Graduate Theses and Dissertations Iowa State University Capstones, Theses andDissertations

2013

The role of photography in framing and creatingpersonal narrative: An analysis of the 2012presidential candidatesBritta Lynn MenneckeIowa State University

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Recommended CitationMennecke, Britta Lynn, "The role of photography in framing and creating personal narrative: An analysis of the 2012 presidentialcandidates" (2013). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 13251.https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/13251

The role of photography in framing and creating personal narrative: An analysis of the

2012 presidential candidates

by

Britta Lynn Mennecke

A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF FINE ARTS

Major: Graphic Design

Program of Study Committee:

Debra Satterfield, Major Professor Sunghyun R. Kang Dennis Chamberlin

Iowa State University

Ames, Iowa

2013

Copyright © Britta Lynn Mennecke, 2013. All rights reserved

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES iv  

LIST OF TABLES xiii  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiv  

ABSTRACT xv  

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1  Introduction to Framing Theory and Grounded Theory 1  

Framing Theory 4  Grounded Theory 11  

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 13  Introduction to Literature Review 13   Impression Management and the Media 13  

Introduction to Impression Management 13  Dangers of “Snap” Judgments and Camera Angles 14  An Image, is An Image, is An Image 24  The Importance of Images and Photographic “Truth” 25  Politics: Brief Introduction to New Media 31  Semiology – The Study of Signs 33  Rhetorical Situations 38  Persuasive Messages: Central and Peripheral Routes 39  Emotion and Attitude Formation 42  

Narrative 43  Telling a Good Story: Narrative and Narratology Defined 44  

Considerations for Websites 50  Photography Malfunctions on Mitt Romney’s Website 54  Website Transitions After Election Day 55  

CHAPTER 3. METHODS AND PROCEDURES 56  Introduction to Methods and Procedures 56  

Methodology 57  

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 64  Introduction to Results and Discussion 64  

The Key is Personalized Narratives 65  Analysis of Narratives Using Specific Image Examples 73  Examples of Final Narrative Categories: Barack Obama 73  Examples of Final Narrative Categories: Mitt Romney 87  Comparing Homepages for Barack Obama and Mitt Romney 102  Analysis: Final Comments 109  

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CHAPTER 5. SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, FUTURE WORK 114  Summary 114  Limitations 115  Future Work 116  

APPENDIX A. Phases of New Media in Election Campaigns 117  

APPENDIX B. Framing Information Path 118  

APPENDIX C. Tips to Help Others 119  

APPENDIX D. Chrome’s Incognito Browser Mode 120  

APPENDIX E. Leaked President Elect Website 121  

APPENDIX F. Folder Structure for Categorization 123  

APPENDIX G. Examples of Categorization 125  

BIBLIOGRAPHY 172  

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. President Barack Obama Weekly Address 8  Figure 2.1. Republican presidential candidate, 18  Figure 2.2. “Needless to say, however, none of the kids was more 18  Figure 2.3. Six basic emotions are displayed here in two people: (a) happy, 19  Figure 2.4. “Say cheese: A different angle shows Romney 20  Figure 2.5. An example created to showcase manipulation process 28  Figure 2.6. Original Image 28  Figure 2.7. Edited Image 28  Figure 2.8. Original Image 28  Figure 2.9. Edited Image 28  Figure 2.10. Comparison of original journalistic images on the left side 30  Figure 2.11. Pew Research “Internet Grows as News Campaign Source” 32  Figure 2.12. American Flag - Presidential Candidate Mitt Romney at Lakeland, Florida 35  Figure 2.13. American Flag - Presidential Candidate Barack Obama Immigration Page 35  Figure 2.14. American Flag - Presidential Candidate Barack Obama Entering Rally 36  Figure 2.15. American Flag - Presidential Candidate Mitt Romney Landing Page 36  Figure 2.16. The Pin Wars – Symbolic Symbols of Patriotism 37  Figure 2.17. Campaign information flow (Benoit and Benoit 2008) 40  Figure 2.18. Most Voters Feel Informed, 41  Figure 2.19. “Volunteers Across America” 47  Figure 2.20. “We Voted” 49  Figure 2.21. “Organizing Tip: Help Others Shine” 49  Figure 2.22. Landing Page - No Micro Location – Barack Obama 52  Figure 2.23. Landing Page - Micro Location – Iowa – Mitt Romney 52  Figure 2.24. Home Page - Micro Location – Iowa – Barack Obama 52  Figure 2.25. Home Page - Micro Location – Iowa – Mitt Romney 52  Figure 2.26. Ex. 1 - Home Page – Micro Location Image Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney 53  Figure 2.27. Ex. 1 - Home Page - Micro Location Image Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney 53  Figure 2.28. Ex. 2 - Home Page - Micro Location Image Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney 53  Figure 2.29. Ex. 2 - Home Page - Micro Location Image Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney 53  Figure 2.30. Micro Location – Iowa – Mitt Romney 53  Figure 2.31. Home Page - Micro Location – Pennsylvania 1 – Mitt Romney 53  Figure 2.32. Home Page - Micro Location – Pennsylvania 2 – Mitt Romney 54  Figure 4.1. Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 11.30.15 PM.jpg 74  Figure 4.2. Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.35 PM.jpg 74  Figure 4.3. Screenshot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.35 PM.jpg 74  Figure 4.4. Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.56.49 AM 75  Figure 4.5. Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.01 AM 75  Figure 4.6. Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.44.16 AM 75  Figure 4.7. Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.54.16 PM 75  Figure 4.8. Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.56.14 PM 76  

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Figure 4.9. Screen shot 2012-10-16 at 10.16.38 PM.jpg 76  Figure 4.10. Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 10.28.43 PM.jpg 76  Figure 4.11. Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.26.11 PM.jpg 76  Figure 4.12. Screen shot 2012-11-08 at 12.22.44 AM.jpg 77  Figure 4.13. Screen shot 2012-11-06 at 1.10.50 PM.jpg 77  Figure 4.14. Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.08.00 PM.jpg 77  Figure 4.15. Screen shot 2012-11-02 at 12.51.00 AM.jpg 77  Figure 4.16. Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.43.37 AM.jpg 78  Figure 4.17. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.03.14 AM.jpg 78  Figure 4.18. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 11.56.31 PM.jpg 78  Figure 4.19. Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.15.06 AM.jpg 78  Figure 4.20. Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.23 AM.jpg 79  Figure 4.21. Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 10.50.36 PM 79  Figure 4.22. Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 10.50.16 PM 79  Figure 4.23. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.01.52 AM.jpg 79  Figure 4.24. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.03.12 AM.jpg 79  Figure 4.25. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.09 AM.jpg 80  Figure 4.26. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 1.11.52 PM.jpg 80  Figure 4.27. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.56.16 PM.jpg 80  Figure 4.28. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.06.59 AM.jpg 80  Figure 4.29. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 9.54.37 AM.jpg 81  Figure 4.30. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.17 AM.jpg 81  Figure 4.31. Screenshot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.58 AM.jpg 81  Figure 4.32. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.27 AM.jpg 81  Figure 4.33. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.57.59 AM.jpg 82  Figure 4.34. Screenshot 2012-10-20 at 12.08.45 PM.jpg 82  Figure 4.35. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.05 AM.jpg 82  Figure 4.36. Screenshot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.42 AM.jpg 82  Figure 4.37. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 9.55.46 AM.jpg 87  Figure 4.38. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.33.34 PM.jpg 88  Figure 4.39. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.42 PM.jpg 88  Figure 4.40. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.29 PM.jpg 88  Figure 4.41. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.20 PM.jpg 88  Figure 4.42. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 10.10.29 PM.jpg 89  Figure 4.43. Screenshot 2012-10-09 at 9.58.33 PM.jpg 89  Figure 4.44. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.39 PM.jpg 89  Figure 4.45. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.59.03 PM.jpg 89  Figure 4.46. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.53 AM.jpg 89  Figure 4.47. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.35 PM.jpg 90  Figure 4.48. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.12 PM.jpg 90  Figure 4.49. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.57 PM.jpg 90  Figure 4.50. Screenshot 2012-10-31 at 1.22.08 PM.jpg 90  Figure 4.51. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.32 AM.jpg 91  Figure 4.52. Screenshot 2012-10-11 at 8.37.39 PM.jpg 91  Figure 4.53. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.55 AM.jpg 91  

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Figure 4.54. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.57 PM.jpg 91  Figure 4.55. Screenshot 2012-11-02 at 11.30.57 AM.jpg 92  Figure 4.56. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.37 AM.jpg 92  Figure 4.57. Screenshot 2012-11-05 at 5.25.09 PM.jpg 92  Figure 4.58. Screenshot 2012-11-05 at 5.24.48 PM.jpg 92  Figure 4.59. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 10.00.20 AM.jpg 93  Figure 4.60. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.27 AM 1.jpg 93  Figure 4.61. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.32 PM.jpg 93  Figure 4.62. Screenshot 2012-10-29 at 12.27.19 PM.jpg 93  Figure 4.63. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.35 AM.jpg 94  Figure 4.64. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.02 PM.jpg 94  Figure 4.65. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.51 PM.jpg 94  Figure 4.66. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.33 AM.jpg 94  Figure 4.67. Screenshot 2012-10-13 at 11.30.44 PM.jpg 95  Figure 4.68. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.33.21 PM.jpg 95  Figure 4.69. Screenshot 2012-10-09 at 9.58.16 PM.jpg 95  Figure 4.70. Screenshot 2012-11-01 at 1.20.46 PM.jpg 95  Figure 4.71. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.17.18 AM.jpg 96  Figure 4.72. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.20 PM.jpg 96  Figure 4.73. Screenshot 2012-10-21 at 10.12.38 AM 96  Figure 4.74. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.39 AM 96  Figure 4.75. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.45 PM.jpg 97  Figure 4.76. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.51 AM.jpg 97  Figure 4.77. Screenshot 2012-10-31 at 1.22.04 PM.jpg 97  Figure 4.78. Screenshot 2012-10-29 at 11.58.18 PM.jpg 97  Figure 4.79. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.16 PM.jpg 97  Figure 4.80. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.15.06 AM.jpg 102  Figure 4.81. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.33.40 PM.jpg 102  Figure 4.82. Screenshot 2012-10-11 at 10.51.07 PM.jpg 102  Figure 4.83. Screenshot 2012-10-11 at 10.08.12 AM 102  Figure 4.84. Screenshot 2012-10-15 at 10.54.40 AM.jpg 103  Figure 4.85. Screenshot 2012-10-15 at 11.32.16 PM.jpg 103  Figure 4.86. Screenshot 2012-10-16 at 10.16.32 PM.jpg 103  Figure 4.87. Screenshot 2012-10-16 at 8.50.23 PM.jpg 103  Figure 4.88. Screenshot 2012-10-20 at 11.29.39 PM.jpg 103  Figure 4.89. Screenshot 2012-10-20 at 12.10.57 PM.jpg 104  Figure 4.90. Screenshot 2012-10-23 at 9.54.04 AM.jpg 104  Figure 4.91. Screenshot 2012-10-23 at 9.53.17 AM 104  Figure 4.92. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 10.27.31 PM.jpg 104  Figure 4.93. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 10.30.25 PM 104  Figure 4.94. Screenshot 2012-11-02 at 11.31.29 AM.jpg 105  Figure 4.95. Screenshot 2012-11-02 at 11.30.59 AM.jpg 105  Figure 4.96. Screenshot 2012-11-03 at 10.43.37 AM.jpg 105  Figure 4.97. Screenshot 2012-11-03 at 10.42.59 AM.jpg 105  Figure 4.98. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 12.01.09 AM.jpg 105  

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Figure 4.99. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.55.55 PM.jpg 106  Figure 4.100. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.58.54 PM 106  Figure 4.101. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 1.10.38 PM.jpg 106  Figure 4.102. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 1.09.19 PM.jpg 106  Figure 4.103. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 11.32.05 PM.jpg 106  Figure 4.104. Screenshot 2012-11-07 at 10.18.39 AM.jpg 107  Figure 4.105. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.17.18 AM.jpg 107  Figure 4.106. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.21.52 AM.jpg 107  Figure 4.107. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.17.18 AM.jpg 107  Figure 4.108. Screenshot 2012-11-13 at 9.21.21 PM.jpg 108  Figure 4.109. Screenshot 2012-11-13 at 9.19.53 PM.jpg 108  Figure 5.1. Framework Message Path 118  Figure 5.2. “We Voted” 119  Figure 5.3. “Organizing Tip: Help Others Shine” 119  Figure 5.4. How to access Incognito Mode 120  Figure 5.5. Blank Incognito Mode prior to web address input 120  Figure 5.6. Home Page – President Elect accidental design release – 121  Figure 5.7. Final Landing Page after election – Mitt Romney 121  Figure 5.8. Screenshots of Leaked Pages for 122  Figure 5.9. Folder Structure, Showcase All Files, Mitt Romney and Barack Obama 123  Figure 5.10. Folder Structure, Barack Obama 123  Figure 5.11. Folder Structure, Barack Obama, Categories - Columns 123  Figure 5.12. Folder Structure, Mitt Romney 123  Figure 5.13. Folder Structure, Mitt Romney, Categories - Columns 124  Figure 5.14. Folder Structure, Barack Obama, Final 9 Categories - Columns 124  Figure 5.15. Folder Structure, Mitt Romney, Final 9 Categories - Columns 124  Figure 5.16. Barack Obama - Shot against the sky/Sunset Example 125  Figure 5.17. Barack Obama - Shot against the sky/Sunset Example 125  Figure 5.18. Barack Obama - Shot against the sky/Sunset Example 125  Figure 5.19. Mitt Romney - Shot against the sky/Sunset Example 125  Figure 5.20. Mitt Romney - Shot against the sky/Sunset Example 126  Figure 5.21. Mitt Romney - Shot against the sky/Sunset Example 126  Figure 5.22. Barack Obama – One Person Example 126  Figure 5.23. Barack Obama - One Person Example 126  Figure 5.24. Barack Obama - One Person Example 126  Figure 5.25. Barack Obama - One Person Example 127  Figure 5.26. Barack Obama - One Person Example 127  Figure 5.27. Mitt Romney - One Person Example 127  Figure 5.28. Mitt Romney - One Person Example 127  Figure 5.29. Mitt Romney - One Person Example 127  Figure 5.30. Mitt Romney - One Person Example 128  Figure 5.31. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 128  Figure 5.32. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 128  Figure 5.33. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 128  Figure 5.34. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 128  

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Figure 5.35. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 129  Figure 5.36. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 129  Figure 5.37. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 129  Figure 5.38. Barack Obama – Two or More People Example 129  Figure 5.39. Barack Obama – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 129  Figure 5.40. Barack Obama – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 130  Figure 5.41. Barack Obama – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 130  Figure 5.42. Barack Obama – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 130  Figure 5.43. Barack Obama – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 130  Figure 5.44. Mitt Romney – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 130  Figure 5.45. Mitt Romney – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 131  Figure 5.46. Mitt Romney – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 131  Figure 5.47. Mitt Romney– Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 131  Figure 5.48. Barack Obama – Sea of people/Crowd Shot Example 131  Figure 5.49. Barack Obama – Hands in the Air Example 132  Figure 5.50. Barack Obama – Hands in the Air Example 132  Figure 5.51. Barack Obama – Hands in the Air Example 132  Figure 5.52. Barack Obama – Hands in the Air Example 132  Figure 5.53. Barack Obama – Hands in the Air Example 132  Figure 5.54. Mitt Romney – Hands in the Air Example 133  Figure 5.55. Barack Obama – Hands in the Air Example 133  Figure 5.56. Mitt Romney – Hands in the Air Example 133  Figure 5.57. Mitt Romney – Hands in the Air Example 133  Figure 5.58. Mitt Romney – Hands in the Air Example 133  Figure 5.59. Mitt Romney – Hands in the Air Example 134  Figure 5.60. Barack Obama – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 134  Figure 5.61. Barack Obama – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 134  Figure 5.62. Barack Obama – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 134  Figure 5.63. Barack Obama – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 134  Figure 5.64. Mitt Romney – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 135  Figure 5.65. Mitt Romney – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 135  Figure 5.66. Mitt Romney – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 135  Figure 5.67. Barack Obama – At a Distance from people/Stand Alone Example 135  Figure 5.68. Barack Obama – In the People, Mingling Example 136  Figure 5.69. Barack Obama – In the People, Mingling Example 136  Figure 5.70. Barack Obama – In the People, Mingling Example 136  Figure 5.71. Barack Obama – In the People, Mingling Example 136  Figure 5.72. Barack Obama – In the People, Mingling Example 136  Figure 5.73. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling Example 137  Figure 5.74. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling Example 137  Figure 5.75. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling Example 137  Figure 5.76. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling Example 137  Figure 5.77. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 138  Figure 5.78. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 138  Figure 5.79. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 138  

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Figure 5.80. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 138  Figure 5.81. Mitt Romney – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 138  Figure 5.82. Mitt Romney – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 139  Figure 5.83. Mitt Romney – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 139  Figure 5.84. Mitt Romney – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 139  Figure 5.85. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 139  Figure 5.86. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 139  Figure 5.87. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 140  Figure 5.88. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 140  Figure 5.89. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 140  Figure 5.90. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 140  Figure 5.91. Mitt Romney – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 140  Figure 5.92. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 141  Figure 5.93. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 141  Figure 5.94. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 141  Figure 5.95. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 141  Figure 5.96. Barack Obama – Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 141  Figure 5.97. Barack Obama – Instagrammed Manipulated Images Example 142  Figure 5.98. Barack Obama – Instagrammed Manipulated Images Example 142  Figure 5.99. Barack Obama – Instagrammed Manipulated Images Example 142  Figure 5.100. Barack Obama – Instagrammed Manipulated Images Example 142  Figure 5.101. Barack Obama – Instagrammed Manipulated Images Example 143  Figure 5.102. Barack Obama – Instagrammed Manipulated Images Example 143  Figure 5.103. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 143  Figure 5.104. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 143  Figure 5.105. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 143  Figure 5.106. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 144  Figure 5.107. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 144  Figure 5.108. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 144  Figure 5.109. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 144  Figure 5.110. Barack Obama– on a stand - example 144  Figure 5.111. Mitt Romney– on a stand - example 145  Figure 5.112. Mitt Romney– on a stand – example 145  Figure 5.113. Mitt Romney– on a stand - example 145  Figure 5.114. Mitt Romney– on a stand - example 145  Figure 5.115. Mitt Romney– on a stand - example 145  Figure 5.116. Mitt Romney– on a stand - example 146  Figure 5.117. Barack Obama – Solomon Emotion - Example 146  Figure 5.118. Barack Obama – Solomon Emotion - Example 146  Figure 5.119. Mitt Romney – Solomon Emotion - Example 146  Figure 5.120. Mitt Romney – Solomon Emotion - Example 147  Figure 5.121. Barack Obama – Smiling - Example 147  Figure 5.122. Barack Obama – Smiling - Example 147  Figure 5.123. Mitt Romney – Smiling - Example 147  Figure 5.124. Mitt Romney – Smiling - Example 148  

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Figure 5.125. Barack Obama – Embracing another human being - Example 148  Figure 5.126. Barack Obama – Embracing another human being - Example 148  Figure 5.127. Mitt Romney – Embracing another human being - Example 148  Figure 5.128. Mitt Romney – Embracing another human being - Example 149  Figure 5.129. Barack Obama – Object based Images, No people present - Example 149  Figure 5.130. Mitt Romney – Object based Images, No people present - Example 149  Figure 5.131. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the Camera - Example 149  Figure 5.132. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the Camera - Example 150  Figure 5.133. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the Camera - Example 150  Figure 5.134. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the Camera - Example 150  Figure 5.135. Mitt Romney – Pointing directly into the Camera - Example 150  Figure 5.136. Mitt Romney – Pointing directly into the Camera - Example 150  Figure 5.137. Barack Obama – Barriers between the camera and the person - Example 151  Figure 5.138. Barack Obama – Barriers between the camera and the person - Example 151  Figure 5.139. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the camera and the person - Example 151  Figure 5.140. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the camera and the person - Example 151  Figure 5.141. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the camera and the person - Example 151  Figure 5.142. Barack Obama – Barriers between the subjects in the image - Example 152  Figure 5.143. Barack Obama – Barriers between the subjects in the image - Example 152  Figure 5.144. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the subjects in the image - Example 152  Figure 5.145. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the subjects in the image - Example 152  Figure 5.146. Mitt Romney – Shifts for Microclimates - Example 152  Figure 5.147. Barack Obama – Video with a Still Image - Example 153  Figure 5.148. Barack Obama – Video with a Still Image - Example 153  Figure 5.149. Barack Obama – Video with a Still Image - Example 153  Figure 5.150. Mitt Romney – Video with a Still Image - Example 153  Figure 5.151. Barack Obama - Text in front of an image/person - Example 154  Figure 5.152. Barack Obama - Text in front of an image/person - Example 154  Figure 5.153. Barack Obama - Text in front of an image/person - Example 154  Figure 5.154. Mitt Romney - Text in front of an image/person - Example 154  Figure 5.155. Mitt Romney - Text in front of an image/person - Example 154  Figure 5.156. Mitt Romney - Text in front of an image/person - Example 155  Figure 5.157. Opponent Ad/Image - Example 155  Figure 5.158. Opponent Ad/Image - Example 155  Figure 5.159. Opponent Ad/Image - Example 155  Figure 5.160. Opponent Ad/Image - Example 155  Figure 5.161. Opponent Ad/Image - Example 156  Figure 5.162. Barack Obama - Transportation is evident in Image - Example 156  Figure 5.163. Barack Obama - Transportation is evident in Image - Example 156  Figure 5.164. Mitt Romney - Transportation is evident in Image - Example 156  Figure 5.165. Mitt Romney - Transportation is evident in Image - Example 156  Figure 5.166. Barack Obama – Microphone with or without people - Example 157  Figure 5.167. Barack Obama – Microphone with or without people - Example 157  Figure 5.168. Barack Obama – Microphone with or without people - Example 157  Figure 5.169. Mitt Romney – Microphone with or without people - Example 157  

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Figure 5.170. Mitt Romney – Microphone with or without people - Example 158  Figure 5.171. Mitt Romney – Microphone with or without people - Example 158  Figure 5.172. Barack Obama – Setting the Stage - Example 158  Figure 5.173. Mitt Romney– Setting the Stage - Example 158  Figure 5.174. Barack Obama– Military and Vets and Elders - Example 159  Figure 5.175. Barack Obama– Military and Vets and Elders - Example 159  Figure 5.176. Barack Obama– Military and Vets and Elders - Example 159  Figure 5.177. Mitt Romney– Military and Vets and Elders - Example 159  Figure 5.178. Mitt Romney– Military and Vets and Elders - Example 160  Figure 5.179. Barack Obama – Kids and Kissing Babies - Example 160  Figure 5.180. Barack Obama – Kids and Kissing Babies - Example 160  Figure 5.181. Mitt Romney – Kids and Kissing Babies - Example 160  Figure 5.182. Mitt Romney – Kids and Kissing Babies - Example 161  Figure 5.183. Mitt Romney – Kids and Kissing Babies - Example 161  Figure 5.184. Barack Obama – Official Images from Debates and Presidential Events 161  Figure 5.185. Barack Obama – Official Images from Debates and Presidential Events 161  Figure 5.186. Barack Obama – Official Images from Debates and Presidential Events 161  Figure 5.187. Mitt Romney – Official Images from Debates and Presidential Events 162  Figure 5.188. Barack Obama – Signs and Only Signs 162  Figure 5.189. Barack Obama – Signs and Only Signs 162  Figure 5.190. Barack Obama – Signs and Only Signs 162  Figure 5.191. Barack Obama – Signs and Only Signs 162  Figure 5.192. Mitt Romney – Signs and Only Signs 163  Figure 5.193. Mitt Romney – Signs and Only Signs 163  Figure 5.194. Mitt Romney – Signs and Only Signs 163  Figure 5.195. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 163  Figure 5.196. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 163  Figure 5.197. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 164  Figure 5.198. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 164  Figure 5.199. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 164  Figure 5.200. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 164  Figure 5.201. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 164  Figure 5.202. Barack Obama – Every Day Lives - Example 165  Figure 5.203. Mitt Romney – Every Day Lives - Example 165  Figure 5.204. Mitt Romney – Every Day Lives - Example 165  Figure 5.205. Mitt Romney – Every Day Lives – Example 165  Figure 5.206. Barack Obama – Infographics - Example 165  Figure 5.207. Barack Obama – Infographics – Example 166  Figure 5.208. Barack Obama – Infographics - Example 166  Figure 5.209. Barack Obama – Infographics - Example 166  Figure 5.210. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example 166  Figure 5.211. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example 166  Figure 5.212. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example 167  Figure 5.213. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example 167  Figure 5.214. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example 167  

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Figure 5.215. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example 167  Figure 5.216. Barack Obama – People Working - Example 167  Figure 5.217. Barack Obama – People Working - Example 168  Figure 5.218. Barack Obama – People Working – Example 168  Figure 5.219. Barack Obama – People Working - Example 168  Figure 5.220. Barack Obama – Community Members - Example 168  Figure 5.221. Barack Obama – Community Members - Example 168  Figure 5.222. Barack Obama – Community Members - Example 169  Figure 5.223. Mitt Romney – Community Members - Example 169  Figure 5.224. Mitt Romney – Community Members - Example 169  Figure 5.225. Barack Obama – Iowa Specific - Example 169  Figure 5.226. Barack Obama – Iowa Specific - Example 169  Figure 5.227. Mitt Romney – Iowa Specific - Example 170  Figure 5.228. Mitt Romney – Iowa Specific - Example 170  Figure 5.229. Barack Obama– Flags_Shot against_Country and State - Example 170  Figure 5.230. Barack Obama– Flags_Shot against_Country and State - Example 170  Figure 5.231. Barack Obama– Flags_Shot against_Country and State - Example 170  Figure 5.232. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot against_Country and State - Example 171  Figure 5.233. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot against_Country and State - Example 171  Figure 5.234. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot against_Country and State - Example 171  Figure 5.235. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot against_Country and State - Example 171  

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 System of Semiology 34  Table 2.2 Image Malfunctions and Editing Errors 55  Table 3.1 Sources for Initial Website Screenshots 58  Table 4.1 Mitt Romney and Barack Obama – Final Nine Categories 67  Table 4.2 Mitt Romney and Barack Obama – Final 9 Categories 68  Table 4.3 (continued): Mitt Romney – Final nine categories based on image count 70  Table 4.4 (continued): Barack Obama – Final nine categories based on image count 72  Table 4.5. Vividness Scale (Hill and Helmers 2004) 111  Table 5.1. Phases of New Media in Election Campaigns 117  

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to express my thanks to those who helped me with

conducting research and writing this thesis. First and foremost, I want to thank Debra Satterfield for her

guidance, patience and support throughout this research and the writing of this thesis. Her insights and

words of encouragement have often inspired me and renewed my hopes for completing my graduate

education. I would also like to thank my committee members for their efforts and contributions to this

work: Dennis Chamberlin and Sunghyun Kang. I would additionally like to thank Dr. Sela Sar for his

guidance through the exploration of potential methods associated to campaigning and advertising. I also

want to thank all those who have mentored me over the years in both my academic and professional

fields; in particular I want to thank Kathryn Wieland and Dr. Sondra Ashmore for my professional

mentoring.

I cannot express the true depth of my appreciation to my family and friends who have

supported me throughout this process of learning, growing, and developing as a designer, educator, and

as a person. I also have to offer up a thank you to every single person who has put a prayer forth to see

me succeed in following my dreams and interests. All the praise should ultimately go up to the One and

Only that has never left me, even when I have not been aware of His support. “And we know that in all

things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose.”

– Romans 8:28

If I did not thank you personally or in the above text; please know that you are an important

person to someone and that you can make a difference in someone’s life, you just need to keep your

heart open to the possibility. Thank you for taking time to read my investigation into the visual research

world and I hope you enjoyed it! Best Wishes.

xv

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this investigation is to determine whether images located on

Governor Mitt Romney’s website and President Barack Obama’s website could provided a

strong enough narrative to sway voters. The goal of this investigation is not to suggest the

causation, but to look for patterns that emerge in the collection of data over the month of

October 2012, up to the election. Screenshots are collected on a daily basis, in the morning and

at night to check for changes that may occur throughout the day. During the process of

categorizing the images, patterns began to emerge suggesting that President Barack Obama’s

campaign was more sophisticated in its use of images. The results of the election provided

President Obama a second term in office and a victorious Democratic party win. The

Republicans now realize new measures must be taken to win the presidential election in the

2016, and many of those will include a better marketing campaign that targets specific voter

groups using personalized narratives.

Research Question:

Images have been proven to contain narratives — if a candidate uses them on

their campaign website — will the images they use provide a strong enough narrative to sway

voters?

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to Framing Theory and Grounded Theory

Over the past few decades, researchers have developed better ways to study and

measure the effects that visual content has on the human condition (Mitchell 2011). One of the

most impactful forms of visual communication is photography, and, as a result, it represents an

important medium to use as a source of data for understanding our world. This is highlighted

by Claudia Mitchell, who notes in her book about the visual research process, “…research

designs that use the visual raise many new questions and suggest new blurring of boundaries:

Is it research or is it art? Is it truth? Does the camera lie? Is it just a ‘quick fix’ on doing

research? How do you overcome (or highlight) the subjective stance? The emergence of visual

and arts-based research as a viable approach is putting pressure on the traditional structures and

expectations of the academy” (Mitchell 2011). An important takeaway from her commentary is

that photography is a tool that can reveal important truths. The goal of this investigation is to

discover whether visual content, and more specifically photographic imagery represented on a

candidates’ website from the 2012, United States Presidential Election, reflects differences in

the sophistication and use of imagery by the two campaigns. It is not to suggest the causation,

but it is widely accepted that the Obama Campaign was more sophisticated in their use of

technology, social media, and understanding of behavioral aspects of the voters they were

targeting (Wattal, et al. 2010).

In a 2010, MIS Quarterly Article, Sunil Wattal, David Schuff, Munir Mandviwalla, and

Christine B. Williams suggest that a future research agenda for Information Systems should be

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an investigation into “how can campaigns craft highly personalized messages” which use

demographic information to influence the targeting of the messages to specific voters (Wattal,

et al. 2010). It did not take long to answer this research question — as the evidence from this

most recent election alludes to the use of demographic information, otherwise known as Big

Data — to help improve the chances of reaching specific voter audiences through the use of

personalized marketing strategies.

As Sasha Issenberg, a writer for Slate.com, addresses in his article from October 29,

2012, titled Obama Does It Better…, — contrary to the stories written in the Times and Post

about the hopeful outlook of the Republicans at the beginning of the election cycle — “It is

unlikely the groups on the right could conceivably catch up with Obama and his allies in the

scope and funding of their ground-level activities, in terms of sophistication they lag too far

behind to catch up in 2012” (Issenberg, Obama Does It Better 2012). In the article he mentions

the emerging trends that are revealed throughout the final stages of the election. He notes

different examples of how the Republican analytics team does not have a way to receive

feedback from the advertising and marketing campaign materials they are sending out. As the

following sections on Frameworks and Framing Theory will demonstrate it is important that

campaigns leave room for feedback from the audience, as the entire purpose of the campaign is

to reach the audience with the message and persuade them to vote for the specific candidate the

campaign is geared towards.

Targeting Voters for Persuasion

In Diana Owen’s fifty-third chapter on New Media and Political Campaigns, she

discusses the actuality that the “power” of campaigns is now in the hands of the voters. She

suggests that because of the abundance of news sources, voters can tailor their consumption of

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the information to their specific interests and needs. In order to visualize the change over the

years she created a chronologically ordered table titled, Phases of New Media in Election

Campaigns (See Appendix A). This table confirms the statement in the section above. In years

prior to the foremost use of the Internet, the campaign strategies developed sophisticated

communication methods using the technology that existed at the time. However, compared to

today, with the Internet widely used as a source for information gathering; the need to

understand how to use the newest forms of communication technology and applications has

grown exponentially. It is imperative for the campaign strategist to realize the campaign

processes have changed and that it is essential that not only registered party voters be involved

in the election process but that they have the means by which to convince undecided voters to

join in the process.

As a result, we would expect that this sophistication would also be “seen” as

differences in the way the two campaigns created, manipulated, and displayed photographic

imagery on their websites.

This proposition is premised on the idea that imagery, and especially photographic

imagery, can be used to portray information about a person’s character, interests, emotions,

personality, etc. The stronger the narrative conveyed by an image and the more cohesive the

content in the images, the more likely it is that observers will form positive impressions of the

candidate and, as a result, the candidate will see the results he or she is looking for. There will

always be new communication methods that will require the understanding of how to use them

to reach people on a more personal level. This is something that will continue to change with

every new presidential election cycle.

4

As Sasha Issenberg’s article mentioned prior, “targeting is by its nature a game of

imperfect predictions. Campaigns want to sort voters into different buckets so that they can

design the most meaningful interactions possible based on incomplete, inconsistent, and

uneven data” (Issenberg, Obama Does It Better 2012).

Framing Theory

Framing Theory can be viewed in a variety of ways, however, it is best described as a

box of lenses that each individual uses to view the stimuli from their surrounding

environments. Each person’s lens is unique and has its own prescription.

For political campaigns and other organizations trying to influence the public’s

impressions, various media can be used to influence attitudes and perceptions. For example,

McKinney and colleagues point out that, “Rather than experiencing the candidates and [other

supporters or] voters directly, most voters experience the political system and candidates

through a lens [the framing perspective] provided by the mass media, and their voting

decisions often rely upon the images presented [through their perspectives]” (McKinney and

Banwart 2011). In spite of this, the majority of the public believes that a photograph tells the

whole truth and nothing but the truth. Moreover it is commonly assumed that a photograph is a

moment captured from reality and cannot mislead, unless intentionally altered by the

photographer or editor. Many unsuspecting consumers of images consider what is portrayed in

a photograph as an eyewitness account of what happened at an event. This is especially true

when a professional photojournalist captures the image and places the “seal of approval and

unbiased reality” on the image based upon their assignment from a “reputable” news sources

such as the Associated Press or Getty Images.

5

The notion that a photograph is largely a neutral source of information is known as

Kuleshov effect (McKinney and Banwart 2011). Based on this theory, it is suggested that a

photograph is a genuine reflection of reality and that it is unbiased towards any particular

opinion or agenda. In other words, “The common belief is that the camera, incapable of bias,

simply records photographic images” (McKinney and Banwart 2011) that showcase reality.

Moriarty and Garramone note that photographs are capable of providing the viewer with

information about a candidate through “stop-action’ slices of behavior such as facial

expressions and bodily postures” (McKinney and Banwart 2011). These non-verbal behaviors

are rated on a positive and negative scale based upon the voters’ personal analysis of the

candidates. This type of cognitive processing is also known as thin slicing.

In order to better understand framing theory, it is important to define the different

frames that text, images, messages, and information pass through in order to reach their

intended audiences. There are eight frames that are usually used in a presidential campaign that

will be discussed in more detail in the next section. In short form, the frames are listed below

(for a visual diagram of the framing process see the figure in Appendix B.):

1) Candidates – Playing the part in public and in front of the camera, “acting” or in the spotlight.

2) Campaign Manager/Formula – The use of staged rallies, controlled environments, press boxes, controlled entrances and exits, provide the viewpoint that the candidate’s message is the only one that is correct.

3) Journalists – Journalists frame the information based on their use of camera angles, different camera lenses, lighting, cropping, intervening in what would be a candid moment, staging, manipulating color, etc.

4) Editors – They frame the images based upon how they want to tell their story for the article they are overseeing.

5) Mass Media Outlets – All news organizations have different agendas they try to persuade the public to play in to. They frame the message in a way that meets those agendas in some manner. The term agenda setting can apply to multiple frames, however it is most commonly used when referring to the media.

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6) Social Media/The Web – The use of social media and the Internet has changed the way people collect, process, and store information. It allows for more opinions, more information across large expanses of time, and more multimedia to provide different viewpoints, contexts, and experiences. It is a personalized platform that allows the user to be in control of the content they look for to make their own assumptions.

7) Friends, Family, Alternative Sources – The framing that passes through “trusted” sources such as family members is regarded as more trustworthy than a stranger’s information would be. It is the same concept as buying a new product at store, if a family member or friend suggests the product the consumer would be more keen on purchasing it because it has been endorsed by someone the consumer sees as trustworthy.

8) Audience – The audience is the last group that receives this information. They also have a framing perspective that relates to their previous experiences, their attitudes, their opinions, and their comprehension of the information. These frames play in to how the information is processed and interpreted and how the audience responds emotionally or attitudinally.

Framing, Media Priming, Mediated Filters, and Perception

To better recognize the different framing mechanisms used in the news, by mass media,

and by campaigns it is necessary to look at the research conducted by Erving Goffman. In his

book, Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience, he acknowledges the

accepted truth that the type of framework that is employed by journalists and the media allows

for the interpretation of the event that is being described (Goffman, Frame Analysis: An essay

on the organization of experience 1974).

Erving Goffman was the first sociologist to articulate a form of frame analysis theory

by recognizing the potential of images to convey meaning and be used for persuasion. For

example, in his groundbreaking work entitled Gender Advertisements, Goffman studied gender

frames in advertising images and demonstrated that these images often presented idealized

representations of the female form relative to normative social expectations (Goffman, Gender

Advertisements 1979).

7

In his book, Doing News Framing Analysis, Paul D’Angelo discusses why it is not

logical to view only one channel of communication in isolation because each channel provides

an incomplete understanding and context. For example, he notes, “Because media audiences

process visual and verbal information together, none of the studies of verbal-only content

conducted to date can say definitively that any affects found were due solely to verbal

information” (Gallagher 2012). The implication is that because each channel limits the

information available, media studies should consider not only the verbiage used, but also

consider other channels of communication. Visual analysis can be conducted and used in a

similar manner to that of verbal content, especially when looking at the websites for the

candidates. Furthermore, he suggests that there is strong evidence to support the claim that, as

humans, information is processed and constructed in a certain manner that if only one side of

the story is considered it is likely that the “complexity and subtlety about the way news is

constructed” (D'Angelo and Kuypers 2010) is missed.

To illustrate this, consider the image shown in Figure 1.1 (on page 24), which is a

screenshot from candidate Barack Obama’s website. The image was captioned with the

headline, “Weekly Address: Congress should join the President to help responsible

homeowners.” This headline, when taken alone, includes a number of powerful elements that,

for example, calls on the prestige of the executive branch (i.e., the title of the President),

applies normative terminology (i.e., the word “should” implies that it is good and right to

agree), and taps populist sentiment (i.e., establishing a goal of helping “responsible

homeowners”). Nevertheless, the imagery also contains a set of powerful symbols that add

force and gravitas to the text. For example, the image includes the American flag as well as a

bust and portrait of historical leaders. This demonstrates that an incumbent has an innate ability

8

to frame their campaigns by emphasizing their experience in office, their leadership

characteristics, and the prestige associated with their position. As we will see, opponents lack

this innate ability, so they frame their campaigns in other ways, which tend to confront the

issues the country is facing since the incumbent’s initial election (Keren 2011).

Figure 1.1. President Barack Obama Weekly Address

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.48.22 AM

Perception

Perception is an individualized process that filters stimuli that pass through our senses.

This information is filtered into different channels and interpreted according to different

interpretive frameworks that help cut down on the cognitive load.

The way a person perceives the world is based upon prior experiences, opportunities,

and encounters of a similar nature and all of these are used to decipher and decode stimuli so

that a response or action can be taken (Zerubavel 1997). Perceptions that are based upon prior

experience help a person determine what their actions, intentions, and emotions should be in

response to new information.

Each individual in each generation thinks he or she is viewing the world through a

unique perspective and set of lenses that allows him or her to better understand the world and

therefore have a better grasp on how everything in the world works. The way we individually

and, often, generationally frame and interpret stimuli was articulated by Eviatar Zerubavel,

9

who noted, “As a result, we have no basis for claiming that our own visions of reality are more

definitive than were those of our predecessors. Back in the fourteenth century, people were

probably just as arrogant about the absolute correctness of their own ‘view’ of the world as we

are about ours today” (Zerubavel 1997). This plays into how individuals perceive the world

and how each individual has a unique perspective from which they interpret their senses and

produce a response from that set of stimuli. The result is that no matter how uniform the

message, there will always be variations in how the message is perceived throughout time and

from person to person.

So, with the understanding that everyone is unique, why would generations and groups

of people respond to stimuli similarly? The method used to counteract this variance is to create

a strong narrative that allows individuals from various subgroups to participate and provide

their own version and interpretation of the message. Thereby connecting and correcting some

of the dissonance that occurred as a result of the variation introduced from specialized interests

groups and unique individuals.

On a website, the literal use of a frame is meant to contain information in a designated

space and to call attention to it. The frame allows for the contained information and content to

be considered part of the foreground in the hierarchy of information. The information that is

placed in the frame is already deemed as important due to the fact that the frames tend to limit

the amount of content that can be displayed at one time. As the Zerubavel suggests, “Such

‘frames’ are designed to help us disregard a considerable part of our sensory experience as

‘out-of-frame’ and therefore irrelevant” (Zerubavel 1997). He further suggests that frames are

used to hang on a wall “…are specifically designed to help viewers ignore the wall

surrounding the picture…” (Zerubavel 1997) and to only pay attention to the information

10

contained within the frame itself. Framing, therefore, is a way to focus attention, filter stimuli,

and, ultimately, to enable a communicator (e.g., a candidate) to achieve a similar result (i.e.,

interpret a message in a particular way) for large numbers of message recipients.

How Priming Works

Priming is a process of presenting stimuli in such a way that recipients of a message

will interpret the contents in a pre-defined way. The priming process is believed to occur

“automatically” in certain circumstances. For example, Ann T. Greenley suggests, “While

‘snap’ decisions may appear to be made instantaneously, researchers believe that they are

based on an unconscious ability to perceive patterns and behavior based on past experiences

and to act on those perceptions long before our conscious state is aware of the pattern”

(Greeley 2011). Much of her work is based on priming experiments that were conducted to see

if people are likely to respond in a certain way when prompted with certain words such as “old,

worried, Florida, people, gray, bingo, and wrinkle” (Greeley 2011). Individuals will not realize

that they have been fed words, which triggered (primed) their behavior and thought patterns to

act in a certain way based upon the suggested characteristics. For instance if the word “bingo”

is used, a mental image will appear of a game that is typically characterized as either a young

person’s or an elderly person’s game. Greeley continues, “Without consciously knowing that

they were being primed to think about being old, the students' adaptive unconscious picked up

on a pattern carried through the word sets and unconsciously began thinking about the "state of

being old” (Greeley 2011). Priming experiments demonstrate how people perceive words,

images, and even body language in order to understand the world and draw conclusions from it

(Greeley 2011). This research also shows that priming can be purposefully used to influence

perceptions and persuade large numbers of people.

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Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is based on what would typically be thought of as a method to

research and theory development that operates in reverse order. One who uses ground theory

engages in data collection first and lets the theory formulation, literature research, data coding

and investigation come second. The process is a “qualitative research method that seeks to

develop theory that is grounded in data systematically gathered and analyzed” (Urguhart,

Lehmann and Myers 2009). Of course, grounded theory is not a freeform approach without

limitations. There is a method associated with grounded theory that involves thoughtfully

integrating data and analyses. Urquhart and colleagues noted this when they said, “One of the

major differences between grounded theory and other qualitative research is that it requires that

the researcher continuously intermix the data collection with the analysis” (Urguhart, Lehmann

and Myers 2009). The research for this thesis was collected during the presidential election

cycle in 2012. The data were analyzed at the end of 2012 and the first quarter of 2013. During

this process, the data were continuously categorized and re-categorized in order to find a

pattern that is consistent with the theory of framing a visual narrative. Researchers using

grounded theory can typically find many instances in the data that will support one or more

perspectives. Urquhart and colleagues again suggest, “An advantage that grounded theory

provides the researcher is the ability to use context-based, process-oriented descriptions and

explanations of information systems phenomena … and it provides the means for data analysis,

and potentially allows for the emergence of original and rich findings that are closely tied to

the data” (Urguhart, Lehmann and Myers 2009).

Though most researchers would dismiss grounded theory as a mediocre method of

research and data collection; the initial conception of the methodology was based on the

12

realization of the need for a research method that would help systematically derive theories of

human behavior from empirical data. This methodology was proposed by Barney Glaser and

Anselm Strauss and was described in their book entitled, The Discovery of Grounded Theory

(Urguhart, Lehmann and Myers 2009).

Another researcher by the name of Sandra Moriarty, proposed that “visual literacy, like

verbal literacy, is based upon a system of shared symbols and can therefore be analyzed in

ways similar to language” (McKinney and Banwart 2011). She also notes that visual

communication is grounded in perception as was previously mentioned. The definition of

perception she supplies is, “…the active process of selecting and modifying phenomena based

on previous experience” (McKinney and Banwart 2011). These elements work together to help

mold the viewer’s understanding of the stimuli and involve multiple senses. For example,

McKinney and Banwart point out, “Visual interpretation involves both eyes and brain”

(McKinney and Banwart 2011).

13

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction to Literature Review

The following review begins with the investigation into a few leading theories on

photography and imagery along with the theories surrounding the use of images. The next

section takes this process a step further with the investigation into the narrative process and

narratology of imagery. The final section briefly notes some discussion points for web design

and design-based decisions.

Impression Management and the Media

Introduction to Impression Management

“To ask how images work to influence viewers’ beliefs, attitudes, and opinions is

ultimately to ask about the very nature of images and about how people respond to them” (Hill

and Helmers 2004).

In this section the initial concepts are laid out to provide a context to better understand

the use of images based more on a psychological background and how these images play into

the intentional management of voters’ impression formation of a candidates’ overall image.

The use of mass media to frame the presidential campaigns will also be discussed in further

detail.

14

Dangers of “Snap” Judgments and Camera Angles

The following is a scenario that will begin the investigation into the term “Snap

Judgments.” Imagine an editor, sitting in an office at a major newspaper that is attempting to

write an editorial on the presidential campaign. The editor receives only eight images from the

entire event in which likely more than a thousand images were taken. The editor must quickly

decide based upon these eight images which ones best fit the narrative he or she is trying to

convey. As previously discussed, the frameworks that play into this process include a number

of people at different levels. It could be argued that the photographer deals with two different

frameworks during the event being photographed. He or she is dealing with a framework that is

based upon his or her photographic background and shooting style, along with the framework

he or she applies to the images as he or she is narrowing down the final selections. The editor’s

framework is based upon his or her need to fill the editorial piece. He or she must quickly

decide on the images using snap judgment as the selection process.

As Hunter and colleagues suggest, the editor in the scenario has a difficult choice to

make each and every day based on time constraints and the images he or she is handed by the

photographer. The authors note that today’s technology allows for more images to be taken by

photojournalist, journalists, and videographers than ever before. This means that there are more

snap judgments made at every step of the framework system. The goal of a photojournalist and

their editors is therefore to capture what could be considered the “spirit” of a person.

This term “snap” judgment is similar to the concept of a “first impression” or the

processes people use to “size people up” to see whether they fit a stereotype or preconception.

This judgment is used to determine whether or not a person can be trusted and whether or not

they are considered attractive. If they fit the mold placed upon them by they can be consider

15

part of the overall “group.” Not only can snap judgments be made about people through the

first impression phase, it is feasible to receive this same effect by other means. For example, a

person’s personal or professional website, social media, etc. will all be used to form

impressions of people.

Judgments can include positive or negative assessments of the other person. In either

case, snap judgments are a type of judgment of another person. They are not necessarily based

on any logic or reasoning carried out in the frontal-cortex; they are based on irrational

decisions that are more instinctual reactions than logical conclusions. They are not necessarily

backed up by proven facts, they are purely meant to help determine whether or not you want to

continue to invest resources into the connection between you and this other person. This type

of cognitive resource management system stems from cognitive psychology and the specific

study of peripheral and central routes to perception (e.g., see the Elaboration Likelihood

Model) (Petty and Cacioppo 1986). Many times the basis for the snap judgments lack of

rational decision-making process is because the snap judgment system determines quickly

whether a subject can be considered a friend or foe (trustworthy or a threat to the safety of the

individual person or the group).

The voters were exposed to two presidential campaign programs that were each

comprised of a variety of different messages, advertisements, images, text, and much more.

First, some of the information was overt and used push techniques (e.g., television

advertisements or online content ads), which voters tend to dislike and ultimately cannot

escape until the election season is over. A second form of information voters use is the

information that voters themselves seek out, which is based on their own questions, their own

methods, and their interests and personal analysis of what they consider to be important to

16

investigate and look into further. This information is typically procured by means of a search

feature, such as going to a news website, receiving updates through the use of social media

(e.g., “Tweets” from Twitter and news feeds on different social sites), or specifically hunting

down information that is derived from the candidates’ personal campaign websites.

In the next two sections some of the research into “Snap” judgments will be addressed

along with a discussion of image quality and selection.

How “Snap” Judgments Work

As Princeton’s assistant professor in psychology Alexander Todorov noted in his

research article titled, First Impressions Making Up Your Mind After a 100-Ms Exposure to a

Face, written in 2006, that "we decide very quickly whether a person possesses many of the

traits we feel are important, such as likeability and competence, even though we have not

exchanged a single word with them. It appears that we are hard-wired to draw these inferences

in a fast, unreflective way" (Boutin 2006). Based on these assumptions, Todorov’s

hypothesizes that, “Competence emerges as one of the most important trait attributes on which

people evaluate politicians.... If voters evaluate political candidates on competence, inferences

of competence from facial appearance could influence their voting decisions” (Todorov, et al.

2005). As the election for the president nears every four years, people prepare for the event

they both love and dread. The bombardment of advertisements begins far in advance of the

Election Day in November and is relentless until the final votes are in and tallied.

Todorov’s research has sparked a variety of investigations into how people make quick

assessments without processing information over a long period of time. As he mentions, he

worked with students on a study where they found that there was a direct correlation between

how competent a campaigning politician’s face was and how great his or her margin of victory

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turned out to be in the final stages of the election. Todorov said of his earlier work, published

in the journal Science, "We might assume that our judgments are founded on deliberate and

rational thought processes, but observers had made their judgments about politicians based on

a one-second look at their faces. I mentioned the findings to Janine, who suggested we look

into just how fast we form these (judgments about) character traits." Todorov and his students

found that it did not matter whether the person looked at a face for longer periods of time, their

opinion of the person would not change. Todorov suggests that the reason for this could relate

to the fear factor and the part of the brain that processes fear may affect the judgments we

make about people and whether they are trustworthy or not. The process is part instinctual and

based out of the amygdala, which is a primitive part of the brain that predates the development

of the prefrontal cortex where rational thought is processed (Boutin 2006). He further suggests

that with more time and exposure it would be possible to change a person’s initial perception

and assessment of an individual.

Todorov suggests that he does not know what causes these particular trait inferences

based upon people’s assessments of the physical features of politicians and people in general.

Factors that are known to be important in generating favorable impressions are things such as

symmetry, proportional faces, and similar well-defined features of the face. An important

conclusion is that “Snap” judgments are an important process to be aware of when looking at

imagery and this term will appear throughout this investigation as it is something that

influences the way we perceive our world.

Dangers of Camera Angles, Captions, & “Snap” Judgments

This is an introduction to the importance of camera angles, what happens when camera

angles are mixed in with limited captioning, and how camera angles can influence snap

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judgments. The image shown in both Figures 1.1 and 1.2 was taken by AP photographer Evan

Vucci, during a school visit that Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney attended.

This was an impromptu visit to a school that was triggered when a group of school children

waved signs at the Romney motorcade. The stop was not on the candidate’s agenda and it was

not a stop that was scheduled by the campaign’s organizers. As a result of this, the venue was

not properly prepared or staged. As a result of the lack of organized planning, the image above

was taken and released to the public. This spurred a heated debate over the image and the

caption that it received.

Figure 2.1. Republican presidential candidate,

former Massachusetts Gov. Mitt Romney poses for photographs with students of Fairfield Elementary School, Monday, Oct. 8, 2012, in Fairfield, VA. (Why DID Press Agency Release This Picture of Romney? 2012).

Figure 2.2. “Needless to say, however, none of the kids was more surprised than the young girl in AP photographer Evan Vucci’s snapshot above, which is best when viewed without a single shred of context,” Gawker writes (Seidl 2012)

The initial caption does not specify why the girl on the right hand side of the image is

reacting with a very strong and emotionally charged expression. The reaction she is providing

in the image would suggest that she is looking at Romney’s derriere and might even be

interpreted to suggest Romney was doing something appropriate.

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According to the article, Optical flow based analyses to detect emotion from human

facial image data, which used Paul Ekman and Friesen’s classified emotional categories, the

girl’s reaction to Romney would suggest that she is surprised, which would be an exaggerated

version of Figure 1.3 (d). Specifically, the eyebrows are raised, the mouth is open in an “Oh”

position with teeth showing, and the eyes are wider (in her case it is hard to see that as she is

looking down in the image). This would suggest that her reaction should be classified as in the

state of surprise.

Figure 2.3. Six basic emotions are displayed here in two people: (a) happy,

(b) sad, (c) angry, (d) surprise, (e) fear and (f) disgust (obtained from Liu, 2002). Note: changes to the position to eyebrows, eyes and mouth for each emotion (Besinger, et al. 2010).

Many people provided their viewpoints about why AP released this set of images. As

Steve Manuel, senior lecturer at Penn State's College of Communications said, “the AP must

have known how the image would be perceived when they published it.” He continues on to

say that the AP knows that people will imagine what the little girl is seeing and chuckle at the

possible things that could have happened. He further observes that this is outside of the scope

of an editor or journalist when he states, “It makes Gov. Romney appear a bit foolish. That isn't

the purpose or mission of photojournalism. ... Candidate or not, it is not the mission of a news

organization to place anyone in a position to be ridiculed or made fun of. Reporting the news

is, and this is not newsworthy” (Associated Press 2012).

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Figure 2.4. “Say cheese: A different angle shows Romney

posing with the children in the way his campaign likely intended” (Why DID Press Agency Release This Picture of

Romney? 2012).

Of course, the campaign intended for this to be an event that would have a positive

influence on Romney’s campaign. The image in Figure 1.4 puts the situation in context by

showing that the candidate was in the process of lowering himself down to the students’ level

to allow them to be photographed together. The “official” caption read, “Republican

presidential candidate, former Massachusetts Gov. Mitt Romney poses for photographs with

students of Fairfield Elementary School, Monday, Oct. 8, 2012, in Fairfield, VA. A student,

right, reacts as she realizes Romney will crouch down directly in front of her and her

classmates for the group photo” (Why DID Press Agency Release This Picture of Romney?

2012). Stephen Ward, the Director of the Center for Journalism Ethics at the University of

Wisconsin-Madison, said “the photo by itself was not too offensive but noted it could be

exploited.” He noted that the image by itself does have a humorous element; however with the

“highly charged political environment” that existed when this image was released, he

suggested that it was unwise for AP to have released it. He goes on to say that it would be wise

to caption these images appropriately and to watch how people use the image. What

this demonstrates, among other things, is that context matters and that controlling whether and

how images are produced can have important results on how a candidate is portrayed

and perceived.

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Videography and Photography – Importance of Multimedia

In the previous election in 2008, author Rahaf Harfoush (who was part of the new

campaign movement in both 2008 and 2012) commented on the how the 2008 election was a

turning point in the way campaigns are run and organized across the various platforms. In a

section in her book, she noted some of the changes that were made to help improve the

candidate’s reach to voters by using different video styles. As she noted it was a very effective

tool that helped portray one of the greatest assets Barack Obama has, his eloquence and

charisma. This was something that was carried through to the 2012 election campaign.

As the discussion continues in the book, Yes We Did: An Inside Look at How Social

Media Built the Obama Brand, the points were brought up about what video does for the

candidate. It brings in curious viewers that want to learn more about why people are interested

in supporting Barack Obama. The videos are recorded in a manner that showcases “normal,

average people” who are telling others about why they are for Barack Obama. The videos

provided a “constant stream of meaningful stories that could be seen and shared with friends.

From interviews with Iowa precinct captions to footage from rallies, the emphasis was always

on amplifying the feeling of community by showcasing videos featuring the campaign’s most

passionate grassroots organizers” (Harfoush 2009).

Video Categories

The video style is determined based upon the information and the message that the

campaign staff wants to portray to the rest of the voter population. The styles include:

• Live-Streaming Video

The video is what could be considered RAW video coverage of an event that people can tune in to at any time. They are not watching a video that has

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been edited, shortened, or may even have been passed up by media coverage that tends to cut the story into manageable snippets for airing during televised announcements. Through this process viewers were able to view things such as Obama’s personality in a way that transcended media coverage (Harfoush 2009).

• Campaign-Created Video

This was something that was particular to the Obama campaign in the 2008 election, as Kate Albright-Hanna, who is the team’s Director of Video, put together various with interviews from supporters, event footage, and creative and inspiring content to motivate people to register to vote (Harfoush 2009).

• User-Generated Video

Grassroots organizers were a very enthusiastic group in 2008 and also in this most recent election of 2012. The Obama team recognized this early on that these groups bring out a strong and powerful marking campaign system that is created based on their own video uploads. This allowed for the responsibilities of the video creation to be spread over more people with more eyes for its creative possibilities to be expanded. Along with this user-generated content, video is something that is easily shared over social networks — which tend to have viral qualities — because of the easy access it provides and the likability of sharing information with others (Harfoush 2009).

Something to keep in mind when viewing a video is that the video, more than an image,

will control the cognitive processes. A photograph informs a viewer, however it also provides

room for interpretation and analysis to better understand what the image is saying. A video is

something that informs as well, however the viewer has less opportunities to come up with

their own reasoning and therefore they sit back more as spectators of the events.

As Roland Barthes notes about a comment made by Duhamel, “I can no longer think

what I want to think. My thoughts have been replaced by moving images. The spectator’s

process of association in view of these images is indeed interrupted by their constant, sudden

change” (Benjamin 1968).

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Having a photograph and video work together to tell a story allows for two different

perspectives, one with a searing image that becomes engrained in people’s memories and the

second with the sight and sound combined to bring more understanding of a moment in time. It

has been demonstrated that an image can say a lot about a moment in time and that when we

see things play out in front of us we describe them almost as if it were like watching a movie.

One of the best and enduring examples that demonstrates the powerful impact of imagery is the

image that Eddie Adam’s photographed when he captured the moment that the Vietcong

prisoner was executed in the streets of Saigon in 1968. In addition to the still photographer,

there was also a videographer, Vo Suu, who was a cameraman for NBC correspondent Howard

Tuckner. The video provides context by showing the moments that lead up to the incident and

provides information that makes the photograph stronger and puts it in the timeline of events

that followed. The use of multimedia in a campaign helps bring all the elements together to

help tell the most engaging and strongest narrative possible.

There is no shortage of cameras and recording devices in today’s visually saturated

culture. Every person who owns a technological device most likely has some type of video,

photographic, or audio recording capability. So the tables have turned on the political arena

because now not only does a campaign need to worry about the journalists who are sent out

from various syndicate stations and news organizations, but they also need to be concerned

about average citizens who also are capturing the events in their own, sometimes

unprofessional ways. We will revisit this topic later in the photography techniques section of

the literature review.

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An Image, is An Image, is An Image

It is important to define the term image, as it can be easily misinterpreted or improperly

defined. In today’s visually acute society, the word image typically brings to mind a

photographic image. However, the word carries with it a plethora of different uses in the

English language. When used colloquially, image typically means a photograph or display that

is interpreted through the visual senses. It is frequently used as a way to describe a physical

likeness or representation of an object. The word “image” can also be used in psychological

terms to define a stimulus that is no longer present, such as a reflection of light through an

apparatus or reflected in a mirror, an idea or concept, a copy of something, an embodiment of a

concept or term, or the use as a figure of speech. The term image can be used to describe a

painting, a copy of a person, a photographic image, or as a way to describe a portrayal of a

person’s personality. It can be used to describe how we think of a person or perceive a person’s

overall characteristics. A person’s image is something that is developed based on initial

interactions with that person and typically carries through the interactions that occur after the

initial meeting.

It is important to take representation into consideration when deciding on what images

to use in telling a particular story. The term representation is used to describe the application of

language and images to convey meaning about objects that surround people. Using images to

represent an object allows people to communicate and provides a way to quickly define,

describe, understand, and clarify the information being conveyed. When a representation is

placed in an image it is considered to be encoding the message with objects that contain a

general meaning. On the receiving end of the message, the process of understanding the

information is called decoding. Sturkin and colleagues observe that the process of conveying

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and interpreting messages from images is similar to the processes used with language when

they note, “Although these systems of representation are not languages, they are in some ways

like language systems and therefore can be analyzed through methods borrowed from

linguistics and semiotics” (Sturken and Cartwright 2009).

Information about a particular person, for instance a candidate, can be conveyed using a

variety of communication channels. Much of what a campaign seeks to do is create and

maintain an idealized image of the candidate.

The Importance of Images and Photographic “Truth”

The photojournalist looks for opportunities typically missed by others and waits for the

perfect moment to release the shutter and snap a photograph that has perhaps a “deeper

purpose” (Newton 2001).

Why are images important and what role do they play in society? Images convey

information quickly and efficiently to a viewer and often need little or no explanation or

clarification to be interpreted. With that said, the information that an image communicates is

not always as accurate or truthful as one might think. Images can be deceiving and can be used

to provide false information or inaccurate accounts of events.

For consumers of images, it is important to realize that what is captured through the

lens does not necessarily represent or portray all of the information from the event or scene.

The images are thin slices of information that when placed in a series will provide more

insights into what occurred at the event.

An image only tells us about the one moment in time when the scene was captured and,

therefore, does not necessarily offer context about what happened before or after that moment

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in time. It is wise to be aware of this when viewing images, no matter the context, motive,

impact, or importance to society. Various details can be hidden outside the frame and can be

manipulated to tell a specific side of the story if so desired.

Errol Morris described this concept in his book, Believing is Seeing, when he discusses

Roger Fenton’s famous photograph of the Valley of the Shadow of Death.

Morris describes how Fenton could have moved the cannonballs using elephants and

created the image he wanted to see. “He posed the photograph, but how would you know? It’s

posed not by the presence of the elephant but by its absence. Isn’t something always excluded,

elephant or otherwise?” (Morris 2011)

Lesley S.J. Farmer warned consumers about images by suggesting that, “… mass media

producers who understand the language and connotations of visual literacy can manipulate

images to elicit desired responses” (Farmer 2007). Farmer suggests that numerous edits can be

used to change the apparent character, tone, or context about a scene (McKinney and Banwart

2011). These manipulations of content can include the following:

• Image Cropping – Manipulate the context of the image

• Change the relative size of the images – Changes the perceived importance of the

images

• Arrangement of sequenced images (i.e., rearranging the order they are viewed in) –

creates a possible change in the “cause and effect connections” that are made by the

consumer of the images

Within the context of a campaign, images are part of what consumers (i.e., voters) use

to identify and process information and messages presented by the candidates. This is because

images are tangible and easily understood and take less cognitive processing; therefore

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consumers are able to make quick assessments, or snap judgments, to help them parse out the

important details from the overall “picture”. The role of imagery in campaigns have been

recognized for many years, the challenge today is that the ability to change and manipulate the

content of photographs makes determining what “is true” in an image increasingly difficult.

Most consumers of imagery and photographs do not have trained eyes to see where the

manipulations in the images are; therefore the viewer can easily be deceived or mislead to

believe one thing when in fact it is something entirely different that was represented in the

original image (e.g. a manipulation of the message, tone of the image, mood or overall

attendance at the event, etc.).

Though an honest photographer will usually attempt to be as unbiased and impassionate

about the events or individuals they are photographing, it is almost impossible to avoid all

aspects of personal framing. The process of creating an image has no automatic feature. The

process “always involves some degree of subjective choice through selection, framing, and

personalization” (Sturken and Cartwright 2009).

As noted earlier, it is important to understand that there are many ways that

“photographic truth” can be manipulated and abused. The first is the manipulation or

placement of images in a series. A series of images when photographed together provide a

strong context for an event as it fell before the lens. However, when images are rearranged to a

desired order, they have the power to portray a completely different point of view or message

based on the chosen sequence.

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Image Manipulations and Edits

Figure 2.5. An example created to showcase manipulation process

that occurs with images from original journalistic image to content specific image

Figure 2.6. Original Image Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.18.14 PM

Figure 2.7. Edited Image

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.17.42 PM

Figure 2.8. Original Image

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.33.40 PM.jpg

Figure 2.9. Edited Image

Screen shot 2012-11-13 at 9.19.53 PM.jpg

As Figure 1.6 and Figure 1.7 above demonstrate the manipulation process that occurs

during the campaign process. Figure 1.6 is the original image that was taken during the Vice

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Presidential Debate on October 11th and posted on October the 11th the manipulated image in

Figure 1.7 was placed on the website on October 12th after the Obama campaign had time to

process the image and manipulate it with the message placed above the subjects in the image.

Editing examples which were observed in this study included mixing in different

images to collage them together into a new image with a new message, taking out information

such as people (Figure 1.6 and 1.7) and other objects by cropping the image, and adding

vignettes and colorization to focus the gaze of the viewer into whatever subject needed to be

the key focal point of the image. In Figure 1.8 and 1.9 the same image is used towards the

beginning of this data collection process and the end of the election. The image has been

altered in a way to create the illusion of a very clean, white sky or background behind

Governor Mitt Romney. The overall image and Governor Romney’s complexion was lightened

in order to create an even tone across the image when contrasted against an almost completely

white background. These examples only briefly touch upon some of the manipulations that

were observed between the two candidates’ websites where the image was clearly altered in

some manner to convey the part of the narrative it was meant to convey visually.

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Color Toning and Use

Figure 2.10. Comparison of original journalistic images on the left side

and edited images on the right side of the table above – Barack Obama

Color is a complicated element to control, especially when a photographer does not

have control over the lighting. Color is used not only in the creation process for designers as an

accent, background, symbol, and so on; it is also something that can change the mood or tone

(literally and figuratively) of an image.

For instance, the above Figure 1.10 showcases the use of color to emphasis a specific

area in the image or a specific subject, the other major use is to highlight or portray a certain

mood or emotion that maybe the image conveys. As the two different image sets below

demonstrate, the images on the left side of the sets are the original or the frame before or after

the original image. The images located on the right side of the sets show the use of color

overlays or masks to elaborate on a message that the image is accompanying. The use of color

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in images to provide a means to draw attention to a subject is nothing new, color based

emphasis have been developed since the earlier years of photography (Bensen 2010). The

colorization of images typically was done to bring out some color on the cheeks, the items of

value, such as a sword or a trinket of value, and the occasionally color tinting of the entire

image because color photography was not invented until the late 1800s (Cornell University

2011).

How colors are used and what they mean varies from culture to culture. In a study

conducted by Wiegersma and Van der Elst in 1988, they revealed “that blue was the most

preferred color in general across cultures.” A few colors such as red and white are used for

more sacred and ritual colors and decorations. And across the board black tends to be

associated with negative connotations (Singh 2006). Colors tend to affect how people interact

with things. The associations between colors and emotions have been tested and the yellows,

oranges, and blues tend to test more positively than black and red, and browns tend to hold on

to more of a sad association (Singh 2006). Color association carries through to the use of

colors to tone images. If an image’s color tone is changed to a blue it will convey something

completely different from that of a yellow or brown tone.

Politics: Brief Introduction to New Media

In business, there is always a need for product marketing, and in order to sell a product

the item must be cast in a positive light to the customer. This “product” concept also applies to

candidates who are running for office (A. A. Berger 1984). Persuasive messages must be used

to convince the consumer that the “product” or candidate the campaign is selling is the one

they should invest their vote in.

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The Changing Political Arena

Figure 2.11. Pew Research “Internet Grows as News Campaign Source”

(Pew Research Center 2012)

A recent Pew research survey found that the public has increased its use of the Internet

as a resource for keeping up to date with campaign news. Specifically, they note, “Nearly half

(47%) of voters say the Internet was a main source of campaign news over the course of the

election, up from 36% four years ago. The Internet now far surpasses newspapers (27%) as a

main source of campaign news, though it still trails television (67%)” (Hill and Helmers 2004).

Since 2008, the percentage using the Internet as a main campaign news source has increased

making the Internet the most frequently used news source by voters, behind that of television

(Pew Research Center 2012). (See Figure 1.11)

It became evident over the last two presidential election cycles that the importance and

role of the Internet in the election process has changed. The Obama campaign was shown in

both the 2008 and 2012 elections to be adept at using and innovating their use of the Internet

and social media channels. These changes in campaigning methods included how money was

raised, how the campaign communicated internally, how organizers disseminated information,

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and how the campaign engaged people outside of the internal network. In fact, this

involvement was increased before, during, and subsequent to the last election process in 2008

(Harfoush 2009).

The most recent trends for campaigns would best be described as highly personalized to

“every individual’s interests” (Harfoush 2009). The goal is to reach as many people from the

general public as well as special interests groups in order to engage them in the political

process and with the issues at play in the election. The hope is that by getting more people

involved the gap between politicians and citizens would be narrowed (Harfoush 2009). Ideally,

this would allow voters to be better-informed citizens and politicians to be better leaders. As

many scholars have discussed, we now have Politics 2.0. Rahaf Harfoush explained it best

when she noted that by forming a more participatory and collective groups, that “…we would

take a step away from broadcast and toward participatory democracy. As an exercise in

government 2.0, it could show that power can be exercised through [the] people, not over [the]

people” (Harfoush 2009).

Semiology – The Study of Signs

Iconography Before Semiology

An art historian named Erwin Panofsky developed the term iconography as a way to allow

historians to better portray meaning for their work. Iconography is primarily based on the

subject matter and not on the form. Panofsky’s system is divided into three layers as shown in

Table 2.1:

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1) Primary 2) natural 3) pre-iconographic 1) Secondary 2) conventional 3) iconographic 1) Intrinsic 2) symbolic 3) iconological

Table 2.1 System of Semiology

Within his system, the use of these terms describes what level of interpretation is needed

to understand the image and content and break down the information conveyed through it.

Semiotics

Signs are used as stand-ins for other concepts, terms, and ideas. A sign is meant to take

the place or act as a placeholder for something or someone in some respect (A. A. Berger

1984). Berger notes that the denotation of a sign can be read in any language or culture in some

instance. Different cultures have different signs and symbols and the interpretation or

understanding of signs by each culture various; however, there are also universal signs and

symbols that cross over language barriers and help the human population understand

information on a broad scale.

The study of signs is known as semiology, which means “words about signs.” The word

is based on the Greek term semeion, which means sign. Sociologists look at signs both as

“things in themselves” and also as “signs” or things that indicate something else (A. A. Berger

1984). For example, if you have a picture of a rabbit it is a “thing in and of itself” and if you

have a drawing of a rabbit’s ears it is a “sign of the rabbit” and represents some aspect of what

we understand is a rabbit. The rabbit’s ear as a sign is a recognizable part of the rabbit. If you

see a representation of a rabbit’s ear, this is one feature that quickly stands out as something

that can define the animal across different languages and cultures.

Different cultures across the world have different signs, but there is also the use of

varied signs and symbols in subcultures. Each subculture has ways of creating their own,

35

unique meaning associated with a symbol. For example, a word such as “Freedom” can be

expressed in a variety of ways and in different cultures it means different things. Freedom by

definition is the state of being free.

Nevertheless, the concept of freedom can also be represented by different symbols such

as flags. For example, flags representing generally recognized “free” countries such as the

United States, Canada, Western European countries, etc. may be a symbol of freedom for many

people (and, perhaps, a symbol of oppression or tyranny by others). For many people who

reside in the United States, the U.S flag is viewed as a symbol of freedom, pride, and

happiness. The national identity of an individual is connected to symbols such as flags and

similar emblems, but these symbols often acquire their meaning through a process by which

the symbolic object become associated with the concept it symbolizes. Berger makes this clear

when he notes, “If we wish to represent America by signs and symbols one thinks of such

things as the Uncle Sam figure, the American flag, eagles, the Empire State Building, and the

Grand Canyon, to name a few…All [of these signs] have acquired their power to represent

American nationality by continual use in the media, or (in the case of the flag) by historical

circumstance” (A. A. Berger 1984).

Figure 2.12. American Flag - Presidential

Candidate Mitt Romney at Lakeland, Florida

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.08 AM_sm.png

Figure 2.13. American Flag - Presidential Candidate Barack Obama Immigration Page

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.56.22 PM_sm.png

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Figure 2.14. American Flag - Presidential Candidate Barack Obama Entering Rally

– America Forward! In Photos Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.19 AM_sm.png

Figure 2.15. American Flag - Presidential Candidate Mitt Romney Landing Page

Screen shot 2012-11-06 at 1.24.22 AM_sm.png

Flags as symbols have been and will likely continue to be a mainstay in political

campaigns. This was no different in the 2012 election, where flags were used in abundance by

both campaigns. As an example, consider the images shows in Figures 1.12, 1.13, 1.14,1.15.

The first image, Figure 1.12, is set at a rally for Mitt Romney. Note that the flag in the

foreground is in focus and the rest of the scene in the background is also in focus. Interestingly,

the candidate is located in the background and is placed in a minor role compared to the

symbol of freedom. The second image (Figure 1.13) is from the Obama campaign and in this

case the flag carries a variety of messages based primarily on the text that accompanies it.

Without the text the image would suggest that the person is likely already an American citizen.

In reality, the symbolism of the flag is being used to convey a message about immigration. In

this case, the symbol is being used to persuade voters about one of the candidate’s campaign

planks. Figures 1.14 and 1.15 show how the candidates use the flags as different forms of

photographic backdrops.

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Signs and Symbols in Mass Media

Signs and symbols are not always obvious or apparent when looking at images in mass

media. However, they are everywhere and are used as elements to inform viewers about the

things they are discussing, watching, and looking at. The symbols for words, thoughts, and

concepts are sometimes meant to evoke particular emotions in the audience.

Everything about a person can be read as a sign of their health, habits, interests,

personality, their truth and lies. The person as a whole is a symbol of a much larger entity such

as a country, origin, region, culture, subculture, organization, etc. The way a person carries

themselves, whether it be good or bad, shines a light on the larger group they consider

themselves to be a part of. As Berger notes, “…obviously we only have signs to use to present

ourselves to others, and these signs are all based on conventional understandings. Our clothes,

hairstyles, and so on are the equivalent of stage props and are used to “broadcast” our

identities, or to be more precise, our personalities — remembering that the term persona means

mask” (A. A. Berger 1984).

Figure 2.16. The Pin Wars – Symbolic Symbols of Patriotism

(Third Presidential Debate: Full Transcript 2012)

Both candidates personified the use of flags as symbols. As shown in Figure 1.16,

a split image illustrates how symbols are used in the subtlest of ways. Both candidates are

displayed side-by-side in a televised appearance, both wearing American Flag pins and in what

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appears as a “symbol war” to see which person can wear the largest pin. In the image, upon

closer inspection, the American flag that is located on Governed Romney’s lapel is slightly

larger and easier to see at a distance compared to President Obama’s pin. While

a pin on a suit is a small detail to be aware of it still can carry a strong message if used

appropriately.

Rhetorical Situations

Visual rhetoric is studied through the use of culturally shared values and assumptions.

It is important to understand how viewers are persuaded and how viewers are influenced by

mass-produced images (Hill and Helmers 2004). In any campaign, voters should question what

a candidate would be like if elected president. “Campaign rhetoric helps voters determine what

kind of leader the candidate will be and helps set expectations of what each candidate will do

in the policy realm, should he or she become president” (McKinney and Banwart 2011). As a

result of these expectations, campaigns carefully craft their rhetoric to fit the voters’ interests

and concerns.

Importance of Rhetorical Situations

Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca recognized that most rhetorical situations are complex.

These situations typically involve two or more proponents stating their respective views with

the intention of winning over the audience members. The audience is, in the meantime,

attempting to decide for itself who or what message they should believe and how they should

feel about the issue at hand (Hill and Helmers 2004). Voters tend to stick with the candidate

who closely resembles them and who employs familiar rhetoric devices to describe the group’s

commonly shared beliefs. The closer the candidate matches the message to the voters’

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preconceived attitudes about what the next president should be like, the more that candidate

will succeed. Voting is perceived as an outward gesture of one’s opinions and standings on

topics of interest at the time of the election. If a voter is seen voting for the “wrong” candidate

they could find themselves dealing with social costs if that candidate does not win. Hill and

Helmers make this connection when they note, “People often accept and come to defend a

particular viewpoint, not because they have carefully thought through and evaluated the

available alternatives, but because they identify with

other people holding the same position or because challenging or denying the position

would challenge their own self-concept. With all of these factors coming into play, it is easy to

see that any particular appeal, no matter how logically valid or relevant, may become

insufficient, almost even irrelevant to the success of the larger argument” (Hill and Helmers

2004).

Persuasive Messages: Central and Peripheral Routes

In order to create a comprehensive theory looking at visual persuasion, it is necessary

to incorporate the insights gathered from a variety of viewpoints and methodologies. These

include, but are not limited to, cultural, psychological, and textual studies. The goal in looking

at these different disciplines is to determine how these “different methodologies work together

in the production of, and response to persuasive messages” (Hill and Helmers 2004). A

successful campaign will create a strong narrative that surrounds the overarching message of

the candidate and use this narrative to help persuade voters. This persuasive narrative uses

strong, powerful, and vivid evidence to support the claims made by the candidate. This

evidence is presented to the audience in order to help them to ignore the major issues, the

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quality of the arguments, and the evidence at hand. They instead will “buy” into the concept

and not look around at the competition before making a final decision (Hill and Helmers 2004).

Persuasive messages, that are visually illustrated, are more powerful and can be

recalled easier because the messages connect more synapses in the brain and they provide more

ways for the information to be recalled over a longer period of time. When a viewer is shown a

concept, they are not only using their textural language to provide meaning, they are using

their frontal cortex to help them rationalize what they are viewing, they also are looking for

symbols and signs to understand the context, along with emotions shown in the image and the

emotions that are produced from viewing an image. Images can typically “show” a person the

emotion they are supposed to feel along with the reaction they should have. As the book,

Defining Visual Rhetorics, describes the use of images as a way to prove that something exists

through the use of an image, it contains more than just a hint of that person, it is a captured

likeness of them using the same light that touched them to make the photograph. Roland

Barthes initially described this concept when he devised a way to describe how photography

captures the essence of an individual; the aura of a person is preserved in an image.

Figure 2.17. Campaign information flow (Benoit and Benoit 2008)

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Persuasion through images

There are two different paths that a person can take to understand and comprehend

information in order to make a decision. The use of these two different routes (Figure 1.17)

varies based on the “easier” or more “difficult” the route the person is persuaded to take. So, in

other words, verbal text, because of its analytic nature, is understood in a holistic manner and

tends to prompt heuristic processing. Text is absorbed slowly over time and “…therefore, these

psychological models might explain why vivid images tend to overpower verbal arguments in

a decision among opposing or controversial claims” (Hill and Helmers 2004).

Candidates are finding that they are less likely to need to portray the images and

messages of their political parties and instead take the route of persuading voters, especially

younger voters, more on the personal appeal of the candidate and less on the appeal of the

candidate’s standing relative to a particular party affiliation or platform (Gartner Inc. 2013).

Figure 2.18. Most Voters Feel Informed, Satisfied with Choice (Pew Research Center 2012)

“An overwhelming percentage of voters (87% as seen in Figure 1.18) say they learned

enough about the candidates and the issues to make an informed choice between Obama and

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Romney. Only 11% said they found it difficult to choose because they did not learn enough

from the campaign.” The goal of a campaign is to help persuade voters not in a short one-

message statement about the candidate but instead to slowly convince and build confidence in

the voter population over time. The long-term effects of constant exposure, positive

reinforcement, and the ability to deter dissonance of the voter are the best ways to win over the

mass populous that is most likely using either route to process the information (Hill and

Helmers 2004).

Emotion and Attitude Formation

In order to use rational decision-making processes, emotions must be cut out of the

equation. Emotions will influence the opinions of a viewer of an image if their snap judgment

stirs up emotions that relate to some form of an unpleasant feeling.

Relationship Building:

Maintaining a relationship on a more personal level is becoming an expected quality or

trait for a candidate as they campaign for office. As the population becomes more computer

literate and uses information sources that track visits, types of purchases, and other consumer

information, the more that candidates will be able to leverage these data. The term Big Data

describes the large amount of data being collected about individuals from the web and social

media sites. These data can be used for marketing and personalization. The role of big data was

highlighted in a recent Forbes article, which noted, "Big data’ warrants innovative processing

solutions for a variety of new and existing data to provide real business benefits. But

processing large volumes or wide varieties of data remains merely a technological solution

unless it is tied to business goals and objectives” (Gartner Inc. 2013). Others have suggested

that big data will make the world smaller and concentrate the efforts and focus of campaign

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organizers in the future, which means that professional persuaders, otherwise known as

politicians, will be able to “exploit the linage between emotions, values, and particular images”

(Hill and Helmers 2004). This will be done by creating associations that connect with the

audience’s specific interest and needs based upon the data that is collected each and every day

for every individual.

With the addition of the representational images that are geared specifically towards

individual people, the campaign narratives will reach the voter’s emotional states and override

the ability for them to process information in a rational and reflective way (Hill and Helmers

2004). It is possible to combine emotional triggers to foster an emotional response that carries

traits and information based on a mix of six base emotions. So, if a campaign would like to see

someone express an emotion such as contempt, they could mix disgust and anger together

(both are considered to be primary emotions) to create the secondary emotion contempt. Such

mixing to manipulate emotions is similar in concept to the mixing of colors to create a new

color based on the use of only the primary color palette.

Narrative

What is a Narrative?

A narrative is a cultural tool in several senses and the use of a narrative in culture

provides a way for values and morals to be passed down from generation to generation.

According to Cynthia Lightfoot and Colette Daiute in their book, Narrative Analysis: Studying

the Development of Individuals in Society, symbol systems evolve because of tensions in

various practices of personal and cultural narratives and the collision between the two (Daiute

and Lightfoot 2004).

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Narratives have the power to lead people to action and persuade people to participate

when normally they would stand by and watch the events unfold in front of them. Instead

strong narratives call out to bystanders and spectators informing them that the only way to

bring about the change they want to see is by being a part of it and helping create their own

perfect ending to the story.

Telling a Good Story: Narrative and Narratology Defined

What do all good stories have? A quick and easy answer would be, strong narratives

contain strong beginnings, portions of the plot are revealed in the middle of the book, and then

an ending that is epic which may have a crucial and defining moment when everything makes

sense. Every good story requires that the person(s) that are informing the audience bring in

elements that keep people engaged and wanting more. The authors of Theory and

Interpretation of Narrative, bring out a strong argument about how narratives work based on a

textual dynamics and the processes that are internalized through the use of narrative.

Understanding these processes requires the cognitive, affective, ethical, and aesthetic responses

of the audience. “The bridge between textual dynamics and readerly dynamics is formed by

narrative judgments of three kinds: interpretive, ethical, and aesthetic. These judgments

constitute a bridge because they are encoded in the narrative yet made by readers, and, once

made, their various interactions lead to reader’s multilayered responses” (Herman and

Richardson 2012).

Building good Character

The use of a narrative is meant to help build a person’s character for others to better

understand who they are (Currie 2012). It is used to vividly represent connections between

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motivation, decision, and circumstances in ways that other representational forms cannot

match. A person’s character can change over time, based upon the events that occur in their

daily lives. The true character of a person is not revealed immediately, it takes time to get to

know someone’s true story. In the case of a campaign for president, the challenger to the

incumbent president has a much shorter period of time to showcase their full narrative and

there are less people who know the challenger’s story based on the fact that they are new to the

arena.

Why should anyone care about narratives? What does a narrative truly tell people about

a single person’s life that would be worth knowing about? What information can be gleaned

from observing a person over the course of time and how does the person’s story or narrative

provide insight into the future narrative this person could provide? These are all questions to be

answered throughout this section and investigation into why it is crucial that any one who is

planning to run for president of the United States must start to define their character through

the various forms of narratives, everyone loves a good story and one that is cohesive and

provides truthful representation of the candidate.

As the author of the book Narratives and Narrators, Gregory Currie, implies that

people are under the assumption that they are being observed at all times while in public. The

actions of any individual will typically address some aspect of the person’s specific character

traits based upon their actions.

Currie continues to explain, “a narrative is rich in indicators of the maker’s [campaign

managers and political parties] intentions,” anything that this person does is based upon a

reason that may not be of their own creation (Currie 2012). Essentially what he stated is that

groups such as campaign managers and organizers will take this into account when creating the

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story for their candidate. They know that what they are selling through the candidates’ story is

a particular parties goals, initiatives, and expectations to win and apply their influence in

government at the highest level. They also understand and are aware that this is something the

voters are typically knowledgeable of and that some surface transparency should be applied.

“We like to make inferences to character…” and typically do so even when the

supporting evidence is weak (Currie 2012). Character narratives help reduce the cognitive

loads and provide an easier way to grasp the complicated aspects of each person’s personal

story and goals. With this said, if a character’s story is brought down to the level of the

audience and is set in a tone that is agreeable to manner different groups, it is likely that the

mass audience will find this person’s character agreeable and will be willing to support this

person with their vote in the confidence of their character.

The sole purpose of a campaign crew is to help compose and maintain a strong

narrative that is created in a way that makes the candidate appear tangible to the audience and

agreeable on many levels. This person should appear accepted by all walks of life and fit the

needs of the voters to win over the confidence that this person is all in all the one they want to

vote for. If the voters invest their cognitive resources on a specific candidate they will find that

over time it is easier to stick with that candidate rather than have to invest the resources they

started with on a new message and candidate. They also want to know that they choose the

right person; they are more than likely feeling cognitive dissonance when they have perhaps

voted early and are concerned maybe they should have waited. To ease this distance that has

occurred they want to hear from the candidate they voted for that they made the right decision.

This can be done through image, voice, advertising, television ads, pop-up ads, fellow voters,

etc.

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The term narratology is used not only to describe the narrative that texts and literature

use but also it can be translated into a way to investigate visual stories. Analyzing visual

images as a narrative by themselves “can do justice to an aspect of images and their effect that

neither iconography nor other art historical practices can quite articulate” (Bal 1997).

Individual Stories Which Encourage Free Expression

The need to rely on mass media for news and information is dwindling. The perforation

of personal technology, and especially mobile devices has allowed for more personalized

narratives to be told. Part of the reason people want to record their own personal tales and

share it with others is it is part of human nature to want to feel special and important. The

opportunity for a person to have their personal tale make the cut for the presidential

candidates’ website is an opportunity many strive for. The personal messages allow people to

connect over the stories and share in the efforts to elect a president. As the Figure 1.19

showcases, anyone can have an opportunity to have their voice heard and their concerns

addressed.

Figure 2.19. “Volunteers Across America”

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.40.12 PM

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What Obama’s Campaign Does Well to Tell The Candidate’s Story

Barack Obama’s campaign strategy does an excellent job of providing the opportunity

for participatory actions of the viewers and audience members (voters). They invite individuals

in to the group environment and create ways for them to become part of the overall team. The

overall goal of the group is to create team camaraderie that provides each person with the

feeling that they are a “key” player in the overall narrative of campaigning process. The

inclusive group mentality helps keep the strength of the narrative strong because all

contributors are interested in achieving a winning victory using a strong, cohesive message.

The campaign strategists make the story tangible and part of their goal is to bring back

the excitement and fascinating qualities that come with getting involved and participating in a

hands on way. Studies have found that if people participate in activities with other people of

similar backgrounds, interests, and goals, and they are convinced they are a member of that

group, they are much more likely to be happy and return because they feel that they are

included and not just a random person on the sidelines. . “Accordingly, people may be more

likely to vote when voting is represented as an expression of self—as symbolic of a person’s

fundamental character—rather than [just] a behavior” (Bryan, et al. 2011).

By allowing people to participate within the campaign processes the voters tend to feel

like they are part of the election process and tend to feel like they “own” the experience of

electing a president. This helps motivate the voters that are participating to help engage their

peers and bring more people into the fold of the issues and election processes.

As mentioned before, we as humans tend to learn best through practice, experience, and

participatory activities. The act of doing something engages not only our minds at a distance

but also our hearts and souls, along with our reputations to some extent. We align ourselves

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with the group or party that fits our interests and lifestyles the most, however this can cause

tensions in our living environments based on our decisions to vote for one party over the other.

“Previous research has shown that people have a strong desire to see themselves as competent,

morally appropriate, and worthy of social approval (4–11). They also see voting as appropriate

and socially desirable (12,13)” (Bryan, et al. 2011). Participation in a campaign process allows

the spectator to create this sense that the story is more “real” and is not just something we

observe as a bystander, through the addition of participation, changes happen.

Figure 2.20. “We Voted”

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.35.05 PM_sm.png

Larger image located in APPENDIX A

Figure 2.21. “Organizing Tip: Help Others Shine”

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.35.05 PM_sm.png

Larger image located in APPENDIX A

Some of the takeaways from the success of Barack Obama’s story telling are:

• Provide the user’s of the website a way to interact with it and want to continue to

return to it in order to see the results of their interactions and learn more.

• The ability to engage themselves in the overall story telling process.

• Do not limit the users self-expressions through the use of images, various visual

representations, text, audio, video, etc.

• Encourage participation and the ability to express emotions and experiences.

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• Emphasis the strong participants and showcase why they are an important part of

the election process.

• Require that the stories placed on the website hold some type of motivation,

participation, call to action, engagement, inclusion, and any other “get up and act”

emphasis to bring other people into the storyline.

• Do not tell everything; show it, images are sometimes stronger story telling

components than just the written word. If the story calls for written text, keep it

short and to the point, but with a little flare or twist to keep it interesting.

• Do not stray from the overarching message and goal, stay true to it and make sure

all the pieces fit together in a cohesive manner that shows, tells, and embodies the

message and creates a tangible reality people can grab on to.

Considerations for Websites

Users of the web are tracked and their information is quantified to help advertisers,

marketers, and businesses better serve your specific needs and to make it easier to convince

you to buy because the material they are selling is advertised specifically to you based on your

interests, needs, and previous purchases or search history.

The way that is done is based on the use of cookies and your IP address to track the

users that enter the site and whether or not they have been there before and if they are based

out of a specific state or region.

Ways to get around the tracking system while browsing the web include things such as

Google Chrome’s Incognito Mode (which allows you to browse in private). Incognito Mode

does not allow for browsing and history to be recoded and cookies are deleted after closing the

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window (Google Chrome n.d.). In order to see the entire site from landing page to homepage

on a regular basis it was necessary to avoid the use of cookies and website tracking

mechanisms that would register a visit to the same site as a re-visit, therefore changing the

content viewed. (See Appendix D for screenshots of the browser)

The Key is Information

The book, Friends, Followers and the Future points out a quote made by the

technologist and investor Chris Dixon on his blog, “The modern economy runs primarily on

information, and the Internet is by orders of magnitude the greatest information mechanism

ever invented” (O'Connor 2012). As he continues to describe it is strange to think in years to

come that people will look back and wonder why information was so scarce and stored using

the methods of analog transcription.

Pinpointing Voters Using Micro-targeting Techniques Using Specific Examples

The examples below showcase a look at micro-targeting examples on the candidates

websites and how they use this technique to engage voters in various regions and locations

based upon that specific region’s issues, concerns, events, and the like.

Some of the examples such as Figure 1.23 showcase a wonderful example of micro-

targeting the voters in Iowa. The micro-targeting allows the user of the website to feel like the

candidates are “talking directly to them” when they make statements on the website or provide

information that is specific to the area. Barack Obama’s website makes this connection right

away. In the figures below there are very clear signs, especially for the Obama campaign

website that they are targeting Iowans. The bright, yellow banner is a very prominent design

element that is one of the first things viewed by the user when entering the site. The only place

that the micro-targeting does not exist for Barack Obama’s website is on his landing page. In

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many circumstances that is not necessary to have micro-targeting because once a visitor arrives

at the homepage they will typically never see the landing page again unless they visit it with a

different browser or in Incognito Mode (Chrome’s way to bypass the cookies system). The rest

of the figures that are not listed for at any point still show similar qualities that help draw in

voters as they feel the information is geared towards where they live. With Governor

Romney’s micro-targeting there are some malfunctioning elements that occur when the images

switch between the national image and the image for Iowa (such as Figures 1.26 and 1.27).

Figure 2.22. Landing Page - No Micro Location – Barack

Obama

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.00.58 AM_sm.png

Figure 2.23. Landing Page - Micro Location – Iowa – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.12.24 AM_sm.png

Figure 2.24. Home Page - Micro Location – Iowa – Barack

Obama

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.08.00 PM_sm.png

Figure 2.25. Home Page - Micro Location – Iowa – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-23 at 9.53.17 AM_sm.png

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Figure 2.26. Ex. 1 - Home Page – Micro Location Image

Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.10.57 PM_sm.png

Figure 2.27. Ex. 1 - Home Page - Micro Location Image Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.10.58 PM_Note_sm.png

Figure 2.28. Ex. 2 - Home Page - Micro Location Image

Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.06.35 PM_Note_sm.png

Figure 2.29. Ex. 2 - Home Page - Micro Location Image Swaps– Iowa – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.06.36 PM_Note_sm.png

Figure 2.30. Micro Location – Iowa –

Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-15 at 10.56.55 AM_Note_sm

Figure 2.31. Home Page - Micro Location – Pennsylvania 1 – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-15 at 10.57.03 AM_Note_sm

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Figure 2.32. Home Page - Micro Location – Pennsylvania 2 – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-15 at 10.57.12 AM_Note_sm

Photography Malfunctions on Mitt Romney’s Website

As it has already been established that image is everything to a candidate. Therefore if

image is everything it is crucial for a future president of the United States to have a website

that shows their images in the best possible manner. Unfortunately this was not always the case

for Governor Mitt Romney’s website. On many occasions the website showed various errors in

the micro-targeting messages along with very noticeable errors in the main image slideshow

that showcased very distorted images. This use of images with errors and distortions

contributes to an image of the candidate that lacks professionalism. See the Table 1.2 below

for examples.

Image Malfunction – Mitt Romney Main Slider Image Ratio and Blur

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.28 AM_sm

Image Malfunction – Mitt Romney Main Image Slider Image Ratio

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.30 AM_sm

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Image Malfunction Photoshop Editing Obvious– Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.24 PM_sm

Table 2.2 Image Malfunctions and Editing Errors

Website Transitions After Election Day

This step in the campaign process is relatively new as there have been limited

campaigns over the years with emphasis placed on the candidates’ websites. However, this is

something that needs to be taken into consideration when designing for the various candidates.

The campaign staff must have a plan in place for either a win or lose in the election. This is a

decision must be made in advance of the election and must take in to consideration the various

factors, messages, and current information that needs to be addressed on the website once it

has launched. After the election, Romney’s website closed access to the homepage and content

it was limited to a launch page with links to social media sites and the ability to be placed in

the newsletter emailing. This transition was the one that was set up for the candidate if he lost.

The alternative view (Mitt Romney as President Elect) was captured by Taegan D. Goddard,

who founded the website politicalwire.com. When the website went live or was leaked for a

short time, he managed to capture a few screenshots to preserve the alternative view of the

election results. The screenshots of the alternative website pages are located in Appendix D.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Introduction to Methods and Procedures

This investigation was conducted with the goal to better understand the political

messages the presidential candidates are trying to convey through their images. The process

will be discussed in detail along with the introduction to the method used to categorize and

analyze the data.

In this investigation the importance of images is questioned and the relevance of image

and how it is used on presidential candidate’s website in the United States. The questions that

will be asked are based on observations conducted before, during, and after the election

process of the 2012, United States Presidential Election.

The initial goal of this investigation was to determine whether or not the images could

have impacted the opinions of voters and therefore affected the results of the election. The

initial process for this investigation appeared straightforward and very limited in scope;

however it became clear that this topic is anything but limited.

The importance of this type of research, and more definitively visual research, is

validated through the observation of society and culture and the reaction they have. This

concept is better understood today than in previous generations, however it is still evident that

there are various individuals who do not see the connection yet.

It is important that people understand that visual information can no longer be ignored

and that a visually rich culture, which exists today, requires that all aspects of a message —

which could be text, audio, video, or images — needs to be addressed at every level and placed

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at the forefront of the battle to win over voters and provide a clear message to the people of the

United States and the world.

Methodology

Data Collection Process

The data collection process consisted of collecting screenshots two times every day

around 10 am and 10 pm. This process occurred throughout the month of October 2012, and

concluded in the middle of November 2012. The data collected consisted of screenshots from a

variety of social media, news, or mass media websites. Additionally, data were collected from

the Republican and Democratic Presidential Candidate websites.

The decision to screenshot the larger set of websites (30 in total, see Table 2.1) was

determined based on the need to collect large, unbiased data from a variety of sources with the

hope that a pattern might appear through the analysis of the contents of the different

screenshots using the grounded theory method while also considering these data from the

perspective of framework theory. The two candidate websites were selected after the election

had concluded. The final selection of these websites was based on the understanding that

personal websites and campaign websites typically should showcase the most information

about a candidate. If this is the case, the two presidential candidate websites should be the best

place to view how the two campaigns sought to portray each candidate to the voters.

In comparing the campaign websites of Governor Romney and President Obama, the

decision was made to limit the focus of the analysis to the main page of each website. The goal

was to keep the image analysis as “clean” and “bias free” as possible by only comparing the

landing pages and the homepages. Using the candidates’ websites as the baseline for the

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analysis of the visual language facilitates future analyses by because it is a consistent

component of websites (i.e., we anticipate that there will always be a landing page).

The full-screenshot tool (shift+command+3) on a Macbook Pro, 15” was used to

capture the websites. This also captures the date, time, and browser windows, all of which can

be used for reference to when and how the screenshot was captured. The websites that had

screenshots collected and observed are listed below. The content was collected based on time

of day (10 am and 10 pm) and the date (10/1/12 to 11/18/12).

Table 3.1 Sources for Initial Website Screenshots

Categorization Method and Reasoning for Data Collection Analysis

The reasoning behind the original category structure is that the categories were

developed based on emerging patterns that were observed while collecting the data, organizing

the data, and placing the initial content into categories that were divided between the two

candidates’ websites. During the data collection process notes were made about emerging

trends. The initial trends that emerged consisted of observing camera angles that were used to

position the subjects in the image, the styling of the images (i.e. the use of images in

infographics, diagrams, posters, etc.), editing of the images or image malfunctions (i.e. the

News Social+Media Personal+Sites Organizational+ Informational

CNN Facebook Barack,Obama Rueters WikipediaFox,News Twitter Mitt,Romney Getty,Images Google,Image,SearchHuffington,Post YouTube Associated,Press Google,SearchThe,Blaze AP,Images PoliticoABC,News The,White,House PBSNBC, Pew,ResearchCBS,NewsMSNBCDenver,PostThe,Columbus,DispatchThe,Washington,PostNew,York,TimesTime,MagazineLos,Angeles,Times

59

addition of content to create a new image, colorization, contrast, image distortion, etc.), the use

of an image for more than one purpose and on different days or weeks, and the different

subjects that were photographed or absent from the images. Once the initial trends for

categorization were decided the remaining categories were introduced in the content analysis

stage.

Original Categories

01_Shot against the sky/Sunset 02_One Person 03_Two or More People 04_Sea of people/Crowd Shot 05_Hands in the Air 06_At a Distance from people/StandAlone 07_In the people, mingling 08_Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus 09_On the Phone_Take up Action_Call to Action 10_Picture inside of a Picture 11_Instagrammed Manipulated Images 12_On a stand 13_Solemn Emotion 14_Smiling 15_Embracing another human being 16_Object based Images, No people present 17_Pointing directly into the Camera 18_Barriers between the camera and the person 19_Barriers between the subjects in the image 20_Image Shifts from general to micro climate 21_Cool Colors 22_Warm Colors 23_Video with a still image 24_Text in front of an image/person 25_Opponent Ad/Image 26_Transportation Is evident in Image (air force one, buses, etc.) 27_Microphone with or without people 28_Setting the Stage (before someone shows up.. are there images to show the before) 29_Military and Vets and Elders 30_Kids and Kissing babies 31_Official Images from Debates and Presidential Events 32_Signs and only Signs 33_"Everyday Lives"

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34_Infographics and Symbols 35_Famous Faces 36_People Working 37_Community Members 38_Iowa_ Specific Images 39_FLAGS_Shot against_Country and State

Defined Categorization – Text Description

01_Shot against the sky/Sunset – Perspective is shooting up at the subject, the photographer is below the subject most likely or the subject is not in front of any structures and is level with the photographer, the sky is prominent in the image, the sky is set at the background/backdrop for the subject, the sky provides an emotional quality that otherwise would not be present 02_One Person – only one person in the image, the subject in the image is pronounced as the main focus of the image, the crowd is a mass and the subject is above the crowd, attention is primarily on one subject and the rest of the image is extra information but not the main focus of the image 03_Two or More People – there are more than one person focused in the image, a secondary subject assists the main subject, two or more people are in focus in the image, the main subject (e.g. the candidate is not always alone in the scene) 04_Sea of people/Crowd Shot – the image shows the landscape or overall environment, typically a wider shot using most likely a wide-angle lens, there is not necessarily a single subject in focus, a large crowd of people, no distinguishable traits or qualities that will allow one person to stand out of the crowd 05_Hands in the Air – this concept is modeled after the statues created for politicians of Greece and Rome 06_At a Distance from people/Stand Alone – person or people are at a distance, they may appear in-personable or distant in a more metaphorical way, they are not in a crowd or the crowd is kept at a distance, there are things that stand in the way of people interacting 07_In the people, Mingling – a part of the people, joining in the crowd, integrating, including people in the group/not excluding, a member of the “family” 08_Image of Text and Some People_Text is the Focus – this includes images that have a mix of subject that could potentially be a person or an object along with signs and or text 09_On the Phone_Take up Action_Call to Action – This showcases people working

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or in the process of calling someone, it shows initiative or action, the act of calling someone, participation in the process of getting people excited about the candidate and making connections/communications 10_Picture inside of a Picture – this showcases people providing images as a way to portray a message, an image inside an image is showcasing the use of images inside the borders of another photograph 11_Instagrammed Manipulated Images – images that have been manipulated in some way that make them feel like they are from an Instagramed styled program or have been toned a certain color to accent something in the image 12_On a stand – a person set above the rest of the people, a person that literally is placed upon a stand, a person on a pedestal, the angle of the image is so that the person appears above the rest, typically this person is at a distance or appears to be out of reach of the audience 13_Solemn Emotion – the person is portraying an expression that is neither truly happy nor sad, they are projecting little emotion distinguished by Paul Ekman as the six main facial expressions (joy, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, sadness) 14_Smiling – the person is portraying an expression that would be listed under the joy definition based on Paul Ekman’s six main facial expressions (joy, surprise, fear, anger, disgust, sadness), it tends to relate to being content, happy, confident, engaged, focused, etc. 15_Embracing another human being – a motion or gesture to show someone else that you care about them or are willing to go past your typical boundaries, people embracing tends to mean that a “wall” is not dividing the people embracing, friendly, encouraging, engaging, involved, love, compassion, friendship, companionship, affection, supportive, all-encompassing 16_Object based Images, No people present – random objects that do not really have any person or hint of a person present in the image, it is something that provides information through what the object is or says 17_Pointing directly into the Camera – interaction with the person behind the lens and the spectatorship goes both ways, the viewer of the image looks on at the subject in the image and the subject looks out at the viewer, it also showcases that the person is aware they are being photographed/watched/viewed 18_Barriers between the camera and the person – objects that block some or the majority of the subject in the image, something that makes the main subject appear distant and makes it difficult for the subject to connect with the viewer/spectator

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19_Barriers between the subjects in the image – the subjects have to deal with the inability to connect on a more personal level because there are things blocking that experience or ability 20_Image Shifts from general to microclimate – the material in the image portrays specific content based on the culture or environment the user is located/based in 21_Cool Colors – dropped analysis 22_Warm Colors – dropped analysis 23_Video with a still image – the content has an image as a placeholder until the video option is activated 24_Text in front of an image/person – the person is not truly the focus of the image or they are only partially the focus, text is prominent 25_Opponent Ad/Image – the opposing candidate is located in images or text on the website as a part of the message 26_Transportation is evident in Image (air force one, buses, etc.) – the use of transportation vehicles to so the process of arriving or leaving a place, that the person is not stationary and they are a moving target, the candidate has the power to travel (money, resources, ability, reason), advertisement 27_Microphone with or without people – the use of a microphone shows the person that has it is the one to pay attention to and is important 28_Setting the Stage (before someone shows up.. are there images to show the before) – could be a variety of different images, the images are typically ones that show the empty stage, the staging area, the behind the scenes images, the entrance of the candidate, etc. 29_Military and Vets and Elders – the inclusion of retirees, military personnel, etc. interaction of these different groups that are not your middle of the line crowd 30_Kids and Kissing babies – handling, hugging, interacting with children, younger adults, this is something that tends to be photographed or depicted in some form of campaign, propaganda, etc. to help bring in emotional qualities that are not present with adults in images, people can relate and place themselves into this position as if they were the child, very strong emotional reaction, less central route processing 31_Official Images from Debates and Presidential Events – these are images that were photographed during the “neutral events” that are meant to size up the candidates on a level playing field, even display of both sides

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32_Signs and only Signs – mostly signage and other advertising, text based content 33_"Everyday Lives" – the ability for the candidate to mingle and mix with the voters and to make an effort to live a “normal” life, the person stepping off the pedestal to join in the crowds and become one of them, they started there and they can be at that state again 34_Infographics and Symbols – the use of other content to convey information 35_Famos Faces – using well-known celebrities and people who are known members of society to promote the “brand” of the candidates or endorse them 36_ People Working – showing people working is important to promote a group that is motivated to participate and help in the process of the election 37_Community Members – people who are not celebrities, who are average citizens caught in the spotlight with or without a candidate in the image, average people doing average things that are typical in a person’s day or they are the ones being photographed at events and rallies 38_Iowa_ Specific Images – images that showcase elements that are specific to Iowa, as this investigation was conducted in this state and it is considered a key player in most elections 39_FLAGS_Shot against_Country and State – this description entails that some form of a state, American flag, or some other flag is in the image

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CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Introduction to Results and Discussion

The 2012 election posed many new challenges for both the Republican and Democratic

candidates. As an incumbent, President Obama needed to defend his record. Governor

Romney faced the challenge of creating a national campaign shortly after his win in a

competitive set of primary elections (Gallagher 2012).

Some of the advantages of being an incumbent include the reputation and prestige

associated with the office, the existence and readiness of a campaign staff, public recognition,

and the sense of gravitas that comes from having experience in the job. Another less discussed

advantage the incumbent candidate has is that he is familiar with being in front of the camera,

which allows him to minimize errors and maximize opportunities.

Images are an important factor in advertising and narrative. They provide tangible

information that encompasses multiple audiences and allows the various audiences to easily

digest the messages encoded in them. The candidates’ websites contain messages that have

been encoded in the photographs. By using the framing model it is possible to contextualize

part of the reasoning behind the campaign managers’ decisions on which images they used for

the targeting of specific audiences. As is custom, most campaigns use knowledge gained from

prior elections to direct their advertisement placement in print media, radio, and on television

networks. The problem with these mass media approaches is that they use a shotgun approach.

If the advertisement sparks interest in a viewer, and the viewer has time to process the

information, they will be motivated to take the time to analyze the content in the advertisement

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or visual content using the central route persuasion model. They will take more time to key in

on specific points made in the arguments and to question or analyze the information presented

to them. On the other hand, if the advertisement provides a “mental short cut” using the

peripheral cues the viewer will take less time to process the information and therefore become

much more passive in their consideration of the arguments (Benoit and Benoit 2008).

Social media and big data, some of the newest technology for marketing, reduced the

potential for hit and miss by focusing and precisely targeting messages at a specific viewer.

This individualization of the message allows for the message to be fit to specialized interests

and opinions that span a wide range of voters. Big data is now a tool regularly used by

campaigns to personalize candidate narratives (Crovitz 2012).

The Key is Personalized Narratives

Today’s campaign strategists are no longer attempting to target only large entities;

rather, campaign strategists are using micro-targeting to individually tailor each message to

each individual’s interests and needs (Semiatin 2013). The message is now tailored using Big

Data (Issenberg, A more Perfect Union 2012). to personalize the experience for each

individual. The goal is to sell the candidate’s message in a way that will intrigue, draw

attention to, motivate, and ultimately win the vote of the majority of Americans.

As these messages are tailored, the narratives need to follow suit. Within this content

analysis investigation, the primary research question was whether images that are used on a

presidential candidate’s website will have a powerful enough narrative to sway voters? The

answer is, in short, yes! Images clearly help to complete the narrative. While images are not

the sole reason a candidate will win an election, (unless an incriminating image is captured)

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photos help support the overarching message. The goal for a candidate is to have one strong

message that can be shaped depending on who the audience is at the time of presentation. As

the author of the book Campaign Craft, Michael Burton and Daniel Shea, notes, the situation

with John McCain’s message was that he had too many distinct messages that diverged in

context and direction. By the end of the campaign, McCain was trying to convey up to six

different messages at the same time (Burton and Shea 2010). It has been demonstrated that a

person that uses a consistent message throughout the campaign is more likely to win more

votes because voters can more easily understand and associate themselves with the overarching

narrative.

The Candidates’ Narratives: Based on Images on their Campaign Websites

The table and figures that follow were constructed to help narrow down the scope of

the analysis to a manageable set of categories. The categories were pulled out of the list of 39

original categories and they are smaller sampling of the campaign narratives. In order to select

the final categories it was necessary to look at the number of images in each one and the

emphasis that placed on that category as part of the narrative. The nine categories were

selected and ordered according to the amount of images they contained. The table starts with

the category that has the most images total and continues through the list based on the next

largest category.

This was then broken down one step further by splitting each of the nine final

categories into two sub-categories (titled with the candidates’ name and the

community_others). This final breakdown provides a more detailed narrative of the subjects in

the images. In Table 3.1 the categories are compared side-by-side in a textural format. In

Table 3.2 the final nine categories are compared visually.

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Mitt Romney Total Images Barack Obama Total Images 01_Smiling_14 214 01_One Person_02 355 02_One Person_02 208 02_Smiling_14 267 03_hands in the air_05 165 03_Two or more

people_03 258

04_On a stand_12 115 04_Community Members_37

225

05_Shot against the sky_01

108 05_hands in the air_05 185

06_Two or more people_03

99 06_Sea of people_04 180

07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

94 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

173

08_FLAGS_Shot against_Country and State_39

89 08_On a stand_12 154

09_Sea of people_04 83 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

148

Table 4.1 Mitt Romney and Barack Obama – Final Nine Categories Compared Textually

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Table 4.2 Mitt Romney and Barack Obama – Final 9 Categories

Compared Side-by-Side

69

Mitt Romney

70

Table 4.3 (continued): Mitt Romney – Final nine categories based on image count

71

Barack Obama

72

Table 4.4 (continued): Barack Obama – Final nine categories based on image count

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Analysis of Narratives Using Specific Image Examples

The goal of this section is to examine the images in each of the final nine categories

and explain what the two different candidates’ narratives say about their interests, goals,

initiatives, and personalities. This categorization of the content is based on the initial

interpretation of the images by the original analysis, the placement of the image in the final

nine categories, what the main category the image represents, the support for the reasoning

based on the literature review, and relevant example images for each category.

Examples of Final Narrative Categories: Barack Obama

During the data collection process, the primary observations suggested that images

were used to convey the narrative that President Obama was a man of the people and that he

was an ordinary citizen, just like the voters. That he, too, could drink a beer every now and

then, vote for his choice of president, and also have meals with friends and family.

As the images below demonstrate, it is not just about what a person has to say but how

they say it through their portrayals in images. The grid below showcases example images that

portray each category, a short description as to why they support the overall narrative of the

candidate, and how these examples are supported by the literature review. A summarization of

the findings will follow in the section below the table.

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Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and

Caption

Personal stories from the voting process and the decision process for who is the person to vote for.

P • 01_One Person_02

• 04_ Community Members_37

• 09_"EverydayLives"_33”

• Persuasive messaging and personal story telling

• Emotional Connections and attitude formation

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.1. Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 11.30.15 PM.jpg

Personal story about why it is important for her to participate in government based activities and to be a “a citizen of the world”

P • 01_One Person_02

• Smiling • 04_

Community Members_37

• 09_"EverydayLives"_33

• Personal story

• Emotional Connections and attitude formation / a person in action

• Holding a phone which shows work being done and the other hand is showcasing a Barack/Biden campaign button

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.2. Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.35 PM.jpg

People are in the scene, one person is distinctly pulled out from the crowd

P • 01_One Person_02

• 04_Community Members_37

• 05_hands in the air_05

• 06_Sea of people_04

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• Interaction with the community at an average location

• Engagement in the community

Figure 4.3. Screenshot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.35 PM.jpg

75

The image showcases a few people, but the main subject has been framed by the shoulders of bystanders and the other subjects in the background

P/N • 01_One Person_02

• 04_Community Members_37

• 05_hands in the air_05

• 06_Sea of people_04

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• Social hour at a local location and provides a connection point that typically is not viewed by the public

• Engagement in the community

Figure 4.4. Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.56.49 AM

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the Literature

Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

This is a person that is showing a genuine smile and is open to viewing as the body faces the camera even though the eyes do not make contact

P • 02_Smiling_14

• 01_One Person_02

• Facial gestures and body gestures are inviting the viewer in

Figure 4.5. Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.01 AM

Inviting the viewer into the image with a genuine smile

P • 02_Smiling_14

• 01_One Person_02

• 05_hands in the air_05

• Facial gestures and body gestures are inviting the viewer in

• Taking up action to call to get engaged

Figure 4.6. Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.44.16 AM

Welcoming smile, looking straight into the camera. The person looks like an attractive, intelligent person who is participating in the campaigning process

P • 02_Smiling_14

• 01_One Person_02

• 04_Community Members_37

• Showcasing a local volunteer

• Getting involved

• Supporting and participating

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.7. Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.54.16 PM

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All the subjects are smiling and are positioned in a way that draws the viewers eye in to the smiles

P/N • 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 04_Community Members_37

• 06_Sea of people_04

09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• Personalization of the message to various specialty groups

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.8. Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.56.14 PM

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the Literature

Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

It is about the community and the people and the overall efforts of those who are a part of the team

P • 04_Community Members_37

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 06_Sea of people_04

• Team mentality

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Telling a good story/Narrative

Figure 4.9. Screen shot 2012-10-16 at 10.16.38 PM.jpg

All for one and one for all is what their signs say in combination with their expressions and the symbol of the flag behind them

P • 04_Community Members_37

• 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 05_hands in the air_05

• Group mentality

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Semiology (American Flag)

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.10. Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 10.28.43 PM.jpg

It is about the community and the people

P • 04_Community Members_37

• 03_Two or more people_03

• Politics and New Media

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.11. Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.26.11 PM.jpg

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Interactions of various groups

P • 04_Community Members_37

• 03_Two or more people_03

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Open Discussions

Figure 4.12. Screen shot 2012-11-08 at 12.22.44 AM.jpg

Using any person of any age to get the word out and to participate

P • 04_Community Members_37

• 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or more people_03

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.13. Screen shot 2012-11-06 at 1.10.50 PM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the Literature

Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

Acknowledgment of the audience

P • 05_hands in the air_05

• 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 08_On a stand_12

• Importance of Images

• Politics and New Media

• Camera Angles

• Lighting

Figure 4.14. Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.08.00 PM.jpg

The image shows more sky than the person that is the subject of the image. The sky is almost where the person is pointing at, “the sky is the limit”

P • 05_hands in the air_05

• 02_Smiling_14

• 08_On a stand_12

• Camera Angles

• Lighting • Importance

of Images

Figure 4.15. Screen shot 2012-11-02 at 12.51.00 AM.jpg

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Acknowledgment of the audience and a specific person

P • 05_hands in the air_05

• 01_One Person_02

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 06_Sea of people_04

• 08_On a stand_12

• Lighting • Color and

image manipulation

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.16. Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.43.37 AM.jpg

The people are typically excited in the images and they tend to have their hands up attempting to receive acknowledgement and to show their support

P • 05_hands in the air_05

• 06_Sea of people_04

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• Audiences point of view

Figure 4.17. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.03.14 AM.jpg

Signs are a common occurrence at these events. They say a variety of different messages and are typically personalized to some specific topic for the specialty groups that attend these events, another way to show support.

P • 05_hands in the air_05

• 01_One Person_02

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 06_Sea of people_04

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• Audiences point of view

• Lighting • Persuasive

messages • Emotion

and Attitude formation

Figure 4.18. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 11.56.31 PM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the Literature

Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

The image showcases the large crowd that are indistinct faces that surround the candidate and form a shape that surrounds the election day text information

P • 06_Sea of people_04

• 01_One Person_02

• 08_On a stand_12

• Camera angles

• Lighting • Color

manipulation and image manipulation

Figure 4.19. Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.15.06 AM.jpg

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The image provides a perspective that shows a large expanse of people in the distance. It appears as though there is no end to the crowd

P • 06_Sea of people_04

• 01_One Person_02

• 08_On a stand_12

• Camera angles

Figure 4.20. Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.23 AM.jpg

The image showcases a variety of indistinct figures. This image is literally a sea of people at a closer perspective, no one stands out of this image until it is edited to showcase the candidate, the image has to be cropped dramatically

P • 06_Sea of people_04

• 05_hands in the air_05

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 04_Community Members_37

• Camera angles

• Lighting • Color and

image manipulation

Figure 4.21. Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 10.50.36 PM

Anytime the sunrise or sunset can be used in an image it typically relates to some emotional aspect, the large crowd in the image also showcases the support, that these people would be willing to get up extremely early to see this candidate

P • 06_Sea of people_04

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 08_On a stand_12

• Lighting • Emotion

and Attitude formation

• Semiology • Camera

Angles

Figure 4.22. Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 10.50.16 PM

The expansive crow is overwhelming. The entire open green expanse is covered by indistinct people. The only open area consists of the main focus of this audience, the stage, no specific subject stands out, the only thing that does is the group clustered as the audience

P • 06_Sea of people_04

• 08_On a stand_12

• Telling a good story/ Narrative

• Camera angles

Figure 4.23. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.01.52 AM.jpg

This is another indistinct crowd, the image itself is nothing out of the ordinary, no specific subject of interest, however it provides context to the amount of people attending the event, by itself it says very little, within a series it says a lot about the context of the entire event

P/N • 06_Sea of people_04

• Persuasive messages

Figure 4.24. Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.03.12 AM.jpg

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Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the Literature

Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

The image is a strange angle, it is “staged” but not because it is not the camera the subjects are looking at, therefore the image is capturing the subjects as they are truly interacting in the moment. It is showcasing an image that was taken of an senior citizen that had a personal moment with the candidate

P • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 04_Community Members_37

• 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• Politics and New Media

• Emotion and Attitude formation

Figure 4.25. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.09 AM.jpg

The image not only shows a variety of people working / on the phone, it also shows the candidate participating in the efforts. Image is not necessarily posed because it is taken at a distance and with the subject not directly looking in the direction of the camera

P • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14

• Emotion and Attitude formation

Figure 4.26. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 1.11.52 PM.jpg

An excited crowd that is again reaching their arms up to show support and they are reaching over the barrier to bring themselves closer

P • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 05_hands in the air_05

• 06_Sea of people_04

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Politics and New Media

Figure 4.27. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.56.16 PM.jpg

The image is showcasing a child which always brings in more attention than an adult that is doing something similar. This image is more emotionally charged

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 01_One Person_02

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.28. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.06.59 AM.jpg

81

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the Literature

Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

The image is simple, yet extremely well staged. The lines and geometric shapes in the image are extremely strong. The lines, angles, and shapes provide a very powerful punch of interest in the image and subject

P • 08_On a stand_12

• Semiology • Emotion

and Attitude

• Persuasive Messages

• Lighting • Telling a

good story/ Narrative

Figure 4.29. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 9.54.37 AM.jpg

The subject has been placed in the center of the crowd and is the central point of the circle. The group has an organized method of allowing everyone to view this moment

P • 08_On a stand_12

• 01_One Person_02

• 04_Community Members_37

• 06_Sea of people_04

• 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• Lighting

Figure 4.30. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.17 AM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the Literature

Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

This is a moment that looks like anyone’s daily life, having lunch at a local restaurant

P • 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 04_Community Members_37

• Rhetorical situations

• Emotion and Attitude formation

Figure 4.31. Screenshot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.58 AM.jpg

An atypical moment captured where there is an interaction at a person’s location of work you would not expect to see a presidential candidate at

P • 09_"EverydayLives"_33

• 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or morepeople_03

• 04_CommunityMembers_37

• 05_hands in the air_05

• Rhetorical situations

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.32. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.27 AM.jpg

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Barack Obama’s Narrative:

One Person – In terms of what the one person means in Barack Obama’s use of images

is that the person that is in front of the camera and is the main subject of the image typically

Something you would not expect to see a candidate allowing these images to be published on their campaign website. The images that showcase this daily activity are images that show it in a controlled manner, no crazy expressions on anyone’s faces

P • 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 04_Community Members_37

• 05_hands in the air_05

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Semiology • Rhetorical

Situations

Figure 4.33. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.57.59 AM.jpg

The image shows the people rallying together in support of something

P • 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• 04_Community Members_37

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.34. Screenshot 2012-10-20 at 12.08.45 PM.jpg

The image does not showcase anyone from the direct campaign group. It shows the students and voters of the future, community members

P • 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• 03_Two or more people_03

• 04_Community Members_37

• 06_Sea of people_04

• Politics and New Media

• Lighting • Semiology • Persuasive

Messages

Figure 4.35. Screenshot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.05 AM.jpg

The image shows the location based on the flags and the support that has been hand made for this candidate on the t-shirts along with the fact that it is the first responders that are supporting this candidate, typically first responders are held in high regards in many circumstances

P • 09_"Everyday Lives"_33

• 04_Community Members_37

• Persuasive messages

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Semiology

Figure 4.36. Screenshot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.42 AM.jpg

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has something to say to the audience. It provides a means by which the person’s message will

be embodied by attaching a real person to the story. Through imagery, the focus is placed on

the person who is “speaking.” The subjects of these images might be the President’s running

mate, Joe Biden, President Obama’s wife, Michelle Obama, or anyone who would be

considered part of the inner core of the candidate’s campaign staff. This also includes the

images that showcase individual voters and community members.

Smiling – There are many images that showcase smiling. The subjects are on occasion

smiling while looking at the camera and at the “audience” on the camera-side of the image

(i.e., at the spectators). The smiles typically are welcoming and focus on engaging the viewer,

drawing them in, and inviting them to observe the image further. Typically, when someone

appears happy and is smiling they are viewed more positively and are considered more

competent (Todorov, et al. 2005).

Two or more people – Images with more than one person are a mix between showing

campaign related subjects (e.g., the candidate) and the focus of the campaign (i.e., the voters).

The subjects vary in the images. The images appear to flow in a pattern where there are

slideshows containing images of just the candidates and campaign members, images of voters

and supporters, and images that showcase a mix of the two groups. There are typically mixed

image types based on the events that were photographed and are showcased together; however,

on occasion there are specific collections that are from different events but are collected

together and associated with each other using broad captions such as, “High Fives, Hugs, and

Handshakes.”

Community Members – Many images attempt to tell the audience’s story. The total

image count for the category was 225 images with 119 of them showcasing the Campaign

84

Crew with the community. The second most common category of images included 103 images

that showed people from the community. The image count for this category is about even

between how many images were presented with the Campaign Crew in it and those images that

provided context using community members, individuals, groups, etc.

Hands in the air – Supporters shown with their hands in the air is suggestive that they

are attempting to convey information and expressions along with the supporters who are

showing their excitement for and enthusiasm about the candidate. Hand raising is not

something people will do unless they are excited or happy. It takes effort and energy to raise

one’s arms and have them move through the air. Raising of one’s hands shows acclimation for

the candidate and showing images of others doing this suggests to the viewer that support for

the candidate is widespread.

Sea of people – Vast crowds stretching over various spaces at rallies provide context

for events and are meant to demonstrate the popularity of the candidate. Typically, the images

are not alone in a post and typically the crowds are either indistinct masses or they have a few

people that are pinpointed from the audience. The third alternative is an image that showcases

the candidate and the crowd expressing enthusiastic support for the candidate (i.e., the subject

of the image) shown on a stage.

Barriers between the camera and the person – the barriers that exist tend to be

security barriers designed to separate supporters from candidates or the stage. The barriers

might also consist of people over whom the camera shot is angled. The reason that people may

be considered to be barriers is that they are blocking other content in the image or are

obscuring parts of the main subject. Not all the barriers are considered bad, and sometimes

they are used as ways to focus the attention on one specific area or subject in the image.

85

Something that is noted from the observations of these images is that when there is a barrier

between the subject and the camera, often the people being separated cannot or do not bridge

the barrier. However, when there is a barrier between person-to-person interactions in the

image, often an attempt is made to bridge that gap between the candidate and the other

individuals in the image. This creates a situation where the members of the crowd “clamor”

for the candidate by reaching across the barrier or otherwise showing a design to reach out for

the candidate.

On a Stand – When the candidate is raised above the crowd, he is positioned in a

higher stature when compared to the crowd. This is not unexpected for the President of the

United States. The goal for such imagery would be to have the right combination to allow the

candidate to appear presidential without being authoritative or come across as arrogant. There

are also other times where people who are not official campaign members are allowed to be a

part of the spotlight.

“Everyday Lives"– The majority of the time people in the spotlight attempt to leave

many parts of their lives out of view of the camera. However, the Obama campaign, for

example, allowed images to be captured that portrayed “private” or “everyman” moments (e.g.,

drinking a beer at a bar with locals). The “everyday lives” images include representations of

people doing common activities in relation to the election process or talking about what it

means to support this candidate. This category demonstrates how the candidate is effective at

crossing the line between a person in the spotlight to a person who can relate to an “average

person.” In these images, it appears that the candidate is approachable, a part of the crowd, and

willing to cross the boundaries between the spotlight and the normal life.

86

All the above – The other side of the narrative of using one person in the image is to

provide the documentary style of telling the audience about what the campaign team is doing

during the election campaign. Figure 3.4 showcases President Obama having a beer with a

group of community members in what they describe as an example of “Local Stops on the

Campaign Trail.” This is showcasing the interactivity that candidate Obama has with his

audience. The use of titles and broad captions allow for multiple images from different days

and events to fit underneath them. This style of captioning allows for the campaign crew to

create their own personal narrative each time they put a slideshow together on the website.

This “everyman” quality that is portrayed through the majority of the narrative allows viewers

to envision this candidate as their future president who can play multiple roles while wearing

multiple hats as president.

Key Take-Away Points:

Pros – • Images display qualities and symbols that are discussed in the topics • Fairly consistent shooting style, images vary enough to add interest and

uniqueness • Images enhance the story and narrative and do not detract from it, they

support the topic in discussion • Images provide multiple points of view on the election (Candidate’s, staff

members, volunteers, children, adults, elderly, personal tales, professional photographs, etc.)

• Visuals are easily accessible and visible throughout the entire website experience

• Text or captions typically relate well to the “topics” or subjects in the images • Images are typically in focus and the colors and editing are clean • Emotions are varied and showcase a wide range of the main emotional

categories as discovered by Paul Eakman • Images showcase interactions with the audience • Everyday lives are not hidden from view, many images showcase what could

be considered a more average livelihood

87

Cons – • After closer investigation, it becomes apparent that editing and manipulation

have been done to enhance the images’ quality and statement • Some images are not photographed or edited in a clean manner to fit in with

the rest of the images, such as some of the images that have a editing style that resembles an old photograph

Examples of Final Narrative Categories: Mitt Romney

During the data collection process the primary observations suggested that Governor

Romney was set on a mission to save the country from the current President. The images

portray a more hard-faced candidate that does not look into the camera, who instead focuses

his gaze off into the distance either past the camera or towards the horizon. The images come

across as a darker, less inviting, and lacking in emotion.

As the images will show below, it is not just about what a person has to say but how

they say it through their portrayal in images. The grid below showcases example images that

portray the category, a short description as to why they support the overall narrative of the

candidate, and how these examples are supported by the literature review. A summarization of

the findings will follow in the section below the table.

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

Personal stories from the voting process and the decision process for who is the person to vote for.

P • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 04_On a

stand_12 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• Persuasive messaging and personal story telling

• Emotional Connections and attitude formation

• Camera Angles • Lighting

Figure 4.37. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 9.55.46 AM.jpg

88

Personal stories from the voting process and the decision process for who is the person to vote for.

P/N • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 08_FLAGS_

Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• Semiology • Lighting • Color and

Image manipulation

Figure 4.38. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.33.34 PM.jpg

Limited images used to showcase the candidates family and wife. Personal moment behind the scenes

P • 01_Smiling_14 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• Lighting • Persuasive

Messages

Figure 4.39. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.42 PM.jpg

Excited voters that are in support of the candidate

P • 01_Smiling_14 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 08_FLAGS_ Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• Persuasive Messages

• Lighting

Figure 4.40. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.29 PM.jpg

An ethnic group of people that are in front of an American flag background showcasing their support

P • 01_Smiling_14 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 08_FLAGS_ Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Persuasive Messages

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Lighting

Figure 4.41. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.20 PM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

89

Shot against the sky with a halo effect surrounding the head of the person. The sky tends to be used to symbolize the unlimited possibilities and a positive light on the future

P/N • 02_One Person_02

• 01_Smiling_14 • 04_On a

stand_12 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• Lighting • Camera Angles • Emotion and

Attitude formation

Figure 4.42. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 10.10.29 PM.jpg

The image is showing the subject of the website along with the message he is pushing in text

P/N • 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• Lighting • Semiology • Rhetorical

Situations • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.43. Screenshot 2012-10-09 at 9.58.33 PM.jpg

The image shows the support of people from the crowd without showing who they are along with the main subject in the center of the moment on the stage above the crowd and at a distance

P/N • 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• Camera Angles • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Semiology • Audiences point

of View

Figure 4.44. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.39 PM.jpg

The image that shows support of the candidate

P • 02_One Person_02

• 01_Smiling_14 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Audiences point of View

Figure 4.45. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.59.03 PM.jpg

The image that shows support of the candidate

P/N • 02_One Person_02

• 01_Smiling_14 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 09_Sea of

people_04 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• Audiences point of View

• Lighting • Emotion and

Attitude formation

Figure 4.46. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.53 AM.jpg

90

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

This image by itself is fine. The image however has been used frequently. The candidate is holding the microphone

P/N • 03_hands in the air_05

• 01_Smiling_14 • 04_On a

stand_12 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 06_Two or more people_03

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Camera Angle

Figure 4.47. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.35 PM.jpg

The image is cropped to fit the slideshow viewer. The candidate is expressing support of the message reaching for it

N • 03_hands in the air_05

• 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• Lighting • Color and

Image Manipulation

Figure 4.48. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.12 PM.jpg

The image appears as a typical gesture of people who are on a stage, expressing through their arms in the air a gesture towards the audience

P • 03_hands in the air_05

• 01_Smiling_14 • 04_On a

stand_12 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 06_Two or more people_03

• Persuasive messages

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Lighting

Figure 4.49. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.57 PM.jpg

Image shows support for the candidate and excitement about the candidate

P • 03_hands in the air_05

• 01_Smiling_14 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 06_Two or more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Persuasive messages

• Emotion and Attitude formation

Figure 4.50. Screenshot 2012-10-31 at 1.22.08 PM.jpg

91

The image is distorted and the editing or image styling is in poor taste. Shows support for the candidate in their own creative way

N • 03_hands in the air_05

• 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 06_Two or more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• Lighting • Color and

Image manipulation

Figure 4.51. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.32 AM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

The image is used frequently and shows the two main subjects against the sky in a way that suggests they are in a leadership position

P/N • 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 04_On a

stand_12 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Camera Angle • Semiology

Figure 4.52. Screenshot 2012-10-11 at 8.37.39 PM.jpg

The subject is not directly shot against the sky, however half of the background consists of sky. The majority of the subjects in this image are hidden because there is no contrast between the foreground and the background

P/N • 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 04_On a stand_12

• Emotion and Attitude formation

Figure 4.53. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.55 AM.jpg

The angle at which this image is taken is from below. The format follows the shot against the sky style. The image is obviously indoors but provides similar emotional qualities as the outside scenes

P/N • 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 04_On a stand_12

• 08_FLAGS_ Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Lighting • Semiology

Figure 4.54. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.57 PM.jpg

92

Almost half the image is sky, angle is less extreme, more at an even level with the subject

P • 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 04_On a stand_12

• 06_Two or more people_03

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Lighting • Semiology • Persuasive

Messages

Figure 4.55. Screenshot 2012-11-02 at 11.30.57 AM.jpg

The angle of the camera is slightly tilted in the direction of the sky

P • 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Lighting • Camera Angles

Figure 4.56. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.37 AM.jpg

Half the image is sky

N • 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 08_FLAGS_ Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Color and Image manipulation

• Lighting • Semiology

Figure 4.57. Screenshot 2012-11-05 at 5.25.09 PM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

The image consists of two subjects that are the center of attention

P • 06_Two or more people_03

• 01_Smiling_14 • 04_On a

stand_12 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.58. Screenshot 2012-11-05 at 5.24.48 PM.jpg

93

The image has been used before but is a good example of limiting the subjects to only have two people who are wearing similar colors to the background

P/N • 06_Two or more people_03

• 01_Smiling_14 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 04_On a

stand_12 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.59. Screenshot 2012-10-03 at 10.00.20 AM.jpg

The image does a very good job of showing a connection made between two people

P • 06_Two or more people_03

• 01_Smiling_14

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.60. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.27 AM 1.jpg

More than two people are happy and proud to be Americans and are smiling in support of the candidate

P • 06_Two or more people_03

• 01_Smiling_14 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.61. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.32 PM.jpg

This showcases only a few people as the main subjects

P • 06_Two or more people_03

• 01_Smiling_14 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_1809_Sea of people_04

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.62. Screenshot 2012-10-29 at 12.27.19 PM.jpg

94

There are more than two people but less than a sea of people, there is a clear definition where the group starts and stops

P/N • 06_Two or more people_03

• 01_Smiling_14

• Emotion and Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.63. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.35 AM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

The barrier is a symbol for America but it is blocking part of the image and the candidate

P • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 02_One Person_02

• 06_Two or more people_03

• 01_Smiling_14 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Lighting • Semiology • Persuasive

Messages • Emotion and

Attitude formation

Figure 4.64. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.02 PM.jpg

The barrier is a symbol for the candidate, the signs say what the subject is behind the signs

P • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 02_One Person_02

• 01_Smiling_14 • 05_Shot

against the sky_01

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Lighting • Semiology • Persuasive

Messages • Emotion and

Attitude formation

Figure 4.65. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.51 PM.jpg

The barrier is something that typically is viewed as a negative. The barrier here by itself is a problem, it makes the person feel distance and kept from the crowd and audience.

P/N • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Lighting • Semiology • Persuasive

Messages • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Rhetorical Situations

Figure 4.66. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.33 AM.jpg

95

The barrier is a fence that is blocking the people from the audience on the other side of the image, the bridge between the two is the words on the signs

N • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 01_Smiling_14 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• Lighting • Semiology • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.67. Screenshot 2012-10-13 at 11.30.44 PM.jpg

The barriers are the letters and words, they also could be viewed as a bridge for the fact tat they are a message to others

P • 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• 01_Smiling_14 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 08_FLAGS_

Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• 09_Sea of people_04

• Persuasive Messages

• Lighting • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.68. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.33.21 PM.jpg

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

The candidate is frequently in front of a flag, especially an American flag

P/N • 08_FLAGS_Shot against_ Country and State_39

• 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02

• Semiology • Persuasive

Messages • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Lighting • Narrative

Figure 4.69. Screenshot 2012-10-09 at 9.58.16 PM.jpg

The candidate is mostly in images with some sign or flag which symbolizes

P • 08_FLAGS_Shot against_ Country and State_39

• 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 04_On a

stand_12

• Lighting • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

Figure 4.70. Screenshot 2012-11-01 at 1.20.46 PM.jpg

96

The flags are at the forefront of the image and are the main subject surrounding the subject. This is the final farewell to this candidate and this is used to show him as “America’s choice”

P • 08_FLAGS_Shotagainst_ Country and State_39

• 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 04_On a stand_12

• 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_18

• Semiology • Lighting • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

• Camera Angles • Color and

Image manipulation

Figure 4.71. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.17.18 AM.jpg

The subjects are showing their love for America, waving different items to show their support in front of a large American flag

P • 08_FLAGS_Shotagainst_ Country and State_39

• 01_Smiling_14 • 03_hands in

the air_05 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_1809_Sea of people_04

• Lighting • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Persuasive Messages

• Semiology

Figure 4.72. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.20 PM.jpg

The subject is easily viewed as a support mechanism for Mitt Romney, however the quality of it is not what it should be

P/N • 08_FLAGS_Shotagainst_ Country and State_39

• Lighting • Persuasive

Messages

Figure 4.73. Screenshot 2012-10-21 at 10.12.38 AM

Flags again are prominent and are shown as clearly treasured items with the people either waving or cradling the flags

P • 08_FLAGS_Shotagainst_ Country and State_39

• 01_Smiling_14 • 06_Two or

more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_1809_Sea of people_04

• Lighting • Emotion and

Attitude formation

• Narrative

Figure 4.74. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.39 AM

Interpretation Pos/Neg

Main Category/ Sub Categories

How this supported by the

Literature Review

Image Example

Figure #’s and Caption

97

The amount of people located behind the candidate fills the frame and does not end, there are also indistinct faces in the crowd

P • 09_Sea of people_04

• 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 03_hands in

the air_05

• Narrative • Persuasive

Messages • Semiology

Figure 4.75. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.45 PM.jpg

The amount of people in front and partially visible in the back are filling the frame and appear substantial

P/N • 09_Sea of people_04

• 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 04_On a stand_12

• Persuasive messages

Figure 4.76. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.51 AM.jpg

The people are hardly visible and appear as more one anonymous entity

P/N

• 09_Sea of people_04

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 06_Two or more people_03

• 07_Barriers between the camera and the person_1809_Sea of people_04

• Lighting

Figure 4.77. Screenshot 2012-10-31 at 1.22.04 PM.jpg

The use this images is for a variety of potential messages, the image did not change much

P • 09_Sea of people_04

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 05_Shot against the sky_01

• 06_Two or more people_03

• Lighting • Persuasive

Messages • Emotion and

Attitude formation

Figure 4.78. Screenshot 2012-10-29 at 11.58.18 PM.jpg

Subject in the image is the banner/text. The subject it talks about is not in the image, and the sea of people forms a texture for the image, nothing more

P • 09_Sea of people_04

• Persuasive Messages

• Narrative • Lighting • Emotion and

Attitude formation

Figure 4.79. Screenshot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.16 PM.jpg

98

Governor Romney’s Narrative:

Smiling – This category contained the most images from the 39 categories. However,

this was largely due to the difficulty in classifying Romney’s smile. The classification was

determined based upon the understanding that the outer portions of his lips tended to be turned

up slightly. This was considered a smile because it was clearly not a frown and there were

many images that portrayed a stronger emphasis of discontentment such as those that were

placed in the solemn category. On occasion there were images that could truly be considered

part of the smiling category when a true smile was displayed. These instances were rare

throughout the entire data collection process.

One person – A number of images show the candidate in isolation. These tend to be a

limited assortment of images with Governor Romney or Representative Ryan in most of them

with an occasional interaction with other people. The images are meant to showcase the

candidate; however, the images frequently do not include other people, which does not allow

the candidate to be seen in the context of his supporters.

Hands in the air – The images that are placed in this category are based upon the

multiple images that show Governor Romney and Representative Ryan expressing their

message through gestures that show their hands waving. Alternatively, they may be shown

with their hands elevated to hold a microphone. The majority of images that are in this

category are showing someone with a microphone. This can include a microphone on a podium

or in a person’s hand. Though this is not the focus of the image, it occurs enough times that it

becomes something that is hard to ignore. A microphone is supposed to be an instrument to

99

help project a person’s voice across large audiences. However, this often does not come across

due to the lack of other people in the images or indications of large crowds being present.

On a stand – The number of images that show the candidate positioned above the

crowd do not change often, however the images that are used for long periods of time

showcase the candidates on a stand or above the crowd. These images are often shot against

the sky from a low angle (i.e., with the camera angle looking up toward the candidate). These

images tend to be shot from a middle framing perspective with the upper portion of Governor

Mitt Romney in the image and nothing else being shown.

Shot against the sky – As noted, several images show the sky as a prominent element

in the background. The images either have a blue sky as the background or the images have the

candidate positioned above the camera. This categorization originated out of the initial

observations of looking at Governor Romney’s images located on his website. The category

also is derived of the understanding that a presidential candidate is meant to look presidential

which tends to be done through the raising of the subject above the audience. However, as

noted in President, Barack Obama’s analysis section, while this might be necessary in some

circumstance, it has to be used carefully so that the candidate does not come across as being

arrogant or aloof.

Two or more people – These images show the candidates, Governor Romney and

Representative Ryan, along with their campaign workers. In fact, these images typically do

not include “typical” supporters, but focus on typical campaign imagery, such as campaign

staff and leaders from the Republican Party. Variation in these images is rare and when images

of supporters are used the images are not change for long periods of time.

100

Barriers between the camera and the person – When barriers are shown, the barriers

between the camera and the subject tend to be physical barriers rather than barriers composed

of lines of supporters. Frequently, images suggest that access to Governor Romney was limited

and the candidate typically is represented as being at a distance. These barriers consist of

images of the candidate in, near, or behind a vehicle, behind a stand, on a stage, or behind

fences and barriers.

Flags Shot against Country and State – Governor Romney tends to be shown in a

way that suggests that he is patriotic. There is almost always an American flag or other official

flag (e.g., a state flag) in the images. The use of flags, signs, and handmade elements is

abundant in images of Governor Romney. These items are also lacking quality, which do not

help enhance the perception of the subject in the image. It would not be wise to ignore

supporter’s efforts to participate in the advertising of the candidate. However, it is important to

recognize that even if an image is supporter generated, the fact that the supporter captured and

shared the image says something about the candidate, whether it is well designed or truly

supports the overall narrative.

Sea of People – The images that show a large group of people are limited. Most of the

images tend to be a bit more “intimate” or are close-up shots, which limits the number of other

people that can be shown in the scene. The crowd shots displayed on the Romney campaign’s

website often do not provide much context. The events images appear to be randomly placed

on the website, therefore these images tend not to be helpful in portraying information about

the crowd or location.

Community – The community images are not abundant compared to others in the top

nine categories. The images tend to be reused frequently and are hardly change throughout the

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website. This category’s content is limited and not dynamic. The website also does not show

supporter generated content. This carries a negative connotation that continues to suggest this

candidate is generally unapproachable.

All the above – The quality of the images on the website overall do not portray a

candidate of the people. With this said, the images do portray a strong candidate for America,

but not necessarily one with whom the citizens and voters can identify. The images need to be

cleaned up, edited properly, and the variety and selection of images needs to be updated and

put at the forefront of the website design process with the website design following the

appropriate formatting of images. Images were used as secondary information in many

circumstances and the text and captions were primary, which means the images did not always

portray what the text was attempting to say.

Key Take-Away Points:

Pros – • The images showcase what typically is considered a leader’s stance in

previous elections and presidential styling • American spirit is showcased in the use of American flags placed abundantly

in the images Cons –

• Images tend to be out of focus • Emphasis on the style of composition and quality is limited • Selection process was poor or limited • Images tend to be poorly lit • Images do not showcase a variety of qualities, symbols, and messages • Image subjects are limited to a few select types of groups; few of the images

include groups that might appeal to special interest groups. • When a slideshow viewer is displayed, many images are not scaled properly

and therefore look distorted • Limited emotions are showcased • Messages appear blurred and unclear based on image usage • Images showcase the candidate and the candidate’s staff and crew on podiums

or stands more often than mingling with the crowd

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• At a distance from the audience • Smiling on occasion, but the images are limited and are reused frequently • Images do not showcase multiple interactions with different ages

Comparing Homepages for Barack Obama and Mitt Romney

Dates Categories Subject Count Image Examples

Figure #’s and

Captions 10.08.12 • 01_One

Person_02 • 04_On a stand_12 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.80. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.15.06 AM.jpg

10.08.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 01_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12 • 05_Shot against

the sky_01

• One Person

Figure 4.81. Screenshot 2012-10-08 at 10.33.40 PM.jpg

10.11.12 • 02_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12 • 06_Two or more

people_03

• Two People • Campaign

Running Mate

Figure 4.82. Screenshot 2012-10-11 at 10.51.07 PM.jpg

10.11.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 04_On a stand_12 • 05_Shot against

the sky_01

• One Person

Figure 4.83. Screenshot 2012-10-11 at 10.08.12 AM

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10.15.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 04_On a stand_12

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.84. Screenshot 2012-10-15 at 10.54.40 AM.jpg

10.15.12 • 02_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12 • 05_Shot against

the sky_01 • 06_Two or more

people_03

• Two People • Campaign

Running Mate

Figure 4.85. Screenshot 2012-10-15 at 11.32.16 PM.jpg

10.16.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12

• One Person

Figure 4.86. Screenshot 2012-10-16 at 10.16.32 PM.jpg

10.16.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02

• One Person

Figure 4.87. Screenshot 2012-10-16 at 8.50.23 PM.jpg

10.20.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 04_On a stand_12 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.88. Screenshot 2012-10-20 at 11.29.39 PM.jpg

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10.20.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02

• One Person

Figure 4.89. Screenshot 2012-10-20 at 12.10.57 PM.jpg

10.23.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14

• One Person

Figure 4.90. Screenshot 2012-10-23 at 9.54.04 AM.jpg

10.23.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 03_hands in the

air_05

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.91. Screenshot 2012-10-23 at 9.53.17 AM

10.27.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14 • 06_Sea of

people_04 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.92. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 10.27.31 PM.jpg

10.27.12 • 04_On a stand_12 06_Two or more people_03

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.93. Screenshot 2012-10-27 at 10.30.25 PM

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11.02.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 04_On a stand_12 • 03_Two or more

people_03 • 05_hands in the

air_05

• One Person

Figure 4.94. Screenshot 2012-11-02 at 11.31.29 AM.jpg

11.02.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 04_On a stand_12 • 08_FLAGS_Shota

gainst_Country and State_39

• 09_Sea of people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.95. Screenshot 2012-11-02 at 11.30.59 AM.jpg

11.03.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 04_On a stand_12 • 05_hands in the

air_05 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.96. Screenshot 2012-11-03 at 10.43.37 AM.jpg

11.03.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 09_Sea of

people_04 • 08_FLAGS_Shota

gainst_Country and State_39

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.97. Screenshot 2012-11-03 at 10.42.59 AM.jpg

11.04.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 04_On a stand_12 • 05_hands in the

air_05 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.98. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 12.01.09 AM.jpg

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11.04.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.99. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.55.55 PM.jpg

11.04.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 09_Sea of

people_04 • 08_FLAGS_Shota

gainst_Country and State_39

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.100. Screenshot 2012-11-04 at 11.58.54 PM

11.06.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 04_On a stand_12

• One Person

Figure 4.101. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 1.10.38 PM.jpg

11.06.12 • 01_Smiling_14 • 02_One

Person_02 • 03_hands in the

air_05 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• One Person

Figure 4.102. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 1.09.19 PM.jpg

11.06.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.103. Screenshot 2012-11-06 at 11.32.05 PM.jpg

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11.07.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.104. Screenshot 2012-11-07 at 10.18.39 AM.jpg

11.07.12and

11.08.12

• 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 04_On a stand_12 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• 08_FLAGS_Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• One Person

Figure 4.105. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.17.18 AM.jpg

11.08.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.106. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.21.52 AM.jpg

11.08.12 • 02_One Person_02

• 03_hands in the air_05

• 04_On a stand_12 • 07_Barriers

between the camera and the person_18

• 08_FLAGS_Shotagainst_Country and State_39

• One Person

Figure 4.107. Screenshot 2012-11-08 at 12.17.18 AM.jpg

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11.13.12 • 01_One Person_02

• 02_Smiling_14 • 04_On a stand_12 • 06_Sea of

people_04

• One Person • Sea of

People

Figure 4.108. Screenshot 2012-11-13 at 9.21.21 PM.jpg

11.13.12 • 02_One Person_02

• 04_On a stand_12 • 05_Shot against

the sky_01

• One Person

Figure 4.109. Screenshot 2012-11-13 at 9.19.53 PM.jpg

The images shown above highlight the key points made in the analysis of the nine final

categories. The candidates’ homepages were placed in a grid organized by the date the

screenshot was taken. The pattern that emerges for President Obama’s website suggests that

imagery was used to provide a clear message about how the candidate’s campaign understood

the power of imagery. The images shift from a single person as a subject of the image to an

image showcasing the single person with an audience or crowd, which would suggest a

connection to the voters.

For Governor Romney’s website, the images tend to be photographed in a manner that

showcases the candidate juxtaposed “against the sky.” This tends to be an image taken from a

lower angle, which places the observer below the subject. The reasoning behind the title for the

category “shot against the sky” is based on the observation that the majority of Governor

Romney’s launch page images portray him as positioned above the crowds, which is the

perspective from which the viewers of the images see the candidate. The challenge for this

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candidate is that the Obama campaign effectively positioned him as a “rich man” who could

not relate to the needs or wants of the common man. The problem is that the imagery used by

the Romney campaign tends to support this perspective because they frequently show him in

an elevated, “aloof” position.

Additionally, the images for Governor Romney also switch between shots showing the

candidate as an individual on a stage to an individual among a sea of people but with the

candidate standing alone and apart from the crowd on a stage. This, once again, supports the

narrative of the Obama campaign that Romney was not a common, relatable man. There is also

a difference in whether and how the candidates are shown embracing others. Governor

Romney is never shown on stage embracing any of his supporters; he is always a lone figure or

shown with others in his campaign looking out on a crowd. For Obama, on the other hand,

images were used to show the incumbent President embracing supporters in a cordial manner.

The final set of images for Governor Romney show him in the patriotic stance between

the flags that are in the foreground both physically and symbolically. The final image from the

campaign that is still in place on Governor Romney’s website shows him standing tall and

proud; yet, he is represented as a lone figure set against the sky. This was a consistent theme

throughout the entire campaign. Additionally, it is also interesting that this image is the first

image that was captured for this study, which suggests that the campaign reused a lot of images

and that this theme was used consistently throughout the campaign.

Analysis: Final Comments

In conclusion, my analysis suggests that the Obama campaign used imagery in a more

effective manner. Specifically, the campaign used various media techniques to convey a

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narrative that suggested that he is the “personable president.” With the application of big

data, micro-targeting, and targeted image and advertisement use, the Obama campaign used

narrative to suggest to voters that he cares about them and is a man of the people. While this

analysis did not involve interviews of campaign workers or insiders and, therefore, it cannot be

determined whether this use of imagery was purposeful or by accident. However, it is safe to

say that the way they consistently presented the President to coincide with the broader

campaign narrative suggests that they were purposeful in their selection and manipulation

of images.

The Obama campaign consistently used images that were designed to catch the

viewer’s attention immediately upon entering the homepage. The use of a well designed

website and emotional appeals also played into providing an easy, navigable experience for the

user. The images played to the voters’ key interests in various ways, either through the use of

static images, infographics, text layered images, or personal testimonials intermixed with

images. The dynamic nature of the campaign website for President Obama helps keep

supporters, potential voters, and curious parties interested and willing to return to see what

updates have been added each day or week. People today expect frequent updates for a

person’s status throughout the day. This is similar to how people use social media sites such as

Facebook or Twitter. They expect that there is always something new developing throughout

the day and they want to hear about it so they are up-to-date on the information.

The Obama campaign website contains what Richard Nisbett and Ross Lee describe as

“Vivid information [which] takes the form of concrete and imagistic language, personal

narratives, pictures, or first-hand experience” (Hill and Helmers 2004). When the term

“vividness” or “vivid information” is used, it means that there are different degrees of how

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powerful a specific form of language comes across to the audience. The most vivid information

is based upon actual experience, such as skydiving and snorkeling in the Caribbean. The least

vivid type of information would be information that one is exposed to while reading or

listening to an impersonal story or narrative, such as a statistical report or a fact about a famous

person’s latest run in with the law. A comprehensive continuum of vividness might look

something like this (Hill and Helmers 2004):

Most Vivid Information actual experience [e.g. face-to-face encounter]

moving images with sound static photograph realistic painting line drawing narrative, descriptive account abstract, impersonal analysis

Least Vivid Information statistics

Table 4.5. Vividness Scale (Hill and Helmers 2004)

The Obama campaign style suggests that there is a need to consider the visual and

aesthetic qualities of a presidential candidate’s campaign materials. It is important that any

potential candidate understand that it is crucial to have a cohesive image set for the entire

campaign and to not only be personable and interactive “on the spot” (i.e., in live appearances),

but to also portray this personal quality through static images on a website. The current trend

for campaigns is to provide not only a strong narrative — one that includes the background in

government, personal tales of the past, and personal interest and goals along with the initiatives

of the political party the candidate is affiliated with — but also that embeds components that

enhances the “vividness” of the message. Personal narratives that are video recordings of

people’s experiences along with still images, as shown on the scale in Table 3.5 are ranked

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high, only surpassed by the importance of meeting the candidate

face-to-face.

It is clear that the Obama campaign team is good at selling their “product,” President

Obama, by not only pleasing “popular” groups but also by appealing to smaller, special-

interest groups. The most effective element in the Obama campaign was the creation of in-

group, grassroots-styled campaigning, which encouraged any voter to partake in and feel

part of the campaign; that is, they found a way to make people feel like they had special

inside access.

Allowing people to participate and tell their own stories through the various mass

media and social media outlets allows people to better understand and relate to the candidate.

Using these different outlets to allow voters’ voices to be heard in a campaign program takes

advantage of the power of social communication, and imagery is an easy and important part of

letting the people’s voices be heard. By promoting individual stories and allowing those

individuals to share their personal experiences, the campaign develops a connection with other

potential voters that can relate to the individual stories.

What the Obama campaign demonstrated in their use of imagery is that they understood

that images are powerful tools that can be used to tell a narrative and engage in persuasion.

The power of imagery was highlighted by John Berger, who noted, “If the new language of

images were used differently, it would, through its use, confer a new kind of power. Within it

we could begin to define our experiences more precisely in areas where words are inadequate"

(J. Berger 1972). In order to read a description of an experience that is described in writing, we

must use our sense of sight to see it. Seeing comes before reading or viewing text and all these

factors are influenced by the framing mechanisms used by human beings to process

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information. Berger again describes it best when he notes, “The art of the past no longer exists

as it once did. Its authority is lost. In its place there is a language of images. What matters now

is who uses that language for what purpose… A people or a class which is cut off from its own

past is far less free to choose and to act as a people or class than one that has been able to

situate itself in history” (J. Berger 1972). Images provide a way to better understand the past as

well as the present as it unfolds. Images can cross boundaries and languages and images are a

way to place each generation in the context of its culture. It allows people to better understand

the mindset of individuals and groups that lived during the time when the image was captured

and to imagine what the lives of people in the images must have been like.

The documentation of the election as portrayed in this thesis is designed not only to

help inform candidates and voters about the power of imagery, it is also hoped that it can

become a part of the record of what transpired in the 2012, election. Clearly, by examining

how campaign imagery is used to influence voters, we can learn about how images influence

voters, how campaigns can use images to share their narrative, and how candidates can more

effectively represent themselves as they run for office. The hope for this information is that it

will provide context for future campaigns and candidates and it will help them with better

understanding how to use imagery to reach the broader public.

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CHAPTER 5. SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, FUTURE WORK

Summary

Barack Obama is already known for his influential oratory in public speaking and he

also appears to be at ease in front of a camera. What the Obama campaign demonstrated in

their use of imagery is that they understood that images are powerful tools that can be used to

tell a narrative and engage in persuasion.

As this thesis suggests throughout the investigation and analysis, the game changer for

the election results can most readily be awarded to the use of Big Data (use of very pinpointed

demographic information) and personalized marketing strategies. Although this analysis was

not conducted in a way that can suggest the causation of the use of the images it can suggest

that images were used in a manner that was consistent with the broader big data strategy that

was used to focus on the various audiences’ interests. The Obama campaign was able to bring

in a variety of talented people to help convey the information and narratives that he and others

in the Democratic Party wanted to portray.

In the end, Governor Romney’s narrative was weakly portrayed through imagery and

was plagued with photo manipulation problems or image gallery display problems. The images

were lacking in the aesthetic qualities what would be considered as parts of a vivid, dynamic,

and intriguing photographic style. The images also did not provide much for context for the

events they were attempting to portray. The limitation of captioning of the images for

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Governor Romney meant that what could not be read in the images themselves was still not

clarified by the text surrounding it. The image selection was random compared to President

Obama’s categorization based on events or message for each individual image used.

Limitations

As any responsible researcher should admit, there are always components of research

that can be improved upon based on new knowledge and information derived from the

completion of the study. This is the case with this investigation. This research involved an

analysis of a sampling of imagery collected from the 2012, Presidential Election. A variety of

other tests could have been conducted with these images that pertain to areas such as web

design, quantitative image analysis, and so forth. This study addressed a set of specific

questions that will hopefully provide insights into new ways of thinking about how to better

narrate a political message to bring interested voters into the story and become part of it.

The timing of the screenshots proved to be one of the most difficult parts of collecting

the data as it required consistent screen captures during a set time each day over a month. The

process of collecting the data could not be fully automated based on the need to capture each

webpage uniquely depending on content and context. For example, websites containing

dynamic qualities could not be captured the same way each day. Therefore, the collection

process has a slight variance depending on what time the collection process started and ended,

how much news and content had been updated, and any other factors that could have affected

the contents and presentation of the campaign websites.

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Future Work

There are numerous issues that this study raised that could be addressed in future

research. For example, future research might examine a different set of websites, perhaps

narrowing the focus to a specific set of sites based on content or purpose. The goal with this

research is to find that what was presented on a small set of websites. It would be interesting

to see if these results would also be evident on social media and mass media sites.

Additionally, the analysis examined imagery from a number of websites, and only looked at

one aspect of the quantitative image analysis; therefore, future research might examine the

nature of the image contents based on factors such as the precise distribution of color, subject

positioning, or other factors that might be better understood if the images were analyzed using

image analysis tools.

Furthermore, it will be important to understand how candidate websites and imagery on

these websites should evolve as campaigns adapted content for mobile applications. Brad

Frost’s article entitled, Mobile Website vs. Responsive Website, examines the way mobile

website design evolved in the past election. An implication is that in future elections, mobile

applications and views from mobile devices will be of greater importance. As a result, future

campaigns will need to go through the process of determining how much visual content they

can use to enhance the experience on mobile devices while still including the functionality that

most mobile users are expecting on the applications they use. The challenge of translating

imagery for use on mobile devices is great, so future research should examine how and where

images are best used for reaching voters using mobile devices.

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APPENDIX A. Phases of New Media in Election Campaigns

Table 5.1. Phases of New Media in Election Campaigns

118

APPENDIX B. Framing Information Path

Figure 5.1. Framework Message Path

119

APPENDIX C. Tips to Help Others

Figure 5.2. “We Voted”

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.35.05 PM_sm.png

Figure 5.3. “Organizing Tip: Help Others Shine”

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.35.05 PM_sm.png

120

APPENDIX D. Chrome’s Incognito Browser Mode

Figure 5.4. How to access Incognito Mode

Figure 5.5. Blank Incognito Mode prior to web address input

121

APPENDIX E. Leaked President Elect Website

Figure 5.6. Home Page – President Elect accidental design release –

Mitt Romney ( Goddard 2012)

Figure 5.7. Final Landing Page after election – Mitt Romney

Screen shot 2012-11-13 at 9.19.53 PM.jpg

122

Figure 5.8. Screenshots of Leaked Pages for

Mitt Romney President Elect Website ( Goddard 2012)

123

APPENDIX F. Folder Structure for Categorization

Screenshot of Diagram Figures and Screenshot Info

Figure 5.9. Folder Structure, Showcase All Files, Mitt Romney and

Barack Obama

Screen Shot 2013-03-25 at 11.25.54 AM

Figure 5.10. Folder Structure, Barack Obama

Screen Shot 2013-03-25 at 11.26.01 AM

Figure 5.11. Folder Structure, Barack Obama, Categories - Columns

Screen Shot 2013-03-25 at 11.26.07 AM

Figure 5.12. Folder Structure, Mitt Romney

Screen Shot 2013-03-25 at 11.27.11 AM

124

Figure 5.13. Folder Structure, Mitt Romney, Categories - Columns

Screen Shot 2013-03-25 at 11.26.35 AM

Figure 5.14. Folder Structure, Barack Obama, Final 9 Categories - Columns

Screen Shot 2013-03-25 at 11.26.35 AM

Figure 5.15. Folder Structure, Mitt Romney, Final 9 Categories -

Columns

Screen Shot 2013-03-25 at 11.26.35 AM

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APPENDIX G. Examples of Categorization

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

01_Shot against the sky/Sunset

B

Figure 5.16. Barack Obama - Shot against

the sky/Sunset Example

Screen shot 2012-10-16 at 10.16.32 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.17. Barack Obama - Shot against

the sky/Sunset Example

Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 10.50.16 PM

B

Figure 5.18. Barack Obama - Shot against

the sky/Sunset Example

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 11.39.08 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.19. Mitt Romney - Shot against

the sky/Sunset Example

Screen shot 2012-11-08 at 12.18.00 AM_sm.png

126

M

Figure 5.20. Mitt Romney - Shot against

the sky/Sunset Example

Screen shot 2012-10-10 at 9.57.14 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.21. Mitt Romney - Shot against

the sky/Sunset Example

Screen shot 2012-10-03 at 9.55.46 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

02_One Person B

Figure 5.22. Barack Obama – One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-14 at 11.29.06 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.23. Barack Obama - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-15 at 10.54.40 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.24. Barack Obama - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-29 at 11.57.33 PM_sm.png

127

B

Figure 5.25. Barack Obama - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.21.38 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.26. Barack Obama - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.45.03 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.27. Mitt Romney - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.04.33 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.28. Mitt Romney - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-16 at 8.50.10 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.29. Mitt Romney - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.39 PM_sm.png

128

M

Figure 5.30. Mitt Romney - One Person

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.45 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

03_Two or More People

B

Figure 5.31. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-10-11 at 10.51.07 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.32. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 11.30.20 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.33. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 10.28.43 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.34. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-10-17 at 10.54.10 PM_sm.png

129

M

Figure 5.35. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-10-03 at 10.00.20 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.36. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.21.07 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.37. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.39 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.38. Barack Obama – Two or More

People Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.27 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

04_Sea of people/Crowd

Shot

B

Figure 5.39. Barack Obama – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.34.36 PM_sm.png

130

B

Figure 5.40. Barack Obama – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.53.26 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.41. Barack Obama – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.08.23 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.42. Barack Obama – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.23 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.43. Barack Obama – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-19 at 10.45.02 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.44. Mitt Romney – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.22.04 PM_sm.png

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M

Figure 5.45. Mitt Romney – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.10.42 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.46. Mitt Romney – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.37 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.47. Mitt Romney– Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-10-03 at 9.55.39 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.48. Barack Obama – Sea of

people/Crowd Shot Example

Screen shot 2012-11-08 at 12.18.00 AM

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

132

05_Hands in the Air

B

Figure 5.49. Barack Obama – Hands in the

Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

20 at 12.07.44 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.50. Barack Obama – Hands in the

Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

22 at 8.48.55 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.51. Barack Obama – Hands in the

Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

28 at 11.54.02 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.52. Barack Obama – Hands in the

Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

27 at 12.07.30 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.53. Barack Obama – Hands in the

Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

28 at 11.53.52 PM_sm.png

133

M

Figure 5.54. Mitt Romney – Hands in

the Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

11 at 8.37.39 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.55. Barack Obama – Hands in the

Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

27 at 12.07.30 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.56. Mitt Romney – Hands in

the Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

18 at 9.33.20 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.57. Mitt Romney – Hands in

the Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

12 at 12.22.57 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.58. Mitt Romney – Hands in

the Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

27 at 12.12.34 AM_sm.png

134

M

Figure 5.59. Mitt Romney – Hands in

the Air Example Screen shot 2012-10-

27 at 12.12.43 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

06_At a Distance from people/Stand

Alone

B

Figure 5.60. Barack Obama – At a Distance

from people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.33 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.61. Barack Obama – At a Distance

from people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.20 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.62. Barack Obama – At a Distance

from people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.53.42 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.63. Barack Obama – At a Distance

from people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.18 AM_sm.png

135

M

Figure 5.64. Mitt Romney – At a Distance from

people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.15 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.65. Mitt Romney – At a Distance from

people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.42 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.66. Mitt Romney – At a Distance from

people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.23 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.67. Barack Obama – At a Distance from

people/Stand Alone Example

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.20.48 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

136

07_In the people,

Mingling

B

Figure 5.68. Barack Obama – In the

People, Mingling Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.20.10

AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.69. Barack Obama – In the

People, Mingling Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.21.00 AM

B

Figure 5.70. Barack Obama – In the

People, Mingling Example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.57.54 AM

B

Figure 5.71. Barack Obama – In the

People, Mingling Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.08 AM

B

Figure 5.72. Barack Obama – In the

People, Mingling Example

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.41.37 PM

137

M

Figure 5.73. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling

Example Screen shot 2012-10-

12 at 12.23.10 PM

M

Figure 5.74. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling

Example Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.18

AM

M

Figure 5.75. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling

Example Screen shot 2012-10-

13 at 11.30.34 PM

M

Figure 5.76. Mitt Romney – In the People, Mingling

Example Screen shot 2012-10-

09 at 9.59.12 PM

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

138

08_Image of Text and Some People_Text is

the Focus

B

Figure 5.77. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.02.03 AM

B

Figure 5.78. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-

14 at 11.29.09 PM

B

Figure 5.79. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-

11-01 at 1.08.13 PM

B

Figure 5.80. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-

20 at 12.09.01 PM

M

Figure 5.81. Mitt Romney – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-

03 at 10.10.22 PM

139

M

Figure 5.82. Mitt Romney – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-

12 at 12.23.04 PM

M

Figure 5.83. Mitt Romney – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-16 at 10.40.47 AM

M

Figure 5.84. Mitt Romney – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-11-

06 at 11.42.01 PM

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

09_On the Phone_Take up Action_Call to

Action

B

Figure 5.85. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-11 at 10.05.46

AM

B

Figure 5.86. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-15 at 10.55.39

AM

140

B

Figure 5.87. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 11.30.08

PM

B

Figure 5.88. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 12.12.02

PM

B

Figure 5.89. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-

10-31 at 1.20.35 AM

B

Figure 5.90. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.43.46

AM

M

Figure 5.91. Mitt Romney – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-

10-09 at 9.58.33 PM

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

141

10_Picture inside of a

Picture

B

Figure 5.92. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.44.07

AM

B

Figure 5.93. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-19 at 10.44.49

PM

B

Figure 5.94. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.56.30

PM

B

Figure 5.95. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.41.06

PM

B

Figure 5.96. Barack Obama – Image of

Text and Some People_Text is the

Focus Screen shot 2012-10-

20 at 12.07.48 PM

142

M N/A for Romney

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

11_Instagrammed Manipulated

Images

B

Figure 5.97. Barack Obama –

Instagrammed Manipulated Images

Example Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.07.48

PM

B

Figure 5.98. Barack Obama –

Instagrammed Manipulated Images

Example Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 11.29.57

PM

B

Figure 5.99. Barack Obama –

Instagrammed Manipulated Images

Example Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 10.28.02

PM

M

Figure 5.100. Barack Obama –

Instagrammed Manipulated Images

Example Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.12.38 AM

143

M

Figure 5.101. Barack Obama –

Instagrammed Manipulated Images

Example Screen shot 2012-10-

12 at 12.22.48 PM

M

Figure 5.102. Barack Obama –

Instagrammed Manipulated Images

Example Screen shot 2012-11-

06 at 1.25.09 AM

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

12_On a stand B

Figure 5.103. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.34.27

PM

B

Figure 5.104. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.15.06

AM

B

Figure 5.105. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 11.39.08

AM

144

B

Figure 5.106. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-11-02 at 12.51.00

AM

B

Figure 5.107. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.32 AM

B

Figure 5.108. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.53.42 PM

B

Figure 5.109. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.25 AM

B

Figure 5.110. Barack Obama– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.08.06 PM

145

M

Figure 5.111. Mitt Romney– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-11 at 8.37.39 PM

M

Figure 5.112. Mitt Romney– on a stand

– example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.10 PM

M

Figure 5.113. Mitt Romney– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.10 PM

M

Figure 5.114. Mitt Romney– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.45 AM

M

Figure 5.115. Mitt Romney– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.34 AM

146

M

Figure 5.116. Mitt Romney– on a stand -

example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.09 AM

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

13_Solemn Emotion

B

Figure 5.117. Barack Obama – Solomon Emotion - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 10.50.26 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.118. Barack Obama – Solomon Emotion - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.07.54 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.119. Mitt Romney – Solomon Emotion - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.09 AM

147

M

Figure 5.120. Mitt Romney – Solomon Emotion - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.55 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

14_Smiling B

Figure 5.121. Barack Obama – Smiling -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-11 at 10.51.07

PM.png

B

Figure 5.122. Barack Obama – Smiling -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.01 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.123. Mitt Romney – Smiling -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.42 PM_sm.png

148

M

Figure 5.124. Mitt Romney – Smiling -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-14 at 10.21.05 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

15_Embracing another human

being

B

Figure 5.125. Barack Obama – Embracing another human being

- Example

Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.49.11 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.126. Barack Obama – Embracing another human being

- Example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.57.43 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.127. Mitt Romney – Embracing another human being

- Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.29 PM_sm.png

149

M

Figure 5.128. Mitt Romney – Embracing another human being

- Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.04 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

16_Object

based Images, No people

present

B

Figure 5.129. Barack Obama – Object

based Images, No people present -

Example

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.09.24 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.130. Mitt Romney – Object based Images, No people present -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.11.02 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

17_Pointing directly into the

Camera

B

Figure 5.131. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the

Camera - Example

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 11.56.08 PM_sm.png

150

B

Figure 5.132. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the

Camera - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-16 at 8.51.53 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.133. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the

Camera - Example

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 11.56.08 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.134. Barack Obama – Pointing directly into the

Camera - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-15 at 11.31.31 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.135. Mitt Romney – Pointing

directly into the Camera - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.30.36 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.136. Mitt Romney – Pointing

directly into the Camera - Example

Screen shot 2012-11-02 at 12.49.55 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

151

18_Barriers between the

camera and the person

B

Figure 5.137. Barack Obama – Barriers

between the camera and the person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.21.17 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.138. Barack Obama – Barriers

between the camera and the person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.41.24 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.139. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the camera

and the person - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.33

AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.140. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the camera

and the person - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.37 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.141. Mitt Romney – Barriers between the camera

and the person - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.23

AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

152

19_Barriers between the

subjects in the image

B

Figure 5.142. Barack Obama – Barriers

between the subjects in the image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.15 AM_Sm.png

B

Figure 5.143. Barack Obama – Barriers

between the subjects in the image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.23 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.144. Mitt Romney – Barriers

between the subjects in the image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.15 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.145. Mitt Romney – Barriers

between the subjects in the image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.15 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

20_Image Shifts from general to microclimate

M

Figure 5.146. Mitt Romney – Shifts for

Microclimates - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.15.18 AM

153

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

23_Video with a still image

B

Figure 5.147. Barack Obama – Video with

a Still Image - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.17.52 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.148. Barack Obama – Video with

a Still Image - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.48.27 AM

M

Figure 5.149. Barack Obama – Video with

a Still Image - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-04 at 10.09.15 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.150. Mitt Romney – Video

with a Still Image - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-09 at 9.59.12 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

154

24_Text in front of an

image/person

B

Figure 5.151. Barack Obama - Text in front of an image/person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.25.56 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.152. Barack Obama - Text in front of an image/person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.56.37 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.153. Barack Obama - Text in front of an image/person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.08.09 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.154. Mitt Romney - Text in

front of an image/person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.34.05 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.155. Mitt Romney - Text in

front of an image/person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.47.24 PM_sm.png

155

M

Figure 5.156. Mitt Romney - Text in

front of an image/person -

Example

Screen shot 2012-11-01 at 1.06.43 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

25_Opponent Ad/Image

B

Figure 5.157. Opponent Ad/Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-11 at 8.38.57 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.158. Opponent Ad/Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.01.44 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.159. Opponent Ad/Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.53

AM.png

M

Figure 5.160. Opponent Ad/Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.53

AM.png

156

M

Figure 5.161. Opponent Ad/Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-11 at 10.08.16 AM_sm.png

26_Transportation is evident in Image (air force one, buses, etc.)

B

Figure 5.162. Barack Obama -

Transportation is evident in Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 10.50.33 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.163. Barack Obama -

Transportation is evident in Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.08.31 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.164. Mitt Romney -

Transportation is evident in Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.15 PM

M

Figure 5.165. Mitt Romney -

Transportation is evident in Image -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.30.41 PM_sm.png

157

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

27_Microphone with or without

people

B

Figure 5.166. Barack Obama – Microphone

with or without people - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.53.31 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.167. Barack Obama – Microphone

with or without people - Example

Screen shot 2012-11-02 at 11.31.50 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.168. Barack Obama – Microphone

with or without people - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.20 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.169. Mitt Romney –

Microphone with or without people -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.17.45 AM.png

158

M

Figure 5.170. Mitt Romney –

Microphone with or without people -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.59 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.171. Mitt Romney –

Microphone with or without people -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-03 at 9.55.46 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

28_Setting the Stage

B

Figure 5.172. Barack Obama – Setting the

Stage - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.29 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.173. Mitt Romney– Setting the

Stage - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.22 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

159

29_Military and Vets and Elders

B

Figure 5.174. Barack Obama– Military and

Vets and Elders - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.41.34 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.175. Barack Obama– Military and

Vets and Elders - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.28 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.176. Barack Obama– Military and

Vets and Elders - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.45 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.177. Mitt Romney– Military

and Vets and Elders - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.22

PM.png

160

M

Figure 5.178. Mitt Romney– Military

and Vets and Elders - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.22.54 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

30_Kids and Kissing babies

B

Figure 5.179. Barack Obama – Kids and Kissing Babies -

Example

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.41.27 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.180. Barack Obama – Kids and

Kissing Babies - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-22 at 8.48.50 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.181. Mitt Romney – Kids and

Kissing Babies - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.30.36 PM_sm.png

161

M

Figure 5.182. Mitt Romney – Kids and

Kissing Babies - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.57 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.183. Mitt Romney – Kids and

Kissing Babies - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.04 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

31_Official Images from Debates and Presidential

Events

B

Figure 5.184. Barack Obama – Official

Images from Debates and Presidential

Events

Screen shot 2012-10-17 at 10.54.10 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.185. Barack Obama – Official

Images from Debates and Presidential

Events

Screen shot 2012-10-17 at 10.54.18 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.186. Barack Obama – Official

Images from Debates and Presidential

Events

Screen shot 2012-10-17 at 10.54.30 PM_sm.png

162

M

Figure 5.187. Mitt Romney – Official

Images from Debates and Presidential

Events

Screen shot 2012-10-17 at 12.09.30 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

32_Signs and only Signs

B

Figure 5.188. Barack Obama – Signs and

Only Signs

Screen shot 2012-10-23 at 9.53.57 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.189. Barack Obama – Signs and

Only Signs

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.53.38 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.190. Barack Obama – Signs and

Only Signs

Screen shot 2012-10-19 at 10.48.23 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.191. Barack Obama – Signs and

Only Signs

Screen shot 2012-10-13 at 11.01.37 AM_sm.png

163

M

Figure 5.192. Mitt Romney – Signs and

Only Signs

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.12 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.193. Mitt Romney – Signs and

Only Signs

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.51.51 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.194. Mitt Romney – Signs and

Only Signs

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.12.21 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

33_"Everyday Lives"

B

Figure 5.195. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.05

AM.png

B

Figure 5.196. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.01.16 AM_sm.png

164

B

Figure 5.197. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.57.48 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.198. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 12.12.29 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.199. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.57.41 AM_sm.png

Figure 5.200. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.57.44 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.201. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-30 at 9.58.21 AM_sm.png

165

B

Figure 5.202. Barack Obama – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.53.36 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.203. Mitt Romney – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.42 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.204. Mitt Romney – Every Day

Lives - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-04 at 10.09.15 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.205. Mitt Romney – Every Day

Lives – Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.24.04 PM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

34_Infographics and Symbols

B

Figure 5.206. Barack Obama –

Infographics - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-21 at 10.40.08 PM_sm.png

166

B

Figure 5.207. Barack Obama –

Infographics – Example

Screen shot 2012-11-03 at 10.44.51 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.208. Barack Obama –

Infographics - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-14 at 11.28.38 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.209. Barack Obama –

Infographics - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 11.30.04 PM_sm.png

M N/A Mitt Romney

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

35_Famous Faces

B

Figure 5.210. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.34.44 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.211. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.08.06 PM_sm.png

167

B

Figure 5.212. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.09.07 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.213. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.07.11 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.214. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-28 at 11.53.02 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.215. Barack Obama – Famous Faces - Example

Screen shot 2012-11-04 at 12.01.31 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

36_People Working

B

Figure 5.216. Barack Obama – People

Working - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.34.55 PM

168

B

Figure 5.217. Barack Obama – People

Working - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.20.18 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.218. Barack Obama – People

Working – Example

Screen shot 2012-10-29 at 11.57.06 PM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.219. Barack Obama – People

Working - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.22.13 PM

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

37_Community Members

B

Figure 5.220. Barack Obama – Community Members - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-25 at 9.36.42 AM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.221. Barack Obama – Community Members - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-20 at 12.07.57 PM_sm.png

169

B

Figure 5.222. Barack Obama – Community Members - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-31 at 1.20.30 AM_sm.png

M

Figure 5.223. Mitt Romney –

Community Members - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-12 at 12.23.10 PM

M

Figure 5.224. Mitt Romney –

Community Members - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-27 at 12.11.32 AM_sm.png

Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

38_Iowa_ Specific Images

B

Figure 5.225. Barack Obama – Iowa

Specific - Example

Screen shot 2012-10-08 at 10.36.28 PM_sm.png

B

Figure 5.226. Barack Obama – Iowa

Specific - Example

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Figure 5.227. Mitt Romney – Iowa

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Figure 5.228. Mitt Romney – Iowa

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Category B/M Image Examples Figure #

39_FLAGS_ Sh0t

against_Country and State

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Figure 5.229. Barack Obama– Flags_Shot against_Country and

State - Example

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Figure 5.230. Barack Obama– Flags_Shot against_Country and

State - Example

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Figure 5.231. Barack Obama– Flags_Shot against_Country and

State - Example

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Figure 5.232. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot

against_Country and State - Example

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Figure 5.233. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot

against_Country and State - Example

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Figure 5.234. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot

against_Country and State - Example

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Figure 5.235. Mitt Romney – Flags_Shot

against_Country and State - Example

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