of college teaching effectiveness: A pathanalysis. Journal of Educational Psychology,77, 394-407.

Fischler, H. (1999). The impact of teachingexperiences on student-teachers and beginningteachers conception of teaching and learningscience. In J. Loughnan (Ed.), Researchingteaching: Methodologies and practices forunderstanding pedagogy (pp. 172-197).London: Falmer Press.

Fisler, J. L. & Firestone, W. A. (2006). Teacherlearning in a school-university partnership:Exploring the role of social trust and teachingefficacy beliefs. Teachers College Record, 108,1155-1186.

Flores, B., & Clark, E. R. (2004). A criticalexamination of normalistas self-conceptualization and teacher-efficacy.Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 26,230.

Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacherefficacy: A construct validation. Journal ofEducational Psychology, 76, 503-511.

Grant, M.B., & Cambre, M.A. (1990). Researchon teachers characteristics in relation toa cognitive-learning based interactivevideodisc system. Paper presented at theAnnual Meeting of the American EducationalResearch Association. Boston, MA.

Grindler, M.C., & Straton, B.D. (1990). Typeindicator and its relationship to teaching andlearning styles. Action in Teacher Education,7, 31-34.

Gorrell, J. (1990). Some contribution of self-efficacy research to self-concept theory.Journal of Research and Development inEducation, 23, 73-81.

Heckert, T. M., Latier, A.., Ringwald, A., &Silvey, B. (2006). Relation of course,instructor, and student characteristics todimensions. College Student Journal, 40,1-11.

88 VOL. 16 NO. 1THE ASIA PACIFIC-EDUCATION RESEARCHER

Henry, W., & D. A. Rohwer. 2004. Universityteachers perceptions of requisite skills andcharacteristics of effective music teachers. Journalof Music Teacher Education, 13, 18-27.

Henson, R. K., & Chambers, S. M. (2003).Personality type as a predictor of teaching efficacyand classroom control in emergency certificationteachers. Education, 124, 261.

Howard, F. J., Helms, M. M., & Lawrence, E. P.(1997). Development and assessment of effectiveteaching: an integrative model for implementationin schools of business administration. QualityAssurance in Education, 5, 159-161.

Hughes, T. M., Costner, M. J., & Douzenis, C.(1988). Personality and Motivation Variables inTomorrows Teachers: A Center of Excellence.Education, 108, 393-400.

Jinks, J. & Morgan, V. (1999). Childrens perceivedacademic self-efficacy: An inventory scale.Teacher Journals, 72, 224-230.

Katz, Y.J. (1992). Toward a personality profile ofsuccessful computer-using teacher. EducationalTechnology, 32, 39-40.

Kelly, G. A. (1955). The psychology of personalconstructs, tool. 1: A theory of personality.New York: WW Norton and Company.

Krueger, R. J. (1972). A predictive investigation ofpersonality and music teaching success. Councilfor Research in Music Education Bulletin, 30,11-17.

Levitt, K. E. (2002). An analysis of elementaryteachers beliefs regarding the teaching andlearning of science. Science Education, 5, 177-229.

Li-Ping Tang, T. (1997). Teaching evaluation at apublic institution of higher education: Factorsrelated to the overall teaching effectiveness.Public Personnel Management, 26, 379-380.

Madsen, C. K., J. M. Standley, & J. W. Cassidy.(1989). Demonstration and recognition of high andlow contrasts in teacher intensity. Journal ofResearch in Music Education, 37, 85-92.

Magno, C. & Tangco, N. (2006). A metaevaluationstudy on the assessment of teacherperformance in De La Salle-College of SaintBenilde (Tech. Rep. No. 2). Manila, Philippines:

De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, Center forLearning Performance and Assessment.

Magno, C. (2005). The role of metacognitiveregulation and learning approach onachievement and its effect on academic self-efficacy. Paper presented at the AnnualPsychological Association of the Philippines,Baguio, Philippines.

Magno, C. (2006a). Program evaluation of thecivic welfare training services of De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde SY 2005 2006 (Tech.Rep. No. 3). Manila, Philippines: De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, Center for LearningPerformance and Assessment.

Magno, C. (2006b). Factors of teacher Assessment(Tech. Rep. 4). Manila, Philippines: De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde, Center for LearningPerformance and Assessment.

Marsh, H. W. & Bailey, M. (1993). Multidimensionalstudents evaluations of teaching effective. TheJournal of Higher Education, 64, 1-18.

Mayhew, L. B. (1986). Personality and teaching.Journal of Communication,2, 83-89.

McCombs, B. L. (1997). Self-assessment andreflection: Tools for promoting teacher changestoward learner-centered practices. NASSPBulletin, 81, 587-600.

Morrell, P. D. & Carroll, J. B. (2003). An extendedexamination of preservice elementary teachersscience teaching self-efficacy. School Science andMathematics, 103, 246-249.

Mullins, S. S. (1992). Qualities of the great teachers.The Instrumentalist, 46, 17-25.

Murray, H. G., J. P. Rushton, and S. V. Paunonen.1990. Teacher personality traits and studentinstructional ratings in six types of universitycourses. Journal of Educational Psychology,82, 250-61.

Murray, H. G., Rushton, J. P. & Paunonen, S. V.(1990). Teacher personality traits and studentinstructional ratings in six types of universitycourses. Journal of Educational Psychology,82, 250-261.

Orton, R. E. (1996). How can teacher beliefs aboutstudent learning be justified? Curriculum Inquiry,26, 133-146.

MAGNO, C. & SEMBRANO, J. 89TEACHING PERFORMANCE

Onafowora, L. L. (2005). Teacher Efficacy Issues inthe Practice of Novice Teachers. EducationalResearch Quarterly, 28, 34-44.

Pike, C. K. (1998). A validation study of aninstrument designed to measure teachingeffectiveness. Journal of Social WorkEducation, 34, 261-272.

Polk, J. A. (2006). Traits of effective teachers. ArtsEducation Policy Review, 107, 23-30.

Rogalla, M. (2004). Future problem solving programcoaches efficacy in teaching for successfulintelligence and their patterns of successfulbehavior. Roeper Review, 26, 175.

Sariscsany, M. J. (2005). Influences of learning-centered methodologies on preservice teacherspersonal teaching efficacy and learning outcomes.Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76,88-90.

Schmidt, C. P., B. E. Lewis, and M. J. Kurpius-Brock.1991. Relationships between teacher personalityand ratings of applied music teaching behavior.Contributions to Music Education, 18, 20-35.

Scriven, M. (1994). Duties of as teacher. Journal ofPersonnel Evaluation in Education, 8, 151-184.

Settlage, J. (2000). Understanding the learning cycle:Influences on abilities to embrace the approachby preservice elementary school teachers. ScienceEducation, 84, 43-50.

Sherman, B. R. & Blackburn, R. T. (1975). Personalcharacteristics and teaching effectiveness of collegefaculty. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67,124-131.

Staples, R. W. (1994). Relationship of attitudes,perceptions and practices of students andteachers as evaluators of educational quality.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Universityof Texas at Austin.

Stringer, M. & Irwing, P. (1998). Studentsevaluations of teaching effectiveness: A structuralmodeling approach. British Journal ofEducational Psychology, 68, 409-511.

Szeto, W. (1995). Perceptions of the purposes,approaches and uses of faculty performanceevaluation among faculty across academicdisciplines at a selected university. Unpublished

doctoral dissertation, The University of SouthernMississippi.

Teachout, D. J. (1997). Preservice and experiencedteachers opinions of skills and behaviorsimportant to successful music teaching. Journalof Research in Music Education, 45, 41-50.

Tosun, T. (2000). The impact of prior science courseexperience and achievement on the scienceteaching self-efficacy of preservice elementaryteachers. Journal of Elementary ScienceEducation, 72, 21-31.

Wanous, J. P. & Hudy, M. J. (2001). Single-itemreliability: A replication and extension.Organizational Research Methods, 4, 361-389.

Weasmer, J. & Woods, A. M. (1998). I think I can:The role of personal teaching efficacy in bringingabout change. The Clearing House, 71, 245-248.

Wingfield, M.E., Freeman, L., & Ramsey, J. (2000,April). Science teaching self-efficacy of firstyear elementary teachers trained in a sitebased program. Paper presented at the annualmeeting of the National Association for Researchin Science Teaching, New Orleans, LA. (ERICDocument Service No. ED 439 956).

Yarbrough, C., & K. Madsen. (1998). The evaluationof teaching in choral rehearsals. Journal ofResearch in Music Education, 46, 469-81.

Yeh, Y. (2006). The interactive effects of personaltraits and guided practices on preservice teacherschanges in personal teaching efficacy. BritishJournal of Educational Technology, 37, 513.

Yeung, K. & Watkins, D. (2000). Hong Kongstudent teachers personal construction ofteaching efficacy. Educational Psychology, 20,213-236.

Yoon, J. S. (2002). Teacher characteristics aspredictors of teacher-student relationships: Stress,negative affect, and self-efficacy. Social Behaviorand Personality, 30, 485-494.

Yost, R. (2002). I think I can: Mentoring as a meansof enhancing teaching efficacy. The ClearingHouse, 75, 195-198.

Young, S. & Shaw, D. G. (1999). Profiles ofeffective college and university teachers. TheJournal of Higher Education, 70, 670-687.

90V

OL. 16 N

O. 1

THE A

SIA PA

CIFIC

-EDU

CA

TION

RESEARC

HER

Appendix AIntercorrelations of the Factors of Personality Characteristics, Teaching Efficacy, Effective Teaching,

and Learner Centeredness

Personality Characteristics Teaching Efficacy Teacher PerformanceEffective Teaching

Learner-Centered Characteristics

Personal Pragmatism Amicability Intellectual Personal Teaching SIR- SIR- SIR- SIR- SIR- Effective OverallPositive Encourages Adapts Facilitates

Potency Competency Efficacy Efficacy Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Part 5 Teaching EffectivenessInterpersonal Personal Learning the LearningRelationship Challenge Needs Process

Personal 1.00PotencyPragmatism 0.40** 1.00Amicability 0.61** 0.52** 1.00Intellectual 0.67** 0.53** 0.73** 1.00CompetencyPersonal 0.28** 0.23** 0.24** 0.34** 1.00EfficacyTeaching 0.14** 0.09 0.19** 0.24** 0.24** 1.00EfficacySIR-Part 1 0.03 0.03 0.01 -0.01 -0.03 0.19** 1.00SIR-Part 2 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.00 -0.03 0.19** 0.95** 1.00SIR-Part 3 0.05 0.02 0.02 -0.01 -0.02 0.22** 0.96** 0.96** 1.00SIR-Part 4 0.03 0.02 0.02 -0.01 0.00 0.20** 0.94** 0.96** 0.96** 1.00SIR-Part 5 0.06 0.01 0.04 0.00 -0.01 0.21** 0.91** 0.93** 0.93** 0.93** 1.00Effective 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.08 0.21** 0.65** 0.63** 0.66** 0.64** 0.57** 1.00TeachingOverall -0.01 0.05 -0.01 0.00 0.08 0.20** 0.62** 0.60** 0.62** 0.61** 0.56** 0.93** 1.00EffectivenessPositiveInterpersonal 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.09 0.22** 0.64** 0.62** 0.65** 0.64** 0.55** 0.95** 0.89** 1.00RelationshipEncouragesPersonal 0.02 0.00 -0.01 -0.01 0.05 0.19** 0.62** 0.59** 0.62** 0.61** 0.53** 0.96** 0.88** 0.93** 1.00ChallengeAdaptsLearning 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.23** 0.64** 0.61** 0.65** 0.63** 0.55** 0.95** 0.90** 0.96** 0.94** 1.00NeedsFacilitates the 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.22** 0.64** 0.62** 0.65** 0.64** 0.55** 0.95** 0.88** 0.96** 0.94** 0.96** 1.00Learning Process

Note. SIR-Part 1-Classroom Organization, Part 2-Use of classroom resources, Part 3-Response to student needs, Part 4-Evaluation, Part 5-Enrichment Activities.