The-Religious Developmentof Islam by C-Snouck-Hurgronje

{\rtf1{\fonttbl{\f2 Times New Roman Bold;}{\f3 Times New Roman;}{\f4 Times New Roman Italic;}{\f5 Times New Roman;}{\f6 Times New Roman;}{\f7 Times New Roman;}{\f8 Times New Roman Italic;}{\f1000000 Times New Roman;}}{\colortbl;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;}\viewkind1\viewscale100\margl0\margr0\margt0\margb0\deftab80\dntblnsbdb\expshrtn\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\ql \li4099\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4099\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4099\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4099\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li4099\sb88\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs24 The Religious Development of Islam \par\pard\ql \li4930\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 C. Snouck Hurgronje \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1306\sb15\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 WE can hardly imagine a poorer, more miserable population than that of the South-Arabian \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Country Hadramaut. All moral and social progress in there is impeded by continuance of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 worst elements of Jahiliyyah (Arabian paganism), side by side with those of Islam. A Secular \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 nobility is formed by groups of people, who grudge each other their very lives and fight each \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 other according to the rules of retaliation unmitigated by any more humane feelings. The \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 religious nobility is represented by descendants of the Prophet, arduous Patrons of a most \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 narrow minded orthodoxy and of most bigoted fanaticism. In well-ordered society, making \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the most of all the means offered by modern technical science, the dry barren soil might be \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 made to yield sufficient harvests to satisfy the wants of its members; but among these \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 inhabitants, paralysed by anarchy, chronic famine prevails. Foreigners wisely avoid this \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 miserable country, and if they did visit it, would not be hospitably received. Hunger forces \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 many Hadramites to emigrate; throughout the centuries we find them in all the countries of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Islam, in the sacred cities of Western-Arabia, in Syria, Egypt, India, Indonesia, where they \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 often occupy important positions. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 In the Dutch Indies, for instance, they live in the most important commercial towns, and \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1348\sb5\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 though the Government has never favoured them, and though they have had to compete with \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Chinese and with Europeans, they have succeeded in making their position sufficiently \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 strong. Before European influence prevailed, they even founded states in some of the larger \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 islands or they obtained political influence in existing native states. Under a strong European \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 government they are among the quietest, most industrious subjects, all earning their own \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 living and saving something for their poor relations at home. They come penniless, and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 without any of that theo

retical knowledge or practical skill which we are apt to consider as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 indispensable for a man who wishes to try his fortune in a complicated modern colonial \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 world. Yet I have known some who in twenty years' time have become commercial \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 potentates, and even millionaires. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1692\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The strange spectacle of these latent talents and of the suppressed energy of the people of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Hadramaut that seem to be waiting only for transplantation into a more favourable soil to \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 develop with amazing rapidity, helps us to understand the enormous consequences of the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Arabian migration in the seventh century. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The spiritual goods, with which Islam set out into the world, were far from imposing. It \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1249\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 preached a most simple monotheism: Allah, the Almighty Creator and Ruler of heaven and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 earth, entirely self-sufficient, so that it were ridiculous to Suppose Him to have partners or \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Sons and daughters to support Him; who has created the angels that they might form His \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 retinue, and men and genii \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 (jinn)\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 that they might obediently serve Him; who decides \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 everything according to His incalculable will and is responsible to nobody, as the Universe is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 His; of whom His Creatures, if their minds be not led astray, must therefore stand in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 respectful fear and awe. He has made His will known to mankind, beginning at Adam, but the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 spreading of mankind over the surface of the earth, its seduction by Satan and his emissaries \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 have caused most nations to become totally estranged from Him and His service. Now and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 then, when He considered that the time was come, He caused a prophet to arise from among a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 nation to be His messenger to summon people to conversion, and to tell them what \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1481\sb166\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 blessedness awaited them as a reward of obedience, what punishments would be inflicted if \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 they did not believe his message. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1303\sb13\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Sometimes the disobedient had been struck by earthly judgment (the flood, the drowning of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Egyptians, etc.), and the faithful had been rescued in a miraculous way and led to victory; \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 but such things merely served as indications of Allah's greatness. One day the whole world \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 will be overthrown and destroyed. Then the dead will be awakened and led before Allah's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tribunal. The faithful will have abodes appointed them in well-watered, shady gardens, with \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fruit-trees richly laden, with luxurious couches upon which they may lie and enjoy the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 delicious food, served by the ministrants of Paradise. They may also freely indulge in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 sparkling wine that does not intoxicate, and in intercourse with women, whose youth and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 virginity do not fade. The unbelievers end their lives in Hell-fire, for the punishment as well \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 as the reward are everlasting. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1302\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Allah gives to each one his due. The actions of His creatures are all accurately written down, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and when Judgment comes, the book is opened; moreover, every creature carries the list of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 his own deeds and misdeeds; the debit and credit sides are carefully weighed against each \line \up0 \expndt

w-2\charscalex100 other in the divine scales, and many witnesses are heard betore judgment is pronounced. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Allah, however, is clement and merciful; He gladly forgives those sinners who have believed \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in Him, who have sincerely accepted Islam, that is to say: who have acknowledged His \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 absolute authority and have believed the message of the prophet sent to them. These prophets \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 have the privilege of acting as mediators on behalf of their followers, not in the sense of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 redeemers, but as advocates who receive gracious hearing. Naturally, Islam, submission to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Lord of the Universe, ought to express itself in deeds. Allah desires the homage of formal \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 worship, which must be performed several times a day by every individual, and on special \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 occasions by the assembled faithful, led by one of them. This service, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 salat\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 acquired its \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 strictly binding rules only after Mohammed's time, but already in his lifetime it consisted \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 chiefly of the same elements as now: the recital of sacred texts, especially taken from the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Revelation, certain postures of the body (standing, inclination, kneeling, prostration) with the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 face towards Mecca. This last particular and the language of the Revelation are the Arabian \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 elements of the service, which is for the rest an imitation of Jewish and Christian rituals, so \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 far as Mohammed knew them. There was no sacrament, consequently no priest to administer \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 it; Islam has always been the lay religion par excellence. Teaching and exhortation are the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 only spiritual help that the pious Mohammedan wants, and this simple care of souls is \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 exercised without any ordination or consecration. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-277\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1352\sb7\sl-277\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Fasting, for a month if possible, and longer if desired, was also an integral part of religious \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 life and, by showing disregard of earthly joys, a proof of faith in Allah's promises for the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 world to come. Almsgiving, recommended above all other virtues, was not only to be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 practised in obedience to Allah's law and in faith in retribution, but it was to testify contempt \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of all earthly possessions which might impede the striving after eternal happiness. Later, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed was compelled, by the need of a public fund and the waning zeal of the faithful \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 as their numbers increased, to regulate the practice of this virtue and to exact certain minima \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 as taxes \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 (zakat)\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 . \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1329\sb261\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 When Mohammed, taking his stand as opposed to Judaism and Christianity, had accentuated \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Arabian character of his religion, the Meccan rites of pagan origin were incorporated into \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Islam; but only after the purification required by monotheism. From that time forward the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 yearly celebration of the Hajj was among the ritual duties of the Moslim community. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1680\sb93\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 In the first years of the strife yet another duty was most emphatically impressed on the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Faithful; \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 jihad, i.e.\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 , readiness to sacrifice life and possessions for the defence of Islam, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 understood, since the conquest of Mecca in 630, as the extension by force of arms of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 authority of the Moslim state, first over the whole of Arabia, and soon after Mohammed's \l

ine \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 death over the whole world, so far as Allah granted His hosts for the victory. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1288\sb11\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 For the rest, the legislative revelations regulated only such points as had become subjects of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 argument or contest in Mohammed's lifetime, or such as were particularly suggested by that \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 antithesis of paganism and revelation, which had determined Mohammed's prophetical \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 career. Gambling and wine were forbidden, the latter after some hesitation between the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 inculcation of temperance and that of abstinence. Usury, taken in the sense of requiring any \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 interest at all upon loans, was also forbidden. All tribal feuds with their consequences had \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 henceforward to be considered as non-existent, and retaliation, provided that the offended \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 party would not agree to accept compensation, was put under the control of the head of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 community. Polygamy and intercourse of master and female slave were restricted; the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 obligations arising from blood-relationship or ownership were regulated. These points suffice \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to remind us of the nature of the Qoranic regulations. Reference to certain subjects in this \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 revealed law while others were ignored, did not depend on their respective importance to the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 life of the community, but rather on what happened to have been suggested by the events in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed's lifetime. For Mohammed knew too well how little qualified he was for \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 legislative work to undertake it unless absolutely necessary. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1260\sb11\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 This rough sketch of what Islam meant when it set out to conquer the world, is not very likely \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to create the impression that its incredibly rapid extension was due to its superiority over the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 forms of civilization which it supplanted. Lammens's assertion, that Islam was the Jewish \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 religion simplified according to Arabic wants and amplified by some Christian and Arabic \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 traditions, contains a great deal of truth, if only we recognize the central importance for \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed's vocation and preaching of the Christian doctrine of Resurrection and judgment. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 This explains the large number of weak points that the book of Mohammed's revelations, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 written down by his first followers, offered to Jewish and Christian polemics. It was easy for \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the theologians of those religions to point out numberless mistakes in the work of the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 illiterate Arabian prophet, especially where he maintained that he was repeating and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 confirming the contents of their Bible. The Qoranic revelations about Allah's intercourse with \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 men, taken from apocryphal sources, from profane legends like that of Alexander the Great, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 sometimes even created by Muhammed's own fancy - such as the story of the prophet Salih, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 said to have lived in the north of Arabia, and that of the prophet Hud, supposed to have lived \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 in the south; all this could not but give them the impression of a clumsy caricature of true \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 tradition. The principal doctrines of Synagogue and Church had apparently been \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 misunderstood, or they were simply denied as corruptions. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-277\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1332\sb7\sl-277\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The conversion to Islam, within a hundred years, of such nations as the Egyptian, the Syrian, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and the Persian, can hardly be attributed to anything but the latent talents, the formerly \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 suppressed energy of the Arabian race having found a favourable soil for its development; \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 talents and energy, however, not of a missionary kin

d. If Islam is said to have been from its \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 beginning down to the present day, a missionary religion,\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 1\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 then mission is to be taken here in \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 a quite peculiar sense, and special attention must be given to the preparation of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 missionary field by the Moslim armies, related by history and considered as most important \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 by the Mohammedans themselves. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb88\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Certainly, the nations conquered by the Arabs under the first khalifs were not obliged to \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1263\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 choose between living as Moslims or dying as unbelievers. The conquerors treated them as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed had treated Jews and Christians in Arabia towards the end of his life, and only \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 exacted from them submission to Moslim authority. They were allowed to adhere to their \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 religion, provided they helped with their taxes to fill the Moslim exchequer. This rule was \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 even extended to such religions as that of the Parsis, although they could not be considered as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 belonging to the "People of Scripture" expressly recognized in the Qoran. But the social \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 condition of these subjects was gradually made so oppressive by the Mohammedan masters, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that rapid Conversions in masses were a natural consequence; the more natural because \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 among the conquered nations intellectual culture was restricted to a small circle, so that after \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the conquest their spiritual leaders lacked freedom of movement. Besides, practically very \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 little was required from the new converts, so that it was very tempting to take the step that led \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 to full citizenship. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb268\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 No, those who in a short time subjected millions of non-Arabs to the state founded by \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1249\sb6\sl-274\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed, and thus prepared their conversion, were no apostles. They were generals whose \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 strategic talents would have remained hidden but for Mohammed, political geniuses, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 especially from Mecca and Taif, who, before Islam, would have excelled only in the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 organization of commercial operations or in establishing harmony between hostile families. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Now they proved capable of uniting the Arabs commanded by Allah, a unity still many a time \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 endangered during the first century by the old party spirit; and of devising a division of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 labour between the rulers and the conquered which made it possible for them to control the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 function of complicated machines of state without any technical knowledge. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1371\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Moreover, several circumstances favoured their work; both the large realms which extended \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 north of Arabia, were in a state of political decline; the Christians inhabiting the provinces \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that were to be conquered first, belonged, for the larger part, to heretical sects and were \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 treated by the orthodox Byzantines in such a way that other masters, intolerant, might be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 welcome. The Arabian armies consisted of hardened Bedouins with few wants, whose \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 longing for the treasures of the civilized world made them more ready to endure the pressure \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 of a discipline hitherto unknown to them. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1289\sb10\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The use that the leaders made of the occasion commands our admiration; although their plan \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 was formed in the co

urse and under the influence of generally unforeseen events. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Circumstances had changed Mohammed the Prophet into Mohammed the Conqueror; and the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 leaders, who continued the conqueror's work, though not driven by fanaticism or religious \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 zeal, still prepared the conversion of millions of men to Islam. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 It was only natural that the new masters adopted, with certain modifications, the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1246\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 administrative and fiscal systems of the conquered countries. For similar reasons Islam had to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 complete its spiritual store from the well-ordered wealth of that of its new adherents. Recent \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 research shows most clearly, that Islam, in after times so sharply opposed to other religions \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and so strongly armed against foreign influence, in the first century borrowed freely and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 simply from the "People of Scripture" whatever was not evidently in contradiction to the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Qoran. This was to be expected; had not Mohammed from the very beginning referred to the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 "people of the Book" as "those who know"? When painful cxperience induced him afterwards \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to accuse them of corruption of their Scriptures, this attitude necessitated a certain criticism \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 but not rejection of their tradition. The ritual, only provisionally regulated and continually \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 liable to change according to prophetic inspiration in Mohammed's lifetime, required \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 unalterable rules after his death. Recent studies\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 have shown in an astounding way, that the \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb88\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Jewish ritual, together with the religious rites of the Christians, strongly influenced the \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1504\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 definite shape given to that of Islam, while indirect influence of the Parsi religion is at least \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 probable. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb265\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 So much for the rites of public worship and the ritual purity they require. The method of \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1510\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fasting seems to follow the Jewish model, whereas the period of obligatory fasting depends \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 on the Christian usage. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed's fragmentary and unsystematic accounts of sacred history were freely drawn \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 from Jewish and Christian sources and covered the whole period from the creation of the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1242\sb5\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 world until the first centuries of the Christian era. Of course, features shocking to the Moslim \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mind were dropped and the whole adapted to the monotonous conception of the Qoran. With \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ever greater boldness the story of Mohammed's own life was exalted to the sphere of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 supernatural here the Gospel served as example. Though Mohammed had repeatedly declared \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 himself to be an ordinary man chosen by Allah as the organ of His revelation, and whose only \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 miracle was the Qoran, posterity ascribed to him a whole series of wonders, evidently \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 invented in emulation of the wonders of Christ. The reason for this seems to have been the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 idea that none of the older prophets, not even Jesus, of whom the Qoran tells the greatest \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 wonders, could have worked a miracle without Mohammed, the Seal of the prophets, having \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rivalled or surpassed him in this respect. Only Jesus was the Messiah; but this title did not \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 exceed in value d

ifferent titles of other prophets, and Mohammed's special epithets were of a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 higher order. A relative sinlessness Mohammed shared with Jesus; the acceptance of this \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 doctrine, contradictory to the original spirit of the Qoran, had moreover a dogmatic motive: it \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 was considered indispensable to raise the text of the Qoran above all suspicion of corruption, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 which suspicion would not be excluded if the organ of the Revelation were fallible. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1301\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 This period of naively adopting institutions, doctrines, and traditions was soon followed by \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 an awakening to the consciousness that Islam could not well absorb any more of such foreign \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 elements without endangering its independent character. Then a sorting began; and the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 assimilation of the vast amount of borrowed matter, that had already become an integral part \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of Islam, was completed by submitting the whole to a peculiar treatment. It was carefully \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 divested of all marks of origin and labelled \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 hadith\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 , \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1458\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 so that henceforth it was regarded as emanations from the wisdom of the Arabian Prophet, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 for which his followers owed no thanks to foreigners. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1363\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 At first, it was only at Medina that some pious people occupied themselves with registering, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 putting in order, and systematizing the spiritual property of Islam; afterwards similar circles \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 were formed in other centres, such as Mecca, Kufa, Basra, Misr (Cairo), and elsewhere. At \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the outset the collection of divine sayings, the Qoran, was the only guide, the only source of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 decisive decrees, the only touchstone of what was true or false, allowed or forbidden. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Reluctantly, but decidedly at last, it was conceded that the foundations laid by Mohammed \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 for the life of his community were by no means all to be found in the Holy Book; rather, that \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed's revelations without his explanation and practice would have remained an \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 enigma. It was understood now that the rules and laws of Islam were founded on God's word \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and on the Sunnah, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 i.e.\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 , the "way" pointed out by the Prophet's word and example. Thus it \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 had been from the moment that Allah had caused His light to shine over Arabia, and thus it \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 must remain, if human error was not to corrupt Islam. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend Pg6}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb88\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 At the moment when this conservative instinct began to assert itself among the spiritual \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1258\sb0\sl-277\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 leaders, so much foreign matter had already been incorporated into Islam, that the theory of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the sufficiency of Qoran and Sunnah could not have been maintained without the labelling \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 operation which we have alluded to. So it was assumed that as surely as Mohammed must \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 have surpassed his predecessors in perfection and in wonders, so surely must all the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 principles and precepts necessary for his community have been formulated by him. Thus, by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 a gigantic web of fiction, he became after his death the organ of opinions, ideas, add interests, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 whose lawfulness was recognized by every influential section of the Faithful. All that could \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 not be identified as part of the Prophet's Sunnah, received no recognition; on the other

hand, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 all that was accepted had, somehow, to be incorporated into the Sunnah. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1265\sb270\sl-274\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 It became a fundamental dogma of Islam, that the Sunnah was the indispensable completion \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 of the Qoran, and that both together formed the source of Mohammedan law and doctrine; so \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 much so that every party assumed the name of "People of the Sunnah" to express its \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pretension to orthodoxy. The \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 contents\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 of the Sunnah, however, was the subject of a great deal \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of controversy; so that it came to be considered necessary to make the Prophet pronounce his \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 authoritative judgment on this difference of opinion. He was said to have called it a proof of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 God's special mercy, that within reasonable limits difference of opinion was allowed in his \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 community. Of that privilege Mohammedans have always amply availed themselves. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 When the difference touched on political questions, especially on the succession of the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1250\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Prophet in the government of the community, schism was the inevitable consequence. Thus \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 arose the party strifes of the first century, which led to the establishment of the sects of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Shi'ites and the Kharijites, separate communities, severed from the great whole, that led their \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 own lives, and therefore followed paths different from those of the majority in matters of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 doctrine and law as well as in politics The sharpness of the political antithesis served to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 accentuate the importance of the other differences in such cases and to debar their acceptance \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 as the legal consequence of the difference of opinion that God's mercy allowed. That the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 political factor was indeed the great motive of separation, is clearly shown in our own day, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 now that one Mohammedan state after the other sees its political independence disappearing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and efforts are being made from all sides to re-establish the unity of the Mohammedan world \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 by stimulating the feeling of religious brotherhood. Among the most cultivated Moslims of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 different countries an earnest endeavour is gaining ground to admit Shi'ites, Kharijites, and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 others, formerly abused as heretics, into the great community, now threatened by common \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foes, and to regard their special tenets in the same way as the differences existing between the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 four law schools: Hanafites, Malikites, Shafi'ites and Hanbalites, which for centuries have \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 been considered equally orthodox. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-273\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1403\sb14\sl-273\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Although the differences that divide these schools at first caused great exitement and gave \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rise to violent discussions, the strong catholic instinct of lslam always knew how to prevent \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 schism. Each new generation either found the golden mean between the extremes which had \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 divided the preceding one, or it recognized the right of both opinions. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1318\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Though the dogmatic differences were not necessarily so dangerous to unity as were political \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ones, yet they were more apt to cause schism than discussions about the law. It was essential \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to put an end to dissension concerning the theological roots of the whole system of Islam. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed had never expressed any truth in dogmatic form; all systematic thinking was \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 foreign to his nature. It was again the non-Arabic Moslims, especially those of Christian \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 origin, who suggested such doctrinal questions. A

t first they met with a vehement opposition \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 that condemned all dogmatic discussion as a novelty of the Devil. In the long run, however, \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg7}{\bkmkend Pg7}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1258\sb93\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 the contest of the conservatives against specially objectionable features of the dogmatists' \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 discussions forced them to borrow arms from the dogmatic arsenal. Hence a method with a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 peculiar terminology came in vogue, to which even the boldest imagination could not ascribe \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 any connection with the Sunnah of Mohammed. Yet some traditions ventured to put \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 prophetic warnings on Mohammed's lips against dogmatic innovations that were sure to arise, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and to make him pronounce the names of a couple of future sects. But no one dared to make \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Prophet preach an orthodox system of dogmatics resulting from the controversies of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 several centuries, all the terms of which were foreign to the Arabic speech of Mohammed's \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 time. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1252\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Indeed, all the subjects which had given rise to dogmatic controversy in the Christian Church, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 except some too specifically Christian, were discussed by the \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 mutakallims\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 , the dogmatists of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Islam. Free will or predestination; God omnipotent, or first of all just and holy; God's word \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 created by Him, or sharing His eternity; God one in this sense, that His being admitted of no \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 plurality of qualities, or possessed of qualities, which in all eternity are inherent in His being; \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in the world to come only bliss and doom, or also an intermediate state for the neutral. We \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1787\sb5\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 might continue the enumeration and always show to the Christian church-historian or \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 theologian old acquaintances in Moslim garb. That is why Maracci and Reland could \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 understand Jews and Christians yielding to the temptation of joining Islam, and that also \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 explains why Catholic and Protestant dogmatists could accuse each other of Crypto-\line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 mohammedanism. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Not until the beginning of the tenth century A.D. did the orthodox Mohammedan dogma \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb1\sl-256\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 begin to emerge from the clash of opinions into its definite shape. The Mu'tazilites had \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1255\sb9\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 advocated man's free will; had given prominence to justice and holiness in their conception of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 God, had denied distinct qualities in God and the eternity of God's Word; had accepted a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 place for the neutral between Paradise and Hell; and for some time the favour of the powers \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 in authority seemed to assure the victory of their system. Al-Ash'ari contradicted all these \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 points, and his system has in the end been adopted by the great majority. The Mu'tazilite \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 doctrines for a long time still enthralled many minds, but they ended by taking refuge in the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 political heresy of Shi'itism. In the most conservative circles, opponents to all speculation \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 were never wanting; but they were obliged unconsciously to make large concessions to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 systematic thought; for in the Moslim world as elsewhere religious belief without dogma had \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 become as impossible as breathing is without air. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1302\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Thus, in Islam, a whole system, which could not even

pretend to draw its authority from the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Sunnah, had come to be accepted. It was not difficult to justify this deviation from the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 orthodox abhorrence against novelties. Islam has always looked at the world in a pessimistic \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 way, a view expressed in numberless prophetic sayings. The world is bad and will become \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 worse and worse. Religion and morality will have to wage an ever more hopeless war against \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 unbelief, against heresy and ungodly ways of living. While this is surely no reason for \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 entering into any compromise with doctrines which depart but a hair's breadth from Qoran \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and Sunnah, it necessitates methods of defence against heresy as unknown in Mohammed's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 time as heresy itself. "Necessity knows no law" is a principle fully accepted in Islam and \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 heresy is an enemy of the faith that can only be defeated with dialectic weapons. So the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 religious truths preached by Mohammed have not been altered in any way; but under the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 stress of necessity they have been clad in modern armour, which has somewhat changed their \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 aspect. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1268\sb93\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 Moreover, Islam has a theory, which alone is sufficient to justify the whole later development \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of doctrine as well as of law. This theory, whose importance for the system can hardly be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 over-estimated, and which, nevertheless, has until very recent times constantly been \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 overlooked by Western students of Islam, finds its classical expression in the following \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 words, put into the mouth of Mohammed: "My community will never agree in an error." In \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the terms more familiar to us, this means that the Mohammedan Church taken as a whole is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 infallible; that all the decisions on matters practical or theoretical, on which it is agreed, are \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 binding upon its members. Nowhere else is the catholic instinct of Islam more clearly \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 expressed. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1265\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A faithful Mohammedan student, after having struggled through a handbook of law may be \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 vexed by doubt as to whether these endless casuistic precepts have been rightly deduced from \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the Qoran and the Sacred Tradition. His doubt, however, will at once be silenced, if he bears \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 in mind that Allah speaks more plainly to him by this infallible Agreement \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 (Ijma')\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Community than through Qoran and Tradition; nay, that the contents of both those sacred \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sources, without this perfect intermediary, would be to a great extent unintelligible to him. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Even the differences between the schools of law may be based on this theory of the Ijma'; for, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 does not the infallible Agreement of the Community teach us that a certain diversity of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 opinion is merciful gift of God? It was through the Agreement that dogmatic speculations as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 well as minute discussions about points of law became legitimate. The stamp of Ijma' was \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 essential to every rule of faith and life, to all manners and customs. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 All sorts of religious ideas and practices, which could not possibly be deduced from \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1482\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Mohammed's message, entered the Moslim world by the permission of Ijma'. Here we need \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 think only of mysticism and of the cult of saints. \par\pard\q

l \li1440\sb265\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Some passages of the Qoran may perhaps be interpreted in such a way that we hear the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1271\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 subtler strings of religious emotion vibrating in them. The chief impression that Mohammed's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Allah makes before the Hijrah is that of awful majesty, at which men tremble from afar; they \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fear His punishment, dare hardly be sure of His reward, and hope much from His mercy. This \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 impression is a lasting one; but, after the Hijrah, Allah is also heard quietly reasoning with \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 His obedient servants, giving them advice and commands, which they have to follow in order \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to frustrate all resistance to His authority and to deserve His satisfaction. He is always the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1246\sb5\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Lord, the King of the world, Who speaks to His humble servants. But the lamp which Allah \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 had caused Mohammed to hold up to guide mankind with its light, was raised higher and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 higher after the Prophet's death, in order to shed its light over an ever increasing part of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 humanity. This was not possible however, without its reservoir being replenished with all tbe \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 different kinds of oil that had from time immemorial given light to those different nations. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The oil of mysticism came from Christian circles, and its Neo-Platonic origin was quite \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 unmistakable; Persia and India also contributed to it. There were those who, by asceticism, by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 different methods of mortifying the flesh, liberated the spirit that it might rise and become \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 united with the origin of all being; to such an extent, that with some the profession of faith \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 was reduced to the blasphemous exclamation: "I am Allah." Others tried to become free from \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the sphere of the material and the temporal by certain methods of thought, combined or not \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 combined with asceticism. Here the necessity of guidance was felt, and congregations came \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 into existence, whose purpose it was to permit large groups of people under the leadership of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 their sheikhs, to participate simultaneously in the mystic union. The influence which spread \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 most widely was that of leaders like Ghazali, the Father of the later Mohammedan Church, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 who recommended moral purification of the soul as the only way by which men should come \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 nearer to God. His mysticism wished to avoid the danger of pantheism, to which so many \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb88\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 others were led by their contemplations, and which so often engendered disregard of the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1298\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 revealed law, or even of morality. Some wanted to pass over the gap between the Creator and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the created along a bridge of contemplation; and so, driven by the fire of sublime passion, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 precipitate themselves towards the object of their love, in a kind of rapture, which poets \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 compare with intoxication. The evil world said that the impossibility to accomplish this \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 heavenly union often induced those people to imitate it for the time being with the earthly \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 means of wine and the indulgence in sensual love. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb268\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Characteristic of all these sorts of mysticism is their esoteric pride. All these emotions are \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1248\sb5\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 meant only for a small number of chosen ones. Even Ghazali's ethical mysticism is not for the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 multitude. The development of Islam as a whole, from the Hijrah on, has always been g

reater \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in breadth than in depth; and, consequently, its pedagogics have remained defective. Even \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 some of the noblest minds in Islam restrict true religious life to an aristocracy, and accept the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 ignorance of the multitude as an irremediable evil. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1450\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Throughout the centuries pantheistic and animistic forms of mysticism have found many \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 adherents among the Mohammedans; but the infallible Agreement has persisted in calling \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that heresy. Ethical mysticism, since Ghazali, has been fully recognized; and, with law aud \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 dogma, it forms the sacred trio of sciences of Islam, to the study of which the Arabic \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 humanistic arts serve as preparatory instruments. All other sciences, however useful and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 necessary, are of this world and have no value for the world to come. The unfaithful \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 appreciate and study them as well as do the Mohammedans; but, on Mohammedan soil they \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 must be coloured with a Mohammedan hue, and their results may never clash with the three \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 religious sciences. Physics, astronomy, and philosophy have often found it difficult to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 observe this restriction, and therefore they used to be at least slightly suspected in pious \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 circles. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1284\sb10\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mysticism did not only owe to Ijma' its place in the sacred trio, but it succeeded, better than \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 dogmatics, in confirming its right with words of Allah and His Prophet. In Islam mysticism \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and allegory are allied in the usual way; for the \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 illuminati\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 the words had quite a different \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 meaning than for common, every-day people. So the Qoran was made to speak the language \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of mysticism; and mystic commentaries of the Holy Book exist, which, with total disregard \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 for philological and historical objections, explain the verses of the Revelation as expressions \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of the profoundest soul experiences. Clear utterances in this spirit were put into the Prophet's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mouth; and, like the canonists, the leaders on the mystic Way to God boasted of a spiritual \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 genealogy which went back to Mohammed. Thus the Prophet is said to have declared void all \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 knowledge and fulfillment of the law which lacks mystic experience. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1318\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Of course only "true" mysticism is justified by Ijma' and confirmed by the evidence of Qoran \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and Sunnah; but, about the bounds between "true" and "false" or heretical mysticism, there \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 exists in a large measure the well-known diversity of opinion allowed by God's grace. The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ethical mysticism of al-Ghazali is generally recognized as orthodox; and the possibility of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 attaining to a higher spiritual sphere by means of methodic asceticism and contemplation is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 doubted by few. The following opinion has come to prevail in wide circles: the Law offers \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the bread of life to all the faithful, the dogmatics are the arsenal from which the weapons \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1416\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 must be taken to defend the treasures of religion against unbelief and heresy, but mysticism \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 shows the earthly pilgrim the way to Heaven. It was a much lower need that assured the cult \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of saints a place in the doctrine and practice of Islam. As strange as is Mohammed's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 transformation from an ordinary son of man, which he wanted to be, into the incarnation of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Divine Light, as the later biographers represent him, it is still more astounding that the \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard

\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg10}{\bkmkend Pg10}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1312\sb93\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 intercession of saints should have become indispensable to the community of Mohammed, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 who, according to Tradition, cursed the Jews and Christians because they worshipped the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 shrines of their prophets. Almost every Moslim village has its patron saint; every country has \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 its national saints; every province of human life has its own human rulers, who are \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 intermediate between the Creator and common mortals. In no other particular has Islam more \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fully accommodated itself to the religions it supplanted. The popular practice, which is in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 many cases hardly to be distinguished from polytheism, was, to a great extent, favoured by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the theory of the intercession of the pious dead, of whose friendly assistanee people might \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 assure themselves by doing good deeds in their names and to their eternal advantage. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The ordinary Moslim visitor of the graves of saints does not trouble himself with this \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1379\sb5\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 ingenious compromise between the severe monotheism of his prophet and the polytheism of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 his ancestors. He is firmly convinced that the best way to obtain the satisfaction of his desire \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 after earthly or heavenly goods is to give the saint whose special care these are what he likes \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 best; and he confidently leaves it to the venerated one to settle the matter with Allah, who is \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 far too high above the ordinary mortal to allow of direct contact. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-274\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1322\sb12\sl-274\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In support even of this startling deviation from the original, traditions have been devised. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Moreover, the veneration of human beings was favoured by some forms of mysticism; for, \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 like many saints, many mystics had their eccentricities, and it was much to the advantage of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the mystic theologians if the vulgar could be persuaded to accept their aberrations from \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 normal rules of life as peculiarities of holy men. But Ijma' did more even than tradition and \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 mysticism to make the veneration of legions of saints possible in the temples of the very men \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 who were obliged by their ritual law to say to Allah several times daily: "Thee only do we \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 worship and to Thee alone do we cry for help." \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In the tenth century of our era Islam's process of accommodation was finished in all its \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1282\sb5\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 essentials. From this time forward, if circumstances were favourable, it could continue the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 execution of its world conquering plans without being compelled to assimilate any more \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 foreign elements. Against each spiritual asset that another universal religion could boast, it \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 could now put forward something of a similar nature, but which still showed characteristics \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of its own, and the superiority of which it could sustain by arguments perfectly satisfactory to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 its followers. From that time on, Islam strove to distinguish itself ever more sharply from its \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 most important rivals. There was no absolute stagnation, the evolution was not entirely \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 stopped; but it moved at a much quieter pace, and its direction was governed by internal \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 motives, not by influences from outside. Moslim catholicism had attained its full growth. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 We cannot within the small compass of the

se lectures consider the excrescences of the \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 normal Islam, the Shi'itic ultras, who venerated certain descendants of Mohammed as \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1275\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 infallible rulers of the world, Ishma'ilites, Qarmatians Assassins; nor the modern bastards of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Islam, such as the Sheikhites, the Babi's, the Beha'is -- who have found some adherents in \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 America -- and other sects, which indeed sprang up on Moslim soil, but deliberately turned to \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 non-Mohammedan sources for their inspirations. We must draw attention, however, to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 protests raised by certain minorities against some of the ideas and practices which had been \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 definitely adopted by the majority. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1469\sb261\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In the midst of Mohammedan catholicism there always lived and moved more or less freely \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 "protestant" elements. The comparison may even be continued, with certain qualifications, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and we may speak also of a conservative and of a liberal protestantism in Islam. The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conservative protestantism is represented by the Hanbalitic school and kindred spirits, who \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg11}{\bkmkend Pg11}\par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-273\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-273\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-273\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-273\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1354\sb103\sl-273\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 most emphatically preached that the Agreement (Ijma') of every period should be based on \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 that of the "pious ancestors." They therefore tested every dogma and practice by the words \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 and deeds of the Prophet, his contemporaries, and the leaders of the Community in the first \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 decades after Mohammed's death. In their eyes the church of later days had degenerated; and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 they declined to consider the agreement of its doctors as justifying the penetration into Islam \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of ideas and usages of foreign origin. The cult of saints was rejected by them as altogether \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 contradictory to the Qoran and the genuine tradition. These protestants of Islam may be \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1312\sb6\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 compared to those of Christianity also in this respect, - that they accepted the results of the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 evolution and assimilation of the first three centuries of Islam, but rejected later additions as \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 abuse and corruption. When on the verge of our nineteenth century, they tried, as true \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Moslims, to force by material means their religious conceptions on others, they were \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 combated as heretics by the authorities of catholic Islam. Central and Western Arabia formed \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the battlefield on which these zealots, called Wahhabites after their leader, were defeated by \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Mohammed Ali, the first Khedive, and his Egyptian army. Since they have given up their \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 efforts at violent reconstitution of what they consider to be the original Islam, they are left \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 alone, and their ideas have found adherents far outside Arabia, \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 e.g.\ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 , in British India and in \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Northern and Central Africa. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In still quite another way many Moslims who by the prevailing law and doctrine, have \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1241\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 returned found their freedom of thought or action impeded to the origin of their religion. Too \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 much attached to the traditions of their faith, deliberately to disregard these impediments, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 they tried to find in the Qoran and Tradition arguments in favour of what was dictated to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 them by Reason; and they found those arguments as easily as former generations had found \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 the bases on which

to erect their casuistry, their dogma, and their mysticism. This implied an \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 interpretation of the oldest sources independent from the catholic development of Islam, and \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 in contradiction with the general opinion of the canonists, according to whom, since the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 fourth or fifth centtiry of the Hijrah, no one is qualified for such free research. A certain \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 degree of independence of mind, together with a strong attachment to their spiritual past, has \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 given rise in the Moslim world to this sort of liberal protestantism, which in our age has many \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 adherents among the Mohammedans who have come in contact with modern civilization. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-275\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1241\sb10\sl-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 That the partisans of all these different conceptions could remain together as the children of \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 one spiritual family, is largely owing to the elastic character of Ijma', the importance of which \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 is to some extent acknowledged by Catholics and Protestants, by moderns and conservatives. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 It has never been contested that the community, whose agreement was the test of truth, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 should not consist of the faithful masses, but of the expert elect. In a Christian Church we \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 should have spoken of the clergy, with a further definition of the organs through which it was \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 to express itself: synod, council, or Pope. Islam has no clergy, as we have seen; the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 qualification of a man to have his own opinion depends entirely upon the scope of his \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 knowledge or rather of his erudition. There is no lack of standards, fixed by Mohammedan \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 authorities, in which the requirements for a scholar to qualify him for Ijma' are detailed. The \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 principal criterion is the knowledge of the canon law; quite what we should expect from the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 history of the evolution of Islam. But, of Course, dogmatists and mystics had also their own \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 "agreements" on the questions concerning them, and through the compromise between Law, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Dogma, and Mysticism, there could not fail to come into existence is a kind of mixed Ijma'. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Moreover, the standards and definitions could have only a certain theoretical value, as there \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 never has existed a body that could speak in the name of all. The decisions of Ijma' were \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 therefore to be ascertained only in a vague and general way. The speakers were individuals \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 whose own authority depended on Ijma', whereas Ijma' should have been their collective \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 decision. Thus it was possible for innumerable shades of catholicism and protestantism to live \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16820\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg12}{\bkmkend Pg12}\par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-260\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1444\sb166\sl-260\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 under one roof; with a good deal of friction, it is true, but without definite breach or schism, \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 no one sect being able to eject another from the community. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb11\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Moslim political authorities are bound not only to extend the domain of Islam, but also to \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 keep the community in the right path in its life and doctrine. This task they have always \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1244\sb6\sl-274\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 conceived in accordance with their political interests; Islam has had its religious persecutions \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 but tolerance was very usual, and even official favouring of heresy not quite exceptional with \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Moslim rulers. Regular maintenance of religious discipline existed nowhere. Thus in the bond \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 of political obedience elements which might otherwise have been scattered were held \line \up0

\expndtw-2\charscalex100 together. The political decay of Islam in our day has done away with what had been left of \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 official power to settle religious differences and any organization of spiritual authority never \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 existed. Hence it is only natural that the diversity of opinion allowed by the grace of Allah \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 now shows itself on a greater scale than ever before. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1456\sb53\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf6\f7\fs20\ul0\super\cf6\f7\fs19 1\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 With extraordinary talent this thesis has been defended by Professor T. W. Arnold in the above quoted work, \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 The Preaching of Islam\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , which fully deserves the attention also of those who do not agree with the writer's \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 argument. Among the many objections that may be raised against Prof. Arnold's conclusion, we point to the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 undeniable fact that the Moslim scholars of all ages hardly speak of "mission" at all, and always treat the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 extension of the true faith by holy war as one of the principal duties of the Moslim Community. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1331\sb79\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf6\f7\fs19 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 The studies of Professors C. H. Becker, E. Mittwoch, and A. T. Wensinck, especially taken in connection with \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 older ones of Ignaz Goldziher, have thrown much light upon this subject. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1619\sb62\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\super\cf6\f7\fs19 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 Hadith\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs20 , the Arabic word for record, story, has assumed the technical meaning of "tradition" concerning the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 words and deeds of Mohammed. It is used as well in the sense of a single record of this sort as in that of the \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 whole body of sacred traditions. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1615\sb269\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Mohammedanism; lectures on its origin, its religious and political growth, and its present \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 state, \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs24 , C. Snouck Hurgronje, New York, G. P. Putnam's sons [1937] (pages 54-85).

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The-Religious Developmentof Islam by C-Snouck-Hurgronje

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Transcript of The-Religious Developmentof Islam by C-Snouck-Hurgronje