The public trust and the First Americans
Transcript of The public trust and the First Americans
title: ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericansauthor: Knudson,Ruthann.;Keel,BennieC.
publisher: OregonStateUniversityPressisbn10|asin: 0870710257printisbn13: 9780870710254ebookisbn13: 9780585271309
language: English
subject
IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Collectionandpreservation--Congresses,IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Lawandlegislation--Congresses,Archaeology--Moralandethicalaspects--UnitedStates--Congresses,Culturalproperty,Protectionof--Un
publicationdate: 1995lcc: E77.9.P621995eb
ddc: 973.1
subject:
IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Collectionandpreservation--Congresses,IndiansofNorthAmerica--Antiquities--Lawandlegislation--Congresses,Archaeology--Moralandethicalaspects--UnitedStates--Congresses,Culturalproperty,Protectionof--Un
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ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericans
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THECENTERFORTHESTUDYOFTHEFIRSTAMERICANSTheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericansisanaffiliateoftheDepartmentofAnthropologyatOregonStateUniversity,establishedinJuly1981byaseedgrantfromMr.WilliamBingham'sTrustforCharity.ItsgoalsaretoencourageresearchaboutPleistocenepeoplesoftheAmericas,andtomakethisnewknowledgeavailabletoboththescientificcommunityandtheinterestedpublic.Towardthisend,theCenterstaffisdevelopingresearch,publicoutreach,andpublicationsprograms.
TheCenter'sPeoplingoftheAmericaspublicationprogramfocusesontheearliestAmericansandtheirenvironments.TheCenteralsopublishesaquarterlynewspapercalledtheMammothTrumpet,writtenforbothageneralandaprofessionalaudience,aswellasanannualjournal,CurrentResearchinthePleistocene,whichpresentsnote-lengtharticlesaboutcurrentresearchintheinterdisciplinaryfieldofQuaternarystudiesastheyrelatetothePleistocenepeoplingoftheAmericas.
ManuscriptSubmissionsBOOKSTheCentersolicitshigh-qualityoriginalmanuscriptsinEnglish.Forinformationwriteto:RobsonBonnichsen,CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,DepartmentofAnthropology,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis,OR97331orcall(503)737-4596.
CURRENTRESEARCHINTHEPLEISTOCENEResearcherswishingtosubmitsummariesinthisannualserialshouldcontacteditorBradleyT.Lepper,OhioHighSchool,1982VelmaAvenue,Columbus,OH43211-2497orrequestInformationfor
ContributorsfromtheCenter.ThedeadlineforsubmissionisJanuary31ofeachcalendaryear;earlysubmissionissuggested.
MAMMOTHTRUMPETNewofdiscoveries,reportsonrecentconferences,bookreviews,andnewsofcurrentissuesinvited.ContacteditorDonHall,CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericansat(503)745-5203.
ADDITIONALLY...AuthorsareencouragedtosubmitreprintsofpublishedarticlesorcopiesofunpublishedpapersforinclusionintheCenter'sresearchlibrary.Exchangesofrelevantbooksandperiodicalswithotherpublishersisalsoencouraged.PleaseaddresscontributionsandcorrespondencetotheCenter'slibrary.
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ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericans
RuthannKnudsonBennieC.Keel
Editors
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ThepaperinthisbookmeetstheguidelinesforpermanenceanddurabilityoftheCommitteeonProductionGuidelinesforBookLongevityoftheCouncilonLibraryResourcesandtheminimumrequirementsoftheAmericanNationalStandardforPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterialsZ39.48-1984.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
ThepublictrustandtheFirstAmericans/RuthannKnudson&BennieC.Keel,editors.p.cm.PaperspresentedatthePublicTrustSymposiumattheWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,heldattheUniversityofMaine,Orono,May24-28,1989.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN0-87071-025-7(alk.paper)1.IndiansofNorthAmericaAntiquitiesCollectionandpreservationCongresses.2.IndiansofNorthAmericaAntiquitiesLawandlegislationCongresses.3.ArchaeologyUnitedStatesMoralandethicalaspectsCongresses.4.Culturalproperty,ProtectionofUnitedStatesCongresses.5.UnitedStatesAntiquitiesCongresses.I.Knudson,Ruthann.II.Keel,BennieC.,1934-.III.CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(OregonStateUniversity).IV.PublicTrustSymposium(1989:UniversityofMaine)E77.9.P62199595-7423973.1dc20CIP
Copyright©CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans1995AllrightsreservedPrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
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ToHannahMarieWormington1914-1994
"Inthefuture,asinthepast,thegatheringofinformationwilldependtoagreatextentoncooperationbetweenavocationalandprofessionalarchaeologists"H.M.WormingtonColoradoArchaeologicalSociety,1978
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FOREWORDDennisStanford
ThisvolumefocusesontheconceptthatthearchaeologicalremainsoftheFirstAmericansarepartofapublictrusttobeprotectedandusedtothebenefitofallpeople:thegeneralpublic,avocationalarchaeologists,NativeAmericans,andprofessionalarchaeologistsalike.Aswithalltrustrelationships,therearemutualresponsibilities.Avocationalarchaeologistsknowthelandanditsresourcesperhapsbetterthandomostprofessionalarchaeologists,whospendmostoftheirtimeteaching,inmuseums,ormanagingpublicandprivateorganizations.Inthisforeword,therelationshipbetweentheavocationalandprofessionalarchaeologistisemphasized.
Thereiscurrentlydistrustamongamateurs,professionalarchaeologists,andNativeAmericanswherepartnershipsareneededtomeetpublictrustresponsibilities.RecentU.S.archaeologicalprotectionlawshaveinhibitedcooperationamongthesegroups,andeffortsneedtobemadetoreestablishconnectionsforinventory,analysis,andinterpretation.Partnershipsarebasedonearnedrespectandmutualexpectations.Forexample,thegeneralpublicaswellasarchaeologistsneedtorespectthespiritualqualitiesofancientNativeAmericansitesandartifacts.AndscientificanalysisofFirstAmericans'physicalremainscanprovidemuchneededinformationimportanttoaddressingmodernNativeAmericanhealthissuesandsupportingadditionalNativeAmericanunderstandingoftheirpast.
Paleoindianstudiesaremultidisciplinaryandrequireavarietyofscientificexpertiseandsignificantlocalknowledge.MostPaleoindiansiteshavebeenfoundandreportedbyavocationalarchaeologistsandinterestedlandownersorbygeologistsinthecourseoftheirresearch.
Oncetheyhavebeenfound,itistheresponsibilityoftheprofessionalarchaeologisttoinsurethatthearchaeologicalinformationis
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carefullyrecovered,analyzed,synthesized,reportedinbothtechnicaljournalsandpopularpublications,andmanagedforfuturegenerations.ItistheresponsibilityofalltoseethattheFirstAmericansitesareprotectedfromdevelopmentordestruction.Throughapartnershipinthepublictrustallgroupshaveanopportunitytoparticipateinthepastandhelpbringthepastbacktolifeasanunderstandingofwhoweare,wherewecamefrom,andwhywearethewayweare.
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PREFACETheWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericaswasheldattheUniversityofMaine,Orono,May2428,1989.TheconferencewassponsoredbytheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,thenlocatedwithintheUniversity'sInstituteforQuaternaryStudiesandnowanintegralpartofOregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.MostoftheconferenceconsistedofpresentationsaboutcurrentresearchontheearliestpeopleintheAmericas,butwithintheconferencethePublicTrustSymposiumwasdevotedtounderstandingthepubliccontextinwhichthatresearchisconducted,andinwhichFirstAmericansresourcesareused,preserved,ordestroyed.Thisvolumeincludesthesymposiumpresentations,plusasummaryoftheconferenceresearchpresentations(Bonnichsenetal.)andafinaloverviewonthetopicofthepublictrustandtheFirstAmericans(KeelandCalabrese).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSManypeoplecontributedtothePublicTrustSymposiumfromwhichthepapersincludedinthisvolumewerederived,andtothetransitionfromasetofspokenideastoacraftedbook.RobsonBonnichsen,DirectoroftheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(CSFA),organizedandchairedtheFirstWorldSummitConference,initiatedtheideaofthePublicTrustSymposiumandhassupporteditspublication.Theeditorsparticularlyappreciatehissupport,andthatofotherCSFAstaffmembersinOrono(LouiseBennett,JudithCooper,andJohnTomenchuk)andCorvallis(PattiGood,RebeccaFoster)from1988untilpublicationofthisvolume.Incomplement,thecontributionsofallsymposiumparticipantsandvolumeauthorsare
alsoacknowledgedwithappreciation.PapersinthisvolumebyBense,Devine,Douglas,Fowler,Gallant,Knudson,Le
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Master,Magne,McGimsey,Watson,andWilliamswerepresentedorallyinthesymposium.ThepaperherebyMcManamonandKnudsonisbasedonanoralsymposiumpresentationofthesamenamebyGeorgeS.Smith,FrancisP.McManamon,andRichardC.Waldbauer.ThepapersherebyBonnichsenetal.andbyKeelandCalabresewerewrittenspecificallyforthisvolume,andarebasedonotherconferencediscussionsandthesymposiumpresentations.
TheU.S.NationalParkService(NPS)sponsoredthePublicTrustSymposiumandprovidedtravelfundsfromtheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorOfficeoftheDepartmentalConsultingArcheologist(ODCA;BennieC.Keel,thenDCA),Washington,DC,underaNPS-UniversityofMaineCooperativeAgreement(CA1600-5-0005)administeredbytheScientificStudiesProgram,NPSNorthAtlanticRegionalOffice,Boston.ThisODCAsupportprovidedtravelexpensestotheconferenceforJudithA.Bense,JohnG.Douglas,RoyGallant,LeslieStarrHart,RuthannKnudson,DennisC.LeMaster,CharlesR.McGimsey,III,GeorgeS.Smith,PattyJoWatson,andSteveWilliams.TheCSFAprovidedtravelsupportforHeatherDevineandMartinP.R.Magne.Expensesofothersymposiumparticipantsweresupportedbytheirhomeinstitutions.
RuthannKnudson'sparticipationpriortoApril1990wasacontributionofKnudsonAssociates,ofwhichsheistheprincipal,exceptforthepreviouslyacknowledgedODCAtravelsupport.HersubsequentinvolvementinthedevelopmentofthisvolumehasbeenacontributionoftheODCAandNPSArcheologicalAssistanceDivision(FrancisP.McManamon,DCAandDivisionChief),andKnudsonAssociates.JeanAlexander,RuthannKnudson,andJoAlexandertechnicallyeditedthevolume.BennieKeel'sinvolvementintheplanningofthesymposiumandpreparationofthisvolumehasalsobeensupportedbytheNPS,througheithertheODCAortheSoutheastArcheologicalCenter,Tallahassee.F.A.Calabrese's
participationinthisvolumehasbeensupportedbytheNPSMidwestArcheologicalCenter,Lincoln.Subventionofthisvolume'sprintingcostswasprovidedbytheODCA.
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CONTENTS
ForewordDennisStanford
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PrefaceandAcknowledgments ix
I.PublicStewardshipofFirstAmericansResources
TheFirstAmericansandtheNationalParkServiceLeslieStarrHart
3II.ThePublicTrust
ThePublicTrustandArchaeologicalStewardshipRuthannKnudson
9
III.ResearchGuidance
FutureDirectionsinFirstAmericansResearchandManagementRobsonBonnichsen,TomD.Dillehay,GeorgeC.Frison,FumikoIkawa-Smith,RuthannKnudson,D.GentrySteele,AllanR.Taylor,&JohnTomenchuk
30
IV.TheLegalEnvironment
TheLegalStructurefortheProtectionofArchaeologicalResourcesintheUnitedStatesandCanadaJohnM.Fowler
75
Archaeology'sWorld:TheLegalEnvironmentinAsiaandLatinAmericaCharlesR.McGimseyIII
87
GovernmentSupportofArchaeologyinCanadaMartinP.R.Magne
93
AnEnvironmentOutofBalanceDennisC.LeMaster
106
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V.PublicEducation
PublicArchaeologicalInformationfromU.S.GovernmentSourcesFrancisP.McManammon&RuthannKnudson
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SchoolCurriculumandArchaeologyHeatherDevine
127
PublicEducationthroughPublicMediaRoyA.Gallant
140
Public-PrivatePartnershipsinArchaeologyJudithA.Bense
145
VI.Funding
FederalU.S.Funding:FirstAmericansResearchPattyJoWatson
160
SeekingPrivateFundingforAmericanOriginsStephenWilliams
167
FederalU.S.Funding:ResourceandLandManagementSupportJohnG.Douglas
173
VII.Summary
StewardshipofFirstAmericansResourcesBennieC.Keel&F.A.Calabrese
187
ListofContributors 207
Index 209
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IPUBLICSTEWARDSHIPOFFIRSTAMERICANSRESOURCES
first,adj.1.beingbeforeallotherswithrespecttotime...American,adj.5....aninhabitantoftheWesternHemisphere.
FirstAmericansarethesubjectofpublicfascinationandscholarlyresearch,thatresearchincludingthedevelopmentofmodelsofpasthumanadaptationtochangingworldclimatesandecosystems.Theirarchaeological,geological,andpaleoenvironmentalremainsarenonrenewableoncegone,theyaregoneforever.AcriticalfactoringleaninginformationabouttheFirstAmericansthepeople,theirlifeways,andtheirworldistheinterrelationshipsamongtheseremainsandthecontextsinwhichtheinformationisfound.NothingissimpleaboutunderstandingtheFirstAmericans.
ThisvolumewasdevelopedoutofasymposiumonpublicresponsibilitiesforprotectionofFirstAmericansresources,includingdiscussionsof
theconceptofthatresponsibility;
relationshipsamongresearchersworkingonFirstAmericansresourcesthatareoftenpubliclymanaged,andthoseresourcemanagers;
thelegalbasisforprotectingFirstAmericansresourcesintheAmericasandrelatedmaterialsinAsia;
opportunitiesforeducatingthepublicabouttheFirstAmericansandtheirinformationvalues;and
howtopayforFirstAmericansresearchandprotectionofresources.
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FirstAmericansresources,betheyarchaeologicalornonculturalpaleoenvironmentalsites,collections,orrelatedrecords,arenonrenewableandfinite.Theuseoftheseresourcesmustbecarefullymanaged,conservingwhileatthesametimeexploitingthemtocreatepublicinformation.Aroundtheworld,avarietyofprivateandpublicindividualsandorganizationsmanagetheuseofFirstAmericansmaterials.ThePublicTrustSymposiumwascosponsoredbytheNationalParkServiceandtheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,andfocusedonthepublicnatureoftheseresourcesandthevariousaspectsinvolvedinitswiseuseapublicethicofstewardship,thepubliccontextinwhichresearchisconducted,thelegalenvironmentofresourcemanagement,andpubliceducationaboutandfinancialsupportforresearchandmanagement.TheNationalParkService'sconcernsaboutFirstAmericansresourcestewardship,asexpressedbyLeslieStarrHart,reflecttheneedofmostlandmanagersforinformationaboutFirstAmericansresearchandhowtoprotectFirstAmericansresourcessothatthosemanagerscanbebetterpublicservants.
RUTHANNKNUDSONBENNIEC.KEEL
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TheFirstAmericansandtheNationalParkServiceLeslieStarrHart
TheNationalParkServicerequeststechnicalguidanceregardingtheroleofindigenouspopulationsinFirstAmericansresearch,methodsforachievingcooperationandinformationexchangeamongfederal,tribal,stateandprivatesectorsinArcticresearch,andwaystoenhanceongoinganddevelopinginternationalscientificexchanges.
FederalManagementNeeds
TheU.S.NationalParkService(NPS)'scosponsorshipoftheinternationalmulti-disciplinaryWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,specificallyofthePublicTrustSymposium,isveryappropriate.Itisobviousthatthesynthesisofscientificinformationandthedelineationofprioritiesresultingfromthesedeliberationswillassistusnotonlyinmanagingarchaeologicalresourcesonourparklandsbut,perhapsmoreimportantly,inoureffortstoprovideleadershipandcoordinationforfederal,tribal,state,andlocalagenciesinmanaging,interpreting,andpreservingthearchaeologicalresourcesthatarethefocusofthismeeting.
(1)Theinvolvementofindigenouspopulations(localresidents)inthedevelopmentandimplementationofresearchinareasthatmayhavedirectbearingontheirabilitytocontinueasubsistence-basedwayoflife.Manyofthesepeople,livinginremoteareas,representcultures''onthebrink";however,theypossessanevolvedcompetencyforsurvivalinastressedenvironmentthatwewoulddowelltoconsiderandlearnfrom.
(2)TheongoingdevelopmentandimplementationofbasicandappliedresearchundertheArcticResearchandPolicyActof1984.
ThisActstressesthecoordinationofArcticresearch,throughinteragencyfederal/stateandprivatesectorcooperationwithrespecttoplanninganddatasharing.Itcould,
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andshould,includeresearchrelatedtothepeoplingoftheAmericas.
(3)Theenhancementofongoinganddevelopinginternationalexchangesamongscientistsandscholars.AlaskahasbeenthebeneficiaryofglasnostwiththeformerUnionofSocialistSovietRepublicsinaverypositivemannersince1987.WehopetoexpandthesecooperativeendeavorsintothecircumpolarandFennoScandiaregionsandbeyond.
BeingassociatedwiththeFirstWorldSummitConferenceprovidesacertainsenseofhistory.OnecannothelpbutwonderwhateffectthiswillhaveontheglobalvisionofAmericanorigins.Fortrulythisisaglobalquestion,onethatoverridesthegeopoliticalboundariespresentlydividingtheplanet.TheseboundarieshaveattimescloudedissuesrelatingtohumanoccupationoftheAmericas,butareovercomebycooperationandexchangeofinformationamongthosewhoseresearchaddressesthepeoplingoftheAmericasinAsia,NorthAmerica,andCentralandSouthAmerica.Althoughtheconferenceisdividedalongthesetraditionallines,Itrustthattheseorganizationalconstructswillprovideacommonground,anacademiclandscape,ifyouwill,onwhichtherecanbeafruitfulexchangeofideasandaconsensusofdirection.
Asamanager,Iamverypleasedtoseethattheconferencenotonlyaddressesquestionsconcerningcurrentresearchanddatagaps,theestablishmentofprioritiesforfutureresearch,thelegalenvironmentforaddressingarchaeologicalresourcemanagement,andfundingforthisresearch,butalsoissuesrelatedtotheprotectionoftheresourceasexemplifiedinconferencetopicsconcerningpubliceducation,preservationofthepublictrust,andthestewardshipofthearchaeologicalrecordthroughouttheAmericas.GiventhefactthatthemajorityofthearchaeologyconductedintheAmericasisfundedbythepublic,itisclearthatthepublichasabigstakeinarchaeology.It
isalsoclearthatprotectionoftheresourcerequirestheactiveparticipationofthepublic.Increasingthepublic'sawarenessofandappreciationforarchaeologywillnodoubtresultinincreasedprotectionofthearchaeologicalresourcebasethroughouttheAmericas.
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Beforewecaneffectivelyprotect,study,andmanagethearchaeologicalresourcebase,wemustdeterminehowbigitisandwhatitconsistsof.EstimatesbyfederalagenciesintheUnitedStatesindicatethatthereareapproximately425,000knownarcheologicalsitesonfederallymanagedU.S.lands.Takeintoconsiderationthatthesesameagenciesreportthatapproximately93percentoftheirlandhasnotbeenexaminedforarchaeologicalsitesandthesizeoftheactualarchaeologicaldatabasewillbeseentobetremendouslyunderstated.Buteventhisconservativeestimate,ofcourse,doesnotincludethestateandprivatelandswhichmakeupapproximatelytwo-thirdsoftheUnitedStates.IfthislevelofsurveyisindicativeofeffortsinotherpartsoftheAmericas,andIthinkitlikelyis,thenwehavealongwaytogointermsofdefiningthearchaeologicalresourcebase.NodoubtmanyofthesitesstillundiscoveredcouldaddressquestionsrelatingtothepeoplingoftheAmericasandoureffortstounderstandthistopicwouldbeenhancedbyresearchdesignedtolocateandinventorythesesites.
InventoryEnhancement
Since1971,U.S.federalagencieshavebeenmandatedtoinventorytheirlandsforarchaeologicalresources.A1988amendment(P.L.100-555)totheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979mandatesfederalagenciesto"developplansforsurveyinglandsundertheircontroltodeterminethenatureandextentofarchaeologicalresourcesonthoselands[andto]prepareascheduleforsurveyinglandsthatarelikelytocontainthemostscientificallyvaluablearchaeologicalresources."Althoughmandated,nofundshavetodatebeenallocatedforextensivearchaeologicalinventory(cf.LeMaster,thisvolume).Insteadthechargehasbeentoinventorywithinexistingprogramsandbudgetstodomorewithless.ItisnotsurprisingthatlessthansevenpercentoffederallandsintheUnitedStateshavebeen
surveyedforarchaeologicalsites.Thearchaeologicalresourcesofanevensmallerpercentageof
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AmericanlandsoutsideoftheUnitedStateshavebeeninventoried.
InsettingprioritiesandmakingrecommendationsforarchaeologicalinventoryintheAmericasandotherappropriategeographicalareas,considerationshouldbegiventocooperativeacademic-governmentresearchefforts,perhapsintheformofjointprojectsorstudiesinvolvingscientistsfrommanycountries.TheNPSsupportsthesetypesofcooperativeefforts,andendeavorstoprovideaccesstoNPSlands,information,technicalandlogisticalsupport,andfundingforthesetypesofstudiesatboththenationalandinternationallevelstotheextentthattheycanbearticulatedwithinexistingprograms,responsibilities,andmissions.
Knowing,understanding,andprotectingthearchaeologicalresourcesoftheAmericasisourpermanentandundividedobligationandoneofourmostimportantresponsibilities.Thiswillrequirethecooperationofthosewhostudytheresource,thosewhomanagetheresource,andthosewhoultimatelysupporttheseeffortsthepublic.
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IITHEPUBLICTRUSTTheissueofownershipundoubtedlyhasperplexedtheanimalkingdomsinceitsearliesthistory.Perhapsitisasoldasthekingdomitself.Weknowthatanimalscompeteforspaceandresourcesatthefundamentallevelofexistence.Verysimpleformsofanimallifecompeteforterritoryandprotecttheirspacebymechanismsrangingfromsimpletocomplex.Asanimallifebecomesmoreevolved,complexbehaviorsprotectingtheownershipofterritoryanditsresourcesmovefromtheindividualtothegroup.Tobesure,wearetaughtthatthesebehaviorsaremechanismsforsurvivalandcanbeinterpretedasoperatingatabiologicallevel.Undoubtedly,humanityhasthemostevolved,involved,andcontradictoryconceptsofownershipandproperty.
Anthropologicalstudiestellusthatconceptsofownershipcanincludenotonlythematerialbutthenonmaterial.Weknowthatinsomesocietiesrealestate,houses,businesses,ideas,andconceptscanbeprivatelyheld,butthattherearealsosocietieswherethesesameitemsareownedbythegrouporthestate.Elsewhereonthefaceoftheearthindividualsownorhaveownedspirits,songs,dances,magicalincantationsandthelike,butasindividualspossesslittlematerialwealth.
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Inourlifetimeswehaveseentwopolitico-economicsystemsdominatetheworld.Interestingly,theysharefundamentaldifferencesintheownershipofproperty,especiallypropertythatiswealth-producing.Atthismomentwearelivinginmostinterestingtimesasoneofthesesystemspeacefullyreanalysessomeofitsfundamentaldoctrines.Timewillprovideuswithsomeveryinterestingeventsandsolutionsinthisregard.
Universally,irrespectiveoftheprevailingpoliticalsystem,thepast,thecommonhistoryofanation,isrecognizedasthecommonpropertyofthegroup.Tobesure,howthathistoryisdevelopedandthepurposesforwhichthepastisusedvary,asdoestheownershipofthematerialremainsofthepast.Consideringthecomplexityofconceptsofpropertyandownership,furthercommentsherewillberestrictedtothegeneralareaofarchaeology.
Insomenationstherelicsofthepastarethepropertyofthestate,whereasinothersownershipoftheculturalrelics(andothermaterialevidenceofthepast)belongstothelandowner,pureandsimple.However,thiselementaldichotomyinownershipisrare,aspapersinthisvolumeshow.Aswithotherhumanendeavors,wetendtocreateallkindsofexceptionsandcomplexity.
ThefollowingpaperbyKnudsonespousesanideaofauniversalpublictrustforthepastanditsmaterialmanifestations.Herideasarenotcompletelyoriginal.Archaeologistshavefollowedtheircallingoutoftheirpersonalintellectualneedsorwants;mostofushavenottakenuptheshovelandtroweltobecomerichandfamous.Isuspectthatonlyafterembarkingonthestudyandpracticeofourtradedidwerecognizethatwewerecontributingtothegrandenterpriseofcreatingknowledgeabouttheundeniablecommonthreadofourhumanness.WeareindebtedtoKnudsonforaclearpresentationofthePublicTrustDoctrine.Hopefully,herdiscoursewillserveasadocument
withwhichwecanpersuadeotherstoacceptamoreresponsiblevisionoftheirstewardshipofthepast.
BENNIEC.KEEL
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ThePublicTrustandArchaeologicalStewardshipRuthannKnudson
Inmostmodernsocieties,archaeologicalresourcesareconsideredtobepartofaworldwidepublictrust,beingjointandseverallyownedbythemembersofthehumancommunitywhoallhaverightstotheirheritageinformationandresources.Inthisperspective,allpeoplethushavestewardshipresponsibilitiesfortheserightsandtheseresources,andneedtounderstand,affirm,andimplementthisethic.FirstAmericansarchaeologicalresourcesareaparticularlyimportanttrustelement,becauseoftheirrarityandtheuniqueinformationtheycontainabouthumans'adaptationtoapristineNewWorld.Ultimately,governmentshavearchaeologicalstewardshipresponsibilitiestoactonthepublic'sbehalf.Theseresponsibilitiesmeritclarificationandimplementation,buttheethicalresponsibilitybelongsfirsttotheaveragecitizen.
Beginningwithaleapoffaith,asdoallethicalpositions,Iassertthatarchaeologicalresourcesarepartofaworldwidepublictrust,andthattheyshouldbeused,conserved,and/ordestroyedonlyfollowingconsiderationofthatstewardshipresponsibility.Somesystemsofculturalvaluesdenythisassertion(seeLayton1989),whichIrespect,butthisdiscussionfocusesonwhatIbelieveisadominantworldwidepattern.Underthisscenario,archaeologistshavearesponsibilitytooperateasarchaeologicaltrustees,asdoothermembersofthepublicandprivateworld.ThisisparticularlytruewhendealingwiththeremainsoftheFirstAmericans,whicharerare,oftennotsurfaceevident,andholdirreplaceableinformationaboutourspecies'adaptationtoapristine"NewWorld."
AConceptualFramework
In1986Iinitiatedadiscussionofcontemporaryculturalresourcemanagementwiththequestion,"Whoownsanarchaeologicalsite?"(Knudson1986:395).TherewasnoobviousanswerintheUnitedStates,norindeeddidthereappeartobeoneelsewhereintheworld.Inmakingacomparative
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studyofworldculturalresourcemanagementsystems,Cleere(1984:127)notedthattheprogramsofthosecountriesdiscussedinhisvolumegenerallylackedproperlyconceivedarchaeologicalconservationpolicies.ThisisdespitethefactthattheUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganizationadoptedinternationalprinciplesonarchaeologicalexcavationsin1956(UNESCO1985).Cleere'sworkreflectedthelackofanyconsistentethical,muchlessanyformallegal,nationalpoliciesacrosstheworld.
Thisquestionofownership,andconsequentstewardshipresponsibilities,isforemostanethicalissuebut,aswithmostquestionsofrightandwrongandthebalanceofpublicandprivaterights,itsimplementationisalegalquestion.Alegalsystemissimplya(usuallyincomplete)codificationofanethicalvaluesystem.ThispaperdiscusseshowtheUnitedStateshaslegallyaddressedmybasicethicalaffirmation.Subsequentpaperswilladdressarchaeologicalresourcemanagementintheethicalandlegalcontextsofothernations.
Thebasicpropositionsunderlyingarchaeologists'responsibilityforpoliticalparticipationareauniversalethicofpublicarchaeologicalvalues:
(1)Thereisaworldwidemoralconsensusthatthelong-termconservationofasignificantportionofourculturalpastisgoodforthehumancommunity.Asacorollary,lossofournonrenewableheritageresourcebaseengenderssignificantsocialcost(Knudson1984:245).
(2)Thelong-termgoalisconservationofaheritageresourcebaseforthegoodofthehumancommunity,forthepreservationofknowledgeandobjectsastheyholdvalueforlong-termculturalcoherence.Itisnotconservationofanindividualsiteorbuildingperse,orfocusonaspecificresearchtopicoutofcontextofitsrelationshiptotheoverall
culturalneedsofthehumancommunity(Knudson1984:246;cf.Knecht1994).
(3)Whileanimportanthumanvalue,culturalresources(Knudson1986,forthcoming)areonlyoneaspectofahumansocialandeconomicsystem,andallresourcemanagementdecisionsaremaderelativetothebroadersystem;toignorethisbroadpubliccontextisunethical.Thus,archaeologicalresourcesshouldbemanagedwithinamoreinclusivecontext
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ofculturalresourcesand,further,withinthecontextofnational,state,andlocalpublicmulti-resourcepoliciesandprograms(Knudson1984:246).
ThissetofpropositionsdevelopedoutoftheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology's1980BasicPrinciplesofArchaeologicalResourceManagement(Knudson1982).Implicitwithintheseprinciplesisapublictrustconcept.SuchaconceptisalsoimplicitinMcGimsey's(1972:5)seminaldiscussionofpublicarchaeology,andindiscussionssuchasFowler(1986),GradyandLipe(1976),Mayer-Oakes(1989),Schaafsma(1989),TainterandLucas(1983)inWoodall(1989),andZelaya(1981).HavingaconceptlabelornamethePublicTrustisanextremelyimportantmnemonicforproselytizing.Andwemustproselytize,becauseuntilthereisaclearpublicethicalconsensusaboutarchaeologicalvalueswecannotstopthelootinganddestructionofresourcesbydevelopmentforces.
ChristopherChippindalehasnotedthatthisconceptisnotonewithwhichtheBritisharefamiliar,largelybecauseofthestrongmodernpresumptioninEuropeanlawthatlandowners'rightsaretemperedbymanyotherinterests(Chippindale1983).Thatunfamiliarityandlegaldifferenceshouldnotdetractfromtheuniversaladoptionoftheethicandterm.IntheUnitedStates,then-SecretaryoftheInteriorManuelLujan,Jr.(1991)promulgatedANationalStrategyforFederalArchaeologyinwhichhestated,"[Thearchaeologicalpaleoenvironmental]recordisapublictrusttobeunderstoodandevaluatedtohelpshapeourpresentresponsestochangingenvironments."
ThePublicTrustDoctrineinU.S.Law
AsaU.S.citizen,Ihavebeenraisedtorespectthesanctityofprivatepropertyrights,withtheassumedcorollarythatarchaeological
resourcesarethepropertyofthelandowner.ButFirstAmericansresourcesaretoovaluabletoallofustobetreatedaseitherprivatecommoditiesortreasure.OverthepastfewyearsIhavediscoveredthatunderU.S.waterqualitylawsthepublicinterestoftenprevailsoverconstitutionalFifth
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Amendmentpropertyrights.WhynotforFirstAmericansarchaeologicalresourcesaswell?
Since1986,IhaveattemptedtoidentifytheconceptualbasesunderlyingtheUnitedStates'apparentlycontrastinglegalrequirementsforthemanagementofarchaeologicalandwaterresources.ThisattempthasledmetothePublicTrustDoctrine(PTD),anappropriateethicforworldwidearchaeologicalresourcemanagement,thougharelativelyinchoatesetofprincipleswithnoclearconstitutionalbasis.
Lipe(1984:2)hascogentlypointedoutthatarchaeologicalculturalresourceshavevalueonlyasthosevaluesareassignedbyhumanbeings,andthatnotallsuchresourceshave,muchlessareassigned,equallyhighvalue.Archaeologicalresourcesaremostfrequentlyassignedscientific,humanistic,andspiritualvalues(Knudson1991).ThePublicTrustprincipleassertstherightofthewholehumancommunitytopreserveallresourcesuntilavaluejudgmenthasbeenmadeinamannerthatbestservesthepublic'sbroadinterests.
ThefollowingdiscussionofthePTDincludesamorearticulatestatementofaworldwidePublicTrustprinciple,anethicalprescriptforallprivateorpublicindividualsororganizationswhohavesomeinteractionwitharchaeologicalresources.Theacceptanceandimplementationofthisethicalvalueisthefocusofthisdiscussionandsymposium,firstingeneralandsecondarilyinrelationtotheFirstAmericans.Itsexplicitlegalcodificationisasubsidiaryissue,asistheissueofcompensationofprivaterightsinassertingapublicgood.
Heritageintoday'sworldisanownedpast(seeMcGuire1989).Itcomprisesbothmaterialproperty,withactualvalueinanantiquitiesmarket,andinformationaboutpatrimonyandenvironmentaladaptation.Wemustfirstaskwhoownsthisheritage,andthen,secondarily,whocaresforit.
Inourcontemporarylegalisticworldcommunity,stewardshiprightsandresponsibilitiesareexplicitlytiedtopropertyrights.Thislinkageofownershipandstewardshipisincontrasttosometraditionalculturalvaluesystems(forinstance,NezPercemutualcross-utilizationstewardshiprightsandresponsibilities[Walker1967]).Thepublicnatureofarchaeologicalresources,andtheobligationofgovernments,private
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individuals,andorganizationstofulfilltheirresponsibilitiesastrusteesofthesepublicresources,meritsbroaderrecognitionandaffirmation.
In1970,JosephSaxpublishedaseminalpaperonthePTDinU.S.naturalresourcelaw.Naturalresourcelawisdifferentfromenvironmentallawinthattheformerusuallyreferstotheresourceconsumerandthelattertotheresourceprotector(Freedman1987:66).Archaeologicalresourcemanagement,likemineralsmanagement,fallsbetweenthesetwocategorieswhenitisdirectedtotheconservativeconsumptionofanonrenewableresourcebase(cf.Lipe1974,Thompson1974).U.S.federalarchaeologicallaws(e.g.,AntiquitiesActof1906,ArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974,ArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct)areenvironmentalratherthannaturalresourcelaws,prescriptivereactionstothreatsofdamageanddestruction.Thereisnoarchaeologicalresourcelawthatisaproactivestatementofmanagementpolicy(seeDouglas,thisvolume).
Sax(1970:476)pointedoutthatwhilethePTDhaditsoriginsintheRomanJustinianCodeandinMagnaCartapropertyrightsinrivers,seas,andtheshore,
OfalltheconceptsknowntoAmericanlaw,onlythepublictrustdoctrineseemstohavethebreadthandsubstantivecontentwhichmightmakeitusefulasatoolforgeneralapplicationbycitizensseekingtodevelopacomprehensivelegalapproachtoresourcemanagementproblems(Sax1970:474).
BasicallythePTDisamixtureofideasthathavebeensetforthinU.S.caselawsince1821(Stevens1980:199),focusingonSax's(1970:484)concept
...thattherearecertainintereststhatareintrinsicallysoimportanttoeverycitizenthattheirfreeavailabilitytendstomarkthesocietyasoneof
citizensratherthanserfs;toprotectthese,itisnecessarytobeespeciallywarysonoindividualorgroupacquirespowertocontrolthem.
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Sax(1970:485)wentontonotethatprivateuseofthesepubliclysignificantresourcesisoftensoinappropriatethatanindividuallandsurfacetitleownercanonlyhaveusufructownershipofthoseresources,andhencemustrecognizethepublicnatureofarchaeologicalresourceswhichhappentobeonthisproperty.Huffman(1986:571)arguesthatthismaybetrueforwaterbecauseofitsmigratorynature,butprobablyisnotapplicabletononmigratoryresources.However,noonehasexploredtheconcept'slegalapplicationtoheritageresources,muchlessitsexplicitethicalstatement.
Propertyis''thatwhichispeculiarorpropertoanyperson...anaggregateofrightswhichareguaranteedorprotectedbythegovernment"(Black1979).Theessenceofpropertylawisrespectforapropertyholder'sreasonableexpectationsthatherorhisrightscanbeexercised(Reich1964,Sax1980:186-187).Itisassertedherethattheworld'sentirepopulationhasarighttoinformationaboutitshumanheritage(cf.CaliforniaHeritageTaskForce1984:24,DiStefano1988)andthereforeallmembersofthehumancommunityarejointandseverallyownersofallarchaeologicalresources,nomattertheownershipstatusofthedepositionalcontextofthoseresources.Itisthusalogicalcorollarythateachgovernmentorprivateindividualwithlegaljurisdictionoverthephysicalcontextofarchaeologicaldepositshasatrustresponsibilitytoprotectthejointownershiprightsoftheentirehumancommunity.Afurthercorollaryisthatallsitediscoverershavesucharesponsibility.
ThePTDisnotexplicitlyrecognizedintheU.S.Constitutionoritsoriginalsupportingdocuments(Huffman1986:579,Kammen1986).ItsimplicitstatementhasbeentiedtotheNinthAmendment"TheenumerationintheConstitution,ofcertainrights,shallnotbeconstruedtodenyordisparageothersretainedbythepeople"asa"righttoadecentenvironment"(Freedman1987:32-35,Sloan
1979:63;cf.Adler1988).
ThePTDhasalsobeentied(Sax1980,Wilkinson1980:311)tothePropertyClauseoftheU.S.Constitution(Art.IV,Sec.3,Para.2):
TheCongressshallhavePowertodisposeofandmakeallneedfulRulesandRegulationsrespectingthe
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TerritoryorotherPropertybelongingtotheUnitedStates....
However,thePropertyClausehasbeenonlyinfrequentlyappliedtotheregulationofprivateproperty(Reed1986,Shepard1984),andmoreoftensuchregulationhasreliedonwhatisgenerallyknownasthe"policepower"toregulatepublicnuisances(Grad1971:1-15,Humbach1987:561,Sax1964).
Inaddition,theFourteenthAmendment
...NoStateshallmakeorenforceanylawwhichshallabridgetheprivilegesorimmunitiesofcitizensoftheUnitedStates;norshallanyStatedepriveanypersonoflife,liberty,orproperty,withoutdueprocessoflaw;nordenytoanypersonwithinitsjurisdictiontheequalprotectionofthelaws(Sec.1).
hasbeencitedasabasisforthePTD.
Somestates(California,NewJersey,Illinois,Wisconsin,Florida,Louisiana,Massachusetts,NorthDakota,andOregon)haveexpresslycodifiedthePTDinrelationtospecifiednaturalresources(Huffman1986:572,Wilson1984).InLouisiana,thisspecificallyincludesthe"healthful,scenic,historicandaestheticqualityoftheenvironment"(Freedman1987:230).
Untilrecently,therehadbeenlittleexplicitlegalconfrontationbetweenthePTDandthetakingissueorJustCompensationClauseoftheFifthAmendment(Bosselmanetal.1973,thoughseeReagan1988,U.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorSolicitor1979).ThatAmendmentstatesthatnopropertyshallbetakenforpublicusewithoutduecompensation.Thereclearlyhavebeenethicalconfrontationsbetweenthetwoperspectives,asinarchaeologicalminingofprivatelands.Similarly,thereareconflictsbetweensurfaceownershiprightsandtherightsofAmericanIndiansinthedispositionofIndianhumanremainsandassociatedfuneraryitems(Price
1991:23-24).
Humbach(1987:551-553)pointsoutthattherearetwotypesofpropertyintereststhatcanbetaken:propertyrights(legaladvantageanownerhasbecauseoflegaldutiesimposedonothers[e.g.,notrespass])andpropertyfreedoms(legaladvantageofbeingabletodowhatonewantsonone'sproperty).
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TheSupremeCourthasrarelyrequiredcompensationoffreedomtakingssuchasmayoccurthroughgeneralzoning,althoughExecutiveOrder12630statesthatsuchgovernmentalactionsmayrequirecompensation(Reagan1988:347).However,newscholarlyattentionisbeingpaidtothesocialbenefitsofcommonownershipofnaturalresources(McCayandAcheson1987),andthetradeoffsinbalancingpropertyrightsandjustice(Goldfarb1988,Sagoff1988).FormerU.SSupremeCourtJusticeWilliamJ.Brennan,whowasmostinfluentialinrulingsonhistoricbuildingpreservationvs.privatepropertyrights,heldtothefollowinglanduseproposition:
Althoughtheindividual'srighttodevelopanduseprivatepropertymaybeseverelylimitedbyrightsofthecommunity,theindividualinalleventsisentitledtoanexpectationofreasonableeconomicuseandmustreceivecompensationforlossofvalueifaregulationgoestoofar(HaarandKayden1991:15).
Andfurther:
Wemustdistinguishthoseproperty"rights"thatrelatetotheuse,enjoyment,privacy,therighttoenforcetrespass,andtherighttodisposeofandinheritlandfromthe"right"togainthehighestandimmediatedollarreturnbasedonexpectancyorspeculativevalue(Collins1991;cfWeber1991).
Thereisundeniableethicalandlegaltensionbetweenthesetwoconcepts,andeachgovernmentalandprivatelandownerdecisionaboutresourceusemustinvolveacase-specificbalancingofcompetinguses(Stevens1980:223).ThereisaneedtoreconcilethePublicTrustwithacommunity'srighttothebenefitsofprivateownership(Wilson1984:897).But,asJohnGardner(1960:23)hasnoted:
Ourpluralisticphilosophyinviteseachorganization,institution,orspecialgrouptodevelopandenhanceitsownpotentialities.Butthepriceofthattreasuredautonomyandself-preoccupationisthateachinstitutionconcern
itselfalsowiththecommongood.Thisisnotidealism;itisself-preservation[italicsintheoriginal].
Page17
ApplicationofthePTDtoU.S.historicarchitecturalpropertieshasbeenaspecialissuesincetheSupremeCourtPennCentralcasein1978,whichrenderedadecisionthat
...standsforthepropositionthattherightsincidenttopropertyownershiparenotabsolute,butaresubjecttoreasonableregulationforthebenefitofthecommunitywithoutthenecessityofrequiringthepublictopaymonetarycompensation[Doheny1993:8].
Recently,JosephSaxhasaddressedtheapplicationofthePTDtothepreservationofhistoricproperties,assertingthat"Propertyrightsclaimsdonotstandasasignificantbarriertoprotectionofculturalproperties"(Sax1993:137).WhenU.S.courtsconsidertheconflictbetweenindividualfreedomandthevaluesofacommunitywitheitherasharedcultureordiversecultureswithinthelargersociety,overtimetheyhavequietlysupportedtheprotectionofheritagevalues.
TheU.S.courtscontinuetorefinethejudicialinterpretationoftheFifthAmendmentJustCompensationClause(Harper1994,Roddewig1993),andtherecontinuestobeconsiderablemisunderstandingintheUnitedStatesofthedifferencebetweenpropertyrightsandpropertyvalues(Rypkema1993).ThebuiltenvironmentcommunitywithintheU.S.historicpreservationprogramhasrecentlyarticulatedmorecarefullyitsbeliefintheappropriatenessofapplyingthePTDtothatprogram.Recentpapersrelatehistoricpreservationtocivicresponsibilitiesforstewardship,managingtheimpactofchangeonpeopleandtheirenvironmentandvalueconflictsbetweenindividualsandcommunity(Beaumont1993);toopenspaceprotection(DehartandFrobouck1993);andtoqualityoflife(Lewis1993).TodatethesediscussionshaveaddressedtheapplicationofthePTDonlytosubmergedarchaeologicalresources(Dentonetal.1993),andnotbroaderissues,muchlessthearchaeologicalresourcesofindigenouspeople(cf.Brush1993).AllFirstAmericansscholarsandother
enthusiastshavearesponsibilitytoparticipateintheapplicationofthePublicTrustconcepttothefullrangeofcultural(Hufford1990,1994)andnaturalheritageresources,includingthebuiltenvironment.
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InOctober1993,a"carefullyplanned,no-holds-barredstrategysession"washeldinSundance,Utah,toaddressthetakingsissue,theparticipantsbeingwesternU.S.statelegislators,environmentalandconservationleaders,environmentallobbyists,andunionleaders(MacWilliamsCosgroveSnider1994).WhileFirstAmericanspreservationconcernswerenotdiscussedspecifically,theSundanceConferenceandcoalitionareanappropriatesociopoliticalforuminwhichtoaddressthoseconcerns.
Beforearchaeologicalsitesonpublicorprivatelandscanconsistentlybethesubjectofpublicdecisions,theirmembershipwithinaninalienablepublictrustmustberecognizedbybotharchaeologistsandnon-archaeologists.Thischangemustbecomplementedbyachangeinthepublic'sperceptionofarchaeology'sintrinsicnatureandvalues.
Stewardship
StewardshiphasbeenusedtostandforarchaeologicalsiteprotectionandconservationintheUnitedStatesforatleastthepasttwodecades;itmayhavebeencommonearlier,butIwasnotfamiliarwithit.Thedictionarydefinesstewardas"apersonwhomanagesanother'spropertyorfinancialaffairs,orwhoadministersanythingastheagentofanotherorothers"(Stein1975:1289).Inusingtheterm,archaeologistsimplicitlyaffirmthatarchaeologicalresourcesaresomeone'spropertywithoutdealingexplicitlywiththeconceptsofownershiprightsandresponsibilities.Thesemustbeaddressedbeforethequestionofwhomanagestheproperty,andhowisittobedone,canbeadequatelyaddressed.
Myinitialassertionincludedtheconceptofapublictrust,notjustapublicinterest.Identifyingsomethingasbeinginthepublic'sinterestisastatementofacollectiveethic,buthasnoenforcementmechanism.Whoaregoingtobethestewardsofthispublicinterest?
TheconceptofaPublicTrustrequiresanagentofaction,atrusteeofthepublicinterest.
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WhileIbelievearchaeologicalresourceshavemorescientific,humanistic,andspiritualvaluethangenerallyisperceived,theirapparentinertnessandinabilitytodoworkmeansthattheaveragecitizenseesthemascuriositiesbutnotasignificantfactorintradeoffsthatdohaveeconomicbenefit(Knudson1989a).Atpresent,theaveragecitizenisunlikelytobeastewardofarchaeologicalresourcesorthepublicrightsrelatedtothem.InthelongrunthereprobablyisaneedforlegalcodificationofthePublicTrustconceptasitappliestoarchaeologicalresources.First,though,archaeologistsandotherconcernedcitizensmustaffirmandarticulatetheconceptofpeopleaspublictrustees,toenhanceinformalstewardship.Acceptanceofthisethicwillinturndevelopaconstituencyforapossiblynecessaryfuturepoliticalcampaign.And,secondarilybutbeforecodification,theeconomicbenefitsandcostsofarchaeologicalmanagementandconsumptionmustbearticulatedtoprovideavalidbasisfordebatesovertradeoffsandcompensation(Schmid1989;cf.Cantor1991,ChappelleandWebster1993,Lutz1993,Tietenberg1992;seeKnudsonforthcoming).
ManuelLujan,Jr.,U.S.SecretaryoftheInteriorfrom1988to1992,establishedaten-pointagendaforthedepartmentunderthethemeofSTEWARDSHIP(Greenberg1989).Thefocuswasoriginallyonnaturalresources,butin1991theSecretarypromulgatedhisNationalStrategyforFederalArcheology(Lujan1991),complementinghisearlieragenda.Itisimperativethatthearchaeologicalcommunitycontinuetoeducateitspoliticalleadersabouttheneedtokeepastewardshipfocusonourculturalresources.
Mostimportanttoeffectivearchaeologicalstewardshipisthepublic'sperceptionofthepublictrust,includingprivatelandowners'participationinarchaeologicalresourcemanagementacrossthecountryandworld.Conservationofarchaeologicalsitesinplace,orcollectionofinformationandartifactsexcavatedtoallowother
resourceuses,whileconsideringtheprivateinterestsofrelatedindividuals,isresponsibleexecutionofapublictrust.Itcanbringbenefitsbycontributingscientificknowledge(oftenaboutissuessuchas
Page20
wastemanagementmethodsanddesiredfutureecosystemconditionsaswellasaboutculturalheritage),heritagecontinuities,goodpublicrelations,recreation,ortourismopportunities.
FirstAmericansResourceswithinthePublicTrust
FirstAmericansarchaeologicalresourcesareanirreplaceablerecordofhumanadaptationtoapristinenaturalNewWorld,onenotmodifiedbyoilspills,nuclearwaste,municipallandfills,oracidrain.Interdisciplinarystudiessuchasthosedescribedthroughoutthisconferenceprovideauniquerecordofhumantechnologicalandsocioculturalgrowthanddevelopmentandpaleoenvironmentalconditions.TheycanprovideasignificantdatabaseforbetterunderstandingrelationshipsbetweenpeopleandtheirenvironmentintheArtic,whichhasbeenidentifiedasatopprioritybytheCommitteeonArcticSocialSciences(1989).Theycanprovidesimilarinformationinotherenvironments,andinthebroadeststudiesofglobalclimaticandecologicalchange(cf.EarthSystemSciencesCommittee1988,MaloneandCorell1989:33).Nuclearwastemustbedisposedoftobesafefor10,000years;mostpeoplehavenoconceptof10,000years,muchlesshowtodesignengineeredsystemsthatprovidethatsafety.Archaeologicalstudiescandoworkinareassuchasthese,ifarchaeologistsunderstandthequestionsthatneedtobeaddressed,andcanhelptosearchforsomeanswerswhiledoingpersonallysatisfyingresearch.
FirstAmericansresourcesarerelativelyrare,oftennotsurfaceevident,andoftendonotincludesuchspectacularfeaturesorartifactsthattheyacquireanimmediatepublicfanclub.TheycanbeconservedonlywithinaPublicTrustconcept.
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SummaryandConclusions
Archaeologicalresourcesarepartofapublictrust,beingjointandseverallyownedbythemembersoftheuniversalhumancommunity.Affirmativestewardshipofallarchaeologicalmaterialsmustincludearchaeologicaleducationofthegeneralpublic,politicians,NativeAmericans,andotherinterestgroupsinadditionto,ifnotbefore,thephysicalmanagementofthesitesandartifacts.
Archaeologyalsoneedstoberecognizedaspartofthegeneralenvironmentalmanagementequation,becauseofitspublicnatureaspartofatrustmanagedbybothprivateindividualsandgovernments,beforetherearenositesleftaboutwhichtoworry(Knudson1989b).Atthesametime,theU.S.FifthandFourteenthAmendmentsconcerningpropertyrightsneedtobeaddressedinspecificmultiresourcemanagementdecisionsthatinvolvearchaeology.U.S.societyisbasedonthegenerationofwealththroughtheuseofnaturalresourcesthatarethemselvesalsoelementsofthepublictrust;resourcemanagementisthusalwaysabalancingofcompetinggoalsandinterests.
Acknowledgements
IamindebtedtoRogerRyman,retiredManager,LandandEnvironment,ShellPipeLineCompany,whofirstforcedmetoconfronttheissueofarchaeologicalsiteownershipandmanagementresponsibilitywhenIwasworkingwithhimontheCortezPipelineproject.StevenE.James,VicePresident,Woodward-ClydeConsultants,ledmetotheconceptofthePublicTrustDoctrine.TheUniversityofIdahoCollegeofLawLibrarywasinvaluableinmybackgroundresearchonthedoctrine,andArthurD.Smith,Jr.,AssociateDeanoftheCollege,wasaninterestedsupporterofthatresearch.Subsequentparticipationinthe1990CulturalConservation
ConferencesponsoredbytheAmericanFolklifeCenter,U.S.LibraryofCongress,Washington;the1991annualmeetingoftheNationalAssociationofEnvironmentalProfessionalsinBaltimore;and1992-1993discussionsonpropertyrightsandhistoricpreservationwithPreservationActionandtheNationalTrustforHistoricPreservation,Washington,havebeeninvaluableinassistingmetounderstandthecontextofhowthePTDcanbeimplemented.
Page22
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Wilkinson,C.F.
1980
ThePublicTrustDoctrineinPublicLandLaw.U.C.DavisLawReview14(2):269-316.
Wilson,H.J.
1984ThePublicTrustDoctrineinMassachusettsLandLaw.BostonCollegeEnvironmentalAffairsLawRev.11(4):839-899.
Woodall,J.N.(editor)
1989Predicaments,Pragmatics,andProfessionalism:EthicalConductinArcheology.SpecialPublicationNo.1.SocietyofProfessionalArcheologists,OklahomaCity.
Zelaya,J.L.
1982TheOASasPreserveroftheCulturalHeritage.InRescueArcheology:PapersfromtheFirstNewWorldConferenceonRescueArcheology,editedbyR.L.WilsonandG.Loyola,pp.11-17.ThePreservationPress,Washington.
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IIIRESEARCHGUIDANCEThefocusoftheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericaswascurrentresearchinFirstAmericansstudies,andthosepapersarepresentedindetailinfourotherproceedingsvolumes.AsecondconferencethemewasthepubliccontextinwhichFirstAmericansresourcesarestudied,used,managed,anddestroyed.ThefollowingpaperbyBonnichsenetal.isasummaryofcurrentandfutureFirstAmericansresearchneedsinthatcontextofpublicmanagement.
BENNIEC.KEEL
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FutureDirectionsinFirstAmericansResearchandManagementRobsonBonnichsen,TomD.Dillehay,GeorgeC.Frison,FumikoIkawa-Smith,RuthannKnudson,D.GentrySteele,AllanR.Taylor,&JohnTomenchuk
FirstAmericansresearchhascomeofageandprovidesprimarydataimportantforunderstandinglocal,regional,andglobaldynamicsandlinkagesamongpastclimates,ecologies,andhumanadaptations.Bettersitereportsandanalyticalhypothesesneedtobedeveloped,alongwithstandardizedclassificationanddescriptivetechniques.Bioanthropologicalstudiesneedtomakebetteruseoftheavailablesampleofearlymodernhumanskeletalmaterial,andtodevelopmoreaccuratemodelsofbiologicalrelationships.Additionalmethods,relyingonstatisticsandvariouskindsoftypologies,areneededtodealwithlinguisticresemblancestoevaluaterelationshipsamongindigenousAmericanandAsianpopulations,andSouthAmericanlanguagesneedtobedocumentedmorefully.Thetraditionallinkbetweenscholarlyandpublicarchaeologyneedstobere-established,becausepubliclandandresourcemanagementisthecontextforFirstAmericansresourcemanagementandresearchinNorthAmericaandothernations.PublicoutreachandarchaeologicaleducationarevitalelementsinconservationandcontinuedstudyofFirstAmericansresources,andtheNativeAmericancommunityshouldbemoreinvolvedinFirstAmericansstudy.ThecomingofageofFirstAmericansresearchinvolvesaffirmativepartnershipswithotherpublicandprivatestewardsoftheheritagepublictrust.
Aswestandatthethresholdofthetwenty-firstcentury,ourworldisa
globalvillage.Sophisticatedinformationtechnologiesprovidedbysatelliteimagery,electroniccommunication,andcomputertechnologyareprofoundlyaffectinghowweperceive,analyze,andcomprehendtheworldaroundus.Intheglobalvillage,wearebecomingmoreawareofourindividualresponsibilitiesasscholarsofpubliclyvaluedarchaeologicalinformation,andasmanagersofpubliclyvaluedarchaeologicalmaterials.
Withthedevelopmentofspace-agetechnology,wearenownotonlycapableofgaininganevenmorecomprehensiveunderstandingofhowtheearthanditsculturesfunction,butalsoofprobingtheremotepastanddevelopingamorerealistic
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understandingoftheoriginanddispersalofmodernhumans.Centraltothisendeavorisarchaeology'sgreatunansweredquestionofwhenandhowtheAmericaswereinitiallypeopled.Adefinitiveanswertothisglobalproblemisnotyetinhand,thoughanumberofsignificantscientificadvanceshavebeenmadeoverthelasttwodecades.Yetmostpeopleareunawareoftheseadvances.
Developingandintegratingintosocietyscientificknowledgeaboutourhumanheritageinvolvesresearch,conservation,andpubliceducation,aswellaspublicpolicytoguideandintegratethesecomponents.Asamajorstepinthisprocess,theCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(CSFA)convenedtheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericasduringMay1989(Summit'89)tosynthesizescientificknowledgeaboutearlyAmericanorigins.ScientificresearchspecialistsfromAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmericaparticipatedintheconferenceandhavecontributedpapersforfoureditedvolumesrelatingtomethodandtheory,theIceAgeprehistoryofNorthAmericaandSouthAmerica,andtheIceAgeenvironmentsandtheprehistoryofAsia(BonnichsenandSteele1994,Bonnichsenetal.forthcoming(a)and(b),BonnichsenandDillehayforthcoming).WithinSummit'89,asymposium,"ThePublicTrustandtheFirstAmericans,"focusedonthepubliclegalandeducationalenvironmentsnecessarytosupportresearchontheAmericas'earliestculturalheritage,conserveFirstAmericansresources,andeducatetheworld'speoplesaboutthisuniquelegacy.Thisvolumeincludesthespecialsymposiumproceedings,andthispapersummarizesthescientificandpubliccontextoftheconferenceinwhichthediscussionsofpublicresponsibilityoccurred.
Scientificresearchdrivesthedevelopmentofnewknowledge.Yetoften,asinthecaseofFirstAmericansstudies,manyimportantresultsarenotdisseminatedtootherscientists,integratedintoresourcemanagementpractices,ormadeavailabletothepublicandschool
educators.BuildingfromresultsofinformationdevelopedinconjunctionwithSummit'89,thepurposeofthispaperisto:(1)outlinepotentialfutureresearchdirectionsimportanttounderstandingtheoriginandspreadofIceAgepeoplesandtheirculturesintotheAmericas;
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(2)discusspublicstewardshipissuesimportanttopreservingandconservingfragileFirstAmericansculturalandnaturalresources;and(3)outlinetheneedforenhancedpubliceducationprogramstoinformtheworldabouttheimportanceofourhumanheritage.
ScholarlyFrontiers
Recentworldevents,particularlytheopeningofChinaandtheendoftheColdWar,makethisanopportunetimetoformulateaglobalvisionofFirstAmericansstudiesthatembracesAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmerica.
DevelopmentofknowledgeaboutearlyAmericanhumanpopulationsisimportanttotheanthropologicalsubdisciplinesofsocioculturalanthropology,archaeology,linguistics,andphysicalandappliedanthropology.DataprovidedbyFirstAmericansresearchareessentialforthedevelopmentoftheoriestoexplainthemechanismsinvolvedinthedispersalofhumanpopulationsandvariationamongbiologicalpopulations,languages,andsocioculturalpatternsinferredfromthearchaeologicalrecord.TheyareimportanttoNativeAmericans'identificationofheritagevaluesforincorporationwithineducationandculturalmaintenanceprograms.FirstAmericansresearchprovidestheframeworkforunderstandinglaterperiodsofenvironmentaladaptationandculturaldevelopmentinAmericanprehistory,history,andcontemporarysociety.
Thefieldofearly-humanresearchintheNewWorldhascomeofage.FirstAmericansresearchdoesnotsimplycontributetoanthropologicalorhistoricalproblems;itprovidesprimarydataimportantforunderstandinglocal,regional,andglobalissuesrelevanttoexplainingthedynamicsandlinkagesamongpaleoclimatic,geologic,paleoecologic,andhumanadaptivesystemsandchangesintheselinkedsystemsthroughtime.
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ArchaeologyandQuaternarySciences
Ratherthanadvocatingasingleperspectiveormodel,weoutlinephilosophicalconsiderationsimportanttodevelopingasystematicknowledgeofAmerica'searlyprehistory.Archaeologicalfieldresearch,whichproducestheprimaryscientificdataforreconstructingAmerica'searlyculturalheritage,hasbecomeincreasinglysophisticatedinusingamultidisciplinaryapproach.BydrawingupontheallieddisciplinesofarchaeologyandtheQuaternarysciences,researchersnowhaveamultiplicityofspecializedtoolsattheirdisposalforreconstructinghowpeoplelivedinpastenvironments,aswellasthemeansforinvestigatinghumanresponsetorapidlychangingenvironmentalcircumstances.
MuchnewinformationdocumentingregionalenvironmentalandarchaeologicalrecordsfromAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmericaisnow,orsoonwillbe,available(Agenbroadetal.1990,BonnichsenandDillehayforthcoming,BonnichsenandSorg1989,BonnichsenandSteeleforthcoming,BonnichsenandTurnmire1991,Bonnichsenetal.forthcoming(a),Bonnichsenetal.forthcoming(b),Bryan1986,Carlisle1988,DillehayandMeltzer1991,Dillehayetal.1992,MeadandMeltzer1985,NunezandMeggers1987,StanfordandDay1991,TankersleyandIsaac1990).Despitethisgrowingvolumeofqualityinformation,ourunderstandingofearlyAmericanprehistoryremainsamazinglysketchyandeventhebestdefinedregionalpatternsarepoorlyknown.Forexample,theCloviscomplexoftheUnitedStateshasreceivedgreaterscientificattentionthananyotherearlyregionalpatterninthecountry,andpopularwritershavecharacterizedthispatternasproducedbyspear-wieldingmammothhunters.Yetwedonothaveafirmunderstandingof(1)theantecedentsofthispattern,(2)theorganizationaldynamicsofClovissocioculturalgroups,(3)thefactorsresponsibleforregionalvariationofflutedpointassemblages,
(4)whetherClovisrepresentsoneorseveralculturalgroups,or(5)whatledtothedemiseortransformationofthispatterntootherforms.
EarlyAmericanarchaeologicalcomplexesareusuallydistinguishedbyuniqueanddiagnosticprojectilepointstyles.
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Thesestylesareassumedtohavebeenproducedby,andthustoarchaeologicallyidentify,differentsocioculturalgroupsofprehistoricpeople.SuchcomplexesincludetheNenanaofAlaskawithitslanceolateprojectilepoints(Goebeletal.1991),thePaleoarcticpatternwithwedge-shapedmicrobladecores(Clark1991),theGoshenwithitsconcave-basedlanceolatepoints(Frison1991),theWesternPluvialLakewithitslonglanceolatepoints(Bryan1991),theElJobowithitsbullet-shapedlanceolates(Bryan1991,Gruhn1991),andthefishtailpointcomplexwithitsstemmedflutedpoints(Politis1991).However,ourunderstandingoftheorganizationalanddistributionalvariabilityofthesevariouscomplexesispoor,asisourunderstandingofthesimplecoreandflaketoolpatternsofSouthAmerica(Bryan1991,Gruhn1991).ItshouldcomeasnosurprisethatrelationshipsamongregionalarchaeologicalrecordsareoftenambiguousandhavemitigatedagainstwidespreadacceptanceofgeneralmodelsofhumanmigrationwhichseektoexplainthepeoplingoftheAmericas.
SeveralimpedimentshavestoodinthewayofdevelopingasystematicknowledgeoftheFirstAmericans.Ithasbeendifficultforwidelydispersedresearchers,isolatedbylanguagebarriers,tobeawareofandtoassimilateresearchresultsfromoutsideoftheirownnations.Researchisoftenguidedbydissimilarstandardsandresultsareoftennotcomparablefromonereporttothenext.Availablefinancialresourcesareunevenlydistributedamongnations.Consequently,researchonthepeoplingoftheAmericashasdevelopedinanunevenandpiecemealfashion.
AbroaderperspectiveisneededtooffsetacommonbiasinPaleoindianresearchabiastowardviewingchronologiesandotherideasdevelopedintheU.S.SouthwestandGreatPlainsasappropriateasabasisforinterpretingrecordsfromotherareas.ScholarstraditionallyhaveapproachedthepeoplingoftheAmericasby
attemptingtoexplainlocalandregionalarchaeologicalrecords.Ratherthanextrapolatingresultsfromoneareatoanother,thecaseforAmerica'searliestculturalheritageshouldbedevelopedbyencouragingtheproductionofqualitysitereportsfrommanyareaswithdetaileddatapresentationthatdrawonthefullcomplementofallieddisciplines
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embracedbytheQuaternarysciencesincludinganthropology.QualitysitereportsarevitalfordevelopingasystematicknowledgeofLatePleistocenearchaeologicalandenvironmentalrecordsfromAsia,SouthAmerica,andNorthAmerica.Thesedatacan,inturn,besynthesizedandusedforconstructingviablemodelsofearlyAmericanprehistory.
Abasicproblemwithearlyhumansresearchisthatitistoodependentuponinductiveinterpretation.Althoughthiscomplaintmayseemold,astrongargumentcanbemadeformoreproblem-orientedresearchthanthatdonebymostFirstAmericanscontributors.Thegoalofunderstandingtheorganizingprinciplesresponsibleformigration,colonization,adaptation,andpossiblelinkageswithnaturalenvironmentalchangesisafarmoredifficultandtime-consumingtypeofsciencethanisdevelopingaphasesequenceorexcavatingasinglesitepresumedtoberepresentativeofacultureorsubculture.Toviewacultureasamobileniche-fillingsystemcallsforarchaeologiststostructuretheirresearchwithinaproblemframework.
Well-formulatedhypothesesabout(1)thedynamicsgoverningtherise,operations,anddemiseofpastsocieties;(2)thecausesresponsibleformigrationandcolonization;and(3)linkagesbetweenenvironmentalandculturalchangesareneededtofocusandinvigoratethisfieldofinvestigation.Thiswillalsorequireafocusonspecific,usuallylocal,problemsorsetsofcloselyrelatedproblemsofsignificance.Becauseofthemultidisciplinarynatureofdataatarchaeologicalsites,eachofusmustbeawareofproblemsofconcerntootherscientistsandofthedatademandsofaddressingthoseproblems.Thedevelopmentofviablemultidisciplinaryresearchdesignsfordatarecoverymustbetemperedbythekindsofdatapresent,availabletimeandmoney,andthedesiretoobtainandreportrepresentativesamplesofalltypesofdatapresentatasite.And,ifpossible,thedatademandsofas-yet-undefinedfutureproblemsmust
beanticipated.
Anumberofneedsmustbemetinfulfillingthegoalofpreparingbettersitereportsanddevelopinghypothesesimportantforinterpretinglocal,regional,andglobalproblems.
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1.Toevaluatetheappropriatenessofassumptionsemployedinmakinginferencesaboutspecificarchaeologicalsitesandthenaturalenvironmentsinwhichtheyoccurred.Forexample,itwouldbeusefultoevaluatetheappropriatenessofbasicassumptions,suchas:(1)therewasauniversalPaleoindianstage;(2)therewerevastmigrationsduringthePleistocene/Holocenetransition;and(3)theinitialpeoplingofBeringiarequiredanUpperPaleolithicleveloftechnology.
Intheprocessofdevelopinganaloguesforinterpretingthepast,wemustbekeenlyawarethatthedynamicsandlinkagesamongtheearth'soceanographic,atmospheric,climatic,glaciologic,geologic,andbioticsystemshavenotbeenconstantthroughtime(RuddimanandWright1987).Contemporarypaleoclimatologicalresearchsuggeststhatthelinkagesamongtheearth'senvironmentalsubsystemswerediscretelydifferentduringglacialandinterglacialtimes(BroekerandDenton1990a,1990b).Thetransitionfromglacialtointerglacialperiodsisthoughttohavebeenabruptandtohavebeensynchronousworld-wide.Theprecisemechanismsresponsiblefortransitionsbetweenglacialandinterglacialenvironmentalsystemsarenotfullyunderstoodandarebeingresearchedactively.
OfparticularimportancetothepeoplingoftheAmericasistheissueofhowhumansrespondtoabruptclimatechange.ThechangeatthePleistocene/Holoceneboundaryispostulatedtohavehadadramaticimpactontheworld'slandscapes.Theamountofavailableglacialicewassignificantlyreduced;sealevelsrose,drowningformershorelines;temperatureandprecipitationpatternschanged;theamountanddistributionofsurfacewaterwasgreatlyaltered;andthestructuresofplantandanimalcommunitiesweresignificantlymodified.AlthoughconsiderableeffortisbeingmadetounderstandthedynamicsofhowthelastIceAgeended,wealsoneedtounderstandhowglacialandinterstadialperiodsbeginandterminate.Therecanbelittledoubtthattheselinkedeventsdramaticallyaffected
thewayshumansrelatedtothenaturalenvironment.
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ArchaeologicalresearchonhumanadaptationstoHoloceneenvironmentsprovidesuswithawealthofinformationonthearrayofadaptivepatternsdevisedinresponsetothemostrecentinterglacialenvironment.However,ourknowledgeofhumanadaptationstoglacialandinterstadialenvironmentsislimitedbyasparseandfragmentaryarchaeologicalrecord.
Welackmodernanaloguesforunderstandinghowhumansrespondedtoglobalenvironmentalchangesduringthetransitionsbetweenglacial,interglacial,andinterstadialperiods.AlogicalbeginningfocusforFirstAmericansresearchisonhumanresponsetoglobalclimaticchangeattheendofthelastIceAge.Fortunately,thelateAsiaticUpperPaleolithicandlateIceAgeAmericanarchaeologicalrecordsprovideunparalleledopportunitiestoexaminehumanresponsetoglobalenvironmentalchangeatopicofcontemporaryrelevance.
2.TointroducenewconceptsandanalytictechniquesmoreconsistentwiththecontentandstructureoftheLatePleistocenearchaeologicalsites.OneofthemajorweaknessesofFirstAmericansresearchistheminimalamountofsystematicsurveycarriedouttosearchforLatePleistocenesettlementandland-usepatterns.MostearlyhumanresearchinAsiaandtheAmericascanbecharacterizedasreactive,i.e.,wereacttothediscoveryofaninterestingsiteorartifactsratherthansystematicallyandproactivelysearchingforsuchsites.
AmajorthemeofFirstAmericansresearchshouldbetheinvestigationofvariables,bothenvironmentalanddemographic,thatmighthaveinfluencedhunter-gatherergroups'decisionsconcerningsiteplacementanduse,migration,andcolonization.ThearchaeologicalrecordpriortotheClovisperiod,beginningat11,500yearsBP,remainspainfullysparse.Westilldonothaveaclearunderstandingofwhythesegroupslocatedsiteswheretheydid,muchlesswheremoreearlysitesarelikelytobefound.Weneedtodevelopreliable
proceduresforisolatingdeterminantsofsitelocationusingempiricaldata.
3.Todevelopachronologicalframeworkofwell-datedarchaeologicalandassociatedenvironmentalremainsbasedonradiometricdates(Kra1988,1989a,1989b).ReneeKra'sInternationalRadiocarbonDataBaseisanimportantpioneereffort
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tocompileexistingdataanduseastandardizedprotocolforevaluatingradiocarbondates.Thisworld-widecompilationofradiocarbondatescanbequeriedtoinvestigateavarietyoftopicsbygeographicalareaorbysubject.ItprovidesanimportantresearchtoolforinvestigatingQuaternarytopics,includingprehistoricarchaeologicalsitesandtheirenvironments.
Anadditionalbrightspotonthechronologicalfrontisthemethodologicaladvancerepresentedbyacceleratormassspectrometry(AMS).TheAMSmethodprovidesameansfordatingmuchsmallersamplesthanwaspreviouslypossiblewithconventional14Cmethods(Stafford1991;Taylor1991).Withthisnewtechnologywenowhaveasufficientlyprecisetechniquetotestnumeroustemporalhypothesesaboutmigration,colonization,andadaptationstopastenvironments.
4.TodeveloppaleoenvironmentaldatabasesfortheLatePleistoceneandHoloceneperiods.Theformulationoflocal,regional,andglobalhypothesesrelevanttoFirstAmericansstudiesrequiressynthesisandintegrationofinformationfromavarietyofdisciplines.Anincrediblewealthofnewinformationisnowavailable(RuddimanandWright1987).ComputertechnologycoupledwithdatabasesoftwareprovideameansforaccessingrelevantdatafromtheallieddisciplinesoftheQuaternarysciences.Theadvantagesofthedatabaseapproacharethatit(1)imposesstandardsinrecordingdata;(2)allowsbiasesinexistingdatatobeidentified;and(3)permitsmassivevolumesofdatatobeanalyzed,displayed,andintegrated.Electronicdatastorageprovidesthemeansfortestingawealthofhypothesesaboutculturalandenvironmentalrelationshipsonthelocal,regional,andglobalscales.
Inamajorongoingeffort,staffattheIllinoisStateMuseum,Springfield,aredevelopingpubliclyaccessibledatabasestoaccommodatepaleoecologicalinformation(WiantandGraham1987).Paradox,astandardrelationaldatabasesoftware,coupledwitha
GeographicalInformationSystem(GIS),accommodatesbothpaleobotanicalandfaunaldata.ApaleobotanicalDatabase-NorthAmericaandEuropeisbeingcompiledwiththeultimateobjectiveofreconstructingpaleoclimaticsystems.
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Enteredvariablesincludegeology,14Cdates,sitelocation,andtreering,historic,andoceanographicdata.FaunMap,adatabasedevotedtovertebrateremainsfromNorthAmericaoverthelast40,000years,isapilotprojecttocompilesystematicallywhatisknownaboutlatePleistoceneandHolocenevertebratesinNorthAmerica.UsinganARC/INFOprogram,digitizedinformationcanbeplottedontomapssothatitispossibletoexaminethedistributionofspeciesbyindividualsorincommunitiesintimeseries.TheMineralsManagementServiceintheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorhasdevelopedacomputerized(indBASEIV)ArchaeologicalandShipwreckInformationSystemtoprovideinformationaboutsubmergedprehistoricsitesontheU.S.continentalshelfoffthecoastsofthelowerforty-eightstates.
5.Toinvestigatetherangeandnatureofarchaeologicalsitedata,withineacharea,thatwillelucidatethevariouskindsofbehavioral,organizational,andenvironmentalpatternspresent.TheArcheologicalSurveyofArkansas,withthesupportoftheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,hasdevelopedthedatabasesystemAutomaticManagerofArcheologicalSiteDatainArkansas(AMASDA).Thisdatabase,whichcoverstheNorthAmericanSouthernPlainseight-statearea,integrateswithGRASS,aGISrelationaldatabasedevelopedbytheCorpsofEngineers.Anumberofvariablesisincluded,suchasremotesensingdata,drainage,soils,geology,artificialboundaries,adaptationandbioarchaeologicaldata,andreportinformationaboutauthorandproject.AMASDAbibliographicalinformationisincludedwithintheNationalParkService'scomputerizedon-lineNationalArcheologicalDatabase(NADB)-Reportsofthegrey(i.e.,minimallyreproducedandavailable)literatureofU.S.archaeology(Canouts1991).Numerousreportsandoverlaymapscanbegeneratedbythisinnovativesystem.TheAMASDAsystemisnowbeingappliedtotheU.S.CentralandNorthernPlainsten-stateareabytheArmyCorpsofEngineers(Ewen
1993).Thissystemappearstobeideallysuitedforintegratingdatafromamuchlargerarea,andcouldbeadaptedtothetaskofintegratingculturalandenvironmentaldatafromAsia,NorthAmerica,andSouthAmericaimportanttounderstandingthepeoplingoftheAmericas.
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6.Todevelopstandardizedclassificationanddescriptivetechniquesforreportingartifacts.Abriefglanceattheartifactsectionofmostsitereportswillattesttotheirscantandofteninadequatedescriptions.Thelackofuniversallyacceptedterminologyanddifferentstandardsforreportingartifactformaldimensions,technology,use-wear,andrawmaterialsusedinartifactproductionhavecreatedapersistentproblem.Poorlydevelopedlinedrawings,weaksupportingdescriptions,andcasual,inconsistent,andundescribedanalyticalproceduresareamongthemanyissuesthatnowdiminishthevalueofreportsandmakecomparisonsamongarchaeologicalassemblagesdifficult.Thesemethodologicalissuesmustbeaddressedifwearetoconductcrediblescienceandgeneratemeaningfulreconstructions.Asthingsnowstand,scholarswhoareseriouslyinterestedinFirstAmericansresearchmustexaminemostcollectionsfirst-handbytravelingtowherecollectionsarehoused.Thisapproachisextraordinarilyexpensive,time-consuming,andsubjective.
Morlan(1991)hasrecommendedtheestablishmentofaninternationalcommissiontodevelopauniformterminologyforarchaeologicalartifactdescription.Standardscanbemostreadilyachievedbytakingadvantageofnewadvancesinvideoandcomputertechnology.Itisnowpossibletostoreandmanipulateartifactimagesinthecomputer;variousimageenhancementandmorphometrictechniquesarenowavailableinsoftwarepackagesthatcanbeusedtoanalyzecomputerimagesofartifactsandtomeasuredimensionsandfeaturesofinterest.Theadvantageofavisualdigitalimagerysystemisthatartifactimagesfromimportantsitescanbestoredinadatabaseandelectronicallyreproducedforusebymanyinvestigators.AprototypeofthissystemisnowinoperationattheCSFA,anditappearstobeaviablesolutiontotheproblemofcomparingartifactsfromdistantpartsoftheworldingreaterdetailthanwaspreviouslypossible.Tomaximizethebenefitsofthisnewtechnology,thecommission's
mandateshouldalsoincludeadirectivetoformulatestandardsfordocumentingimages,developanetworktocollectimages,deviseaprotocoltoregulateaccesstodatabaseinformation,andcreateastandardizednomenclaturesystem.
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Insummary,toadvanceFirstAmericansstudies,thefullarrayofdisciplinesandmethodsofmodernscienceshouldbeusedtolocateandinvestigateearlysitesandinformation.Wemustfocusondevelopingqualitysitereportstoprovidetheessentialinformationformodelingmigrationandculturaldevelopment.Furthermore,thenewtechnologyofelectronicdatastorageandprocessingpromisestoprovideaframeworkforsynthesizingamassiveamountofmultidisciplinaryinformation.Theflexibilityofferedbythesedatabaseswillallowconsiderationofanalmostinfinitenumberofpaleoecologicalandarchaeologicalresearchquestions.DatabasesystemsbeingdevelopedinNorthAmerica(radiocarbon,paleoecology,archaeology,bibliography,artifactimagery)mustbeintegratedandexpandedtoincludedatafromAsiaandSouthAmerica.SuchanapproachtothedevelopmentofnewknowledgeinFirstAmericansstudieswillallownumerousnewquestionstobeconsideredaswellasprovideaccesstonewdatabyawiderrangeofscholarsthanisnowpossible.
BiologicalAnthropology
RecentlystimulatedbytheuseofpopulationdifferencesinmitochondrialDNAtopostulatetheorigininAfricaofmodernhumansbetween200,000and100,000yearsagoandtheirworld-widedispersal,researchontheoriginsanddispersionofmodernhumanshasbecomeoneofthemostexcitingandhotlydebatedissuesinhumannaturalhistory.InternationalsymposiahavecenteredontheoriginanddispersalofAsianpopulations(theUniversityofTokyoSymposium1990),thepeoplingofthePacificRim(Krantzetal.1989),andthebiologicalaffinitiesandoriginsofNorthAmericanpopulations(HumanBiologyVol.64[1992]).
ThereisresurgentscientificinterestinthebiologicalhistoryofNorthAmericanIndians(Armelagosetal.1982,HarperandLaughlin1982).
Duringthefirsthalfofthiscentury,interestinthebiologicalandculturalhistoriesofAmericanIndiansdominatedNorthAmericanarchaeology.Frustrationwiththe
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inabilityofthisresearchtoresolveintricateevolutionaryhistoryandbiologicalrelationshipsofAmericanIndiansresultedinmostNorthAmericanpaleobiologiststurningtomorefunctionalandecologicalissues(Little1982,Lovejoyetal.1982,Meltzer1983).Today,however,thebiologicalhistoryofindigenousNorthAmericanpopulationsasapartoftheglobalpopulationisbecomingamajorscholarshipissue.EvenacasualperusalofthecurrentliteratureonthepeoplingoftheNewWorlddocumentsthatscholarsareusingawiderangeofdatatoaddresstheissues.Forexample,Turner(1989)baseshisanalysesondifferencesinthedentitionofhumanpopulations,Szathmary(1989)usesgeneticmarkerstoevaluatephylogeneticrelationshipsofpeoples,Ossenberg(1989)analyzesnonmetricalcranialtraits,Braceetal.(1989)relyonmetricalanalysesofthefacialregionandthedentition,andHowells(1973)andSteeleandPowell(1992,1994)relyoncraniometricanalysesthatincorporatesizeandshapedifferencesinthebraincaseaswellastheface.
Althoughscholarsdifferinthedatasetsusedtoassessbiologicalrelationshipsandevolutionaryhistories,allrecognizethenecessityforlargenumbersofindividualstorepresentthepopulationsbeingstudied.Weareonespecies,anddifferencesbetweenpopulationsareofdegreeratherthanofkind.Consequently,apopulationcannotbedistinguishedbythepresenceorabsenceofasinglecharacteristicorevenafewtraits.Rather,populationsarecomposedofindividualswhotendtosharecommontraits,anditisthefrequencyofthesetraitsthatdistinguishesonepopulationfromanother.Becausetraitsaresharedbetweenpopulations,anditistheirfrequencythatisdistinctive,comparisonsoflargesamplesofmanytraitsarenecessarytoassessaccuratelybiologicalrelationshipsbetweenpopulations.
Whenextantpopulationsarecomparedonetoanother,itispossibletoestablishamodelormapofrelativerelationshipsoftheselivingpopulations.Totakethenextstepandinferfrommodernrelationships
thetimethatpopulationsdifferentiatedfromoneanotherrequiresscholarstoacceptmajorpresumptionsthathavebeendifficulttoverify.Asexamples,thosemodelsbaseduponlivingornearrecentpopulations
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presumethatratesofchangeareconstant,thattherehasbeennogeneflowbetweenpopulationsaftertheirinitialdivergence,andthatallpastpopulationsarerecognizableinthelivingpopulations.
Acknowledgingthesepresumptions,itbecomesevidentthatverificationofthesepresumedrelationshipsmustbemade,andthatverificationcomesfromthescholarlyexaminationofourfossilrecord.WhenweevaluatethestudyofthefossilrecordofAmericanhumanpopulations,however,werealizethatthemajoremphasishasbeenonmorerecentpopulations,thepeoplesoftheLatePrehistoricperiod.Therehavebeenseveralreasonsforthisfocus.Themostobviousreasonisthatadoptionofagricultureallowedpopulationstoincreaseinnumber,sotheresimplyweremoreLatePrehistoricpeoplesand,therefore,moresuchsitestoencounter.Secondly,archaeologistshavebeenattractedtothemajordwellingsandcommunityruinsleftbythesepeople,and,intheprocessofexcavatingthesesites,haverecoveredrelativelylargesamplesoftheirbiologicalremains.Anotherreasonforthefocusonmorerecentpopulationsisthattheoldersitesaremoredeeplyburied,andthusdifficulttolocateandexcavate.Whenoldersitesareencounteredbeneathmorerecentsites,timeandresourceshavegenerallybeenexpendedtoexcavatetheupperlevels,sothatthedeeperearlierlevelsarelittlemorethansampled.Whenscholarsspecificallyseekearlyhumansites,theterraincommonlyhasbeenalteredsogreatlyovertheyearsthatitbecomesdifficulttopredicttheirlocation.Thisiswhysomanyoftheearlyhumansiteshavebeenfoundbyserendipityandchanceexposure.
Recognizingtheseproblems,itbecomesapparentthatthearchaeologicalandbiologicalrecordoftheearliestinhabitantsoftheAmericasislimitedandcomesfromwidelydispersedlocalities.Compoundingtheissuefurther,therecoveredindividualsarerepresentedbylittleinthewayofphysicalremains.Typically,less
than20-25percentofeachPaleoindianskeletonhasbeenpreservedbynature.TheconsequenceofallthisisthatmanyofAmerica'searlyHoloceneandlatePleistocenepopulationsarerepresentedbyfewbonesfromfewsites.Theverificationoftherelationshipsoflivingpopulations,theiden-
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tificationofextinctpopulations,andtheunderstandingofthehealthandbiologicaladaptationsofthesefirstAmericansrestsuponaverysmall,fragile,andirreplaceablesample.
ItisintheareaofFirstAmericansbioanthropologicalresearchthatAmericanIndiansandthearchaeological/anthropologicalresearchcommunitymayfindtheirstrongestcommonground.
FirstAmericansbioanthropologicalstudyneedstofollowtheseguidelines.
1.Makethebestuseofeachsampleofearlymodernhumansavailableforstudy.Researchonexistingsamplesshouldbeencouraged,castsshouldbemadeofallPaleoindianhumanskeletalmaterialtofacilitatethisresearch,andthelatestmethodsincomputer-assisteddatacollection,imaging,andretrievalshouldbeused.Further,meaningfulconsiderationshouldbegivenbyallpartiesonhowtomaketheoriginalremainsavailableforfutureresearchthatcannotbeaccommodatedbyanalysisofpreviouslyrecordeddata,whiletreatingthoseremainswiththerespecttheydeserve.
2.Fullyinvestigateexistingsamplesthatmaybeofgreatantiquity.Untiltheirantiquitycanbeverified,analysisoftheseremainsliesinlimbo.
3.Increasetheefficiencyoflocatingearliersites.Whilethesensitivenatureofactivelyseekingsitesfortherecoveryofhumanremainsisfullyrecognized,manyoftheearliestknownsiteshavebeendisinterredbytheerosiveforcesofnatureandthehumanremains,onceexposed,havesoondeteriorated.Locationofthesesiteswouldpotentiallysignificantlyincreasethesampleofremains,aswellasallowmoreeffectivemonitoringofthesesitesagainstfurtherdamage.
4.Conductresearchonfurtheringtheaccuracyofmodelingbiologicalrelationships,basedupontheevaluationofmodernpopulations.These
solutionswillhelptoretrievethemostinformationfromthelimitedAmericansamplesavailableforanalysis.
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Linguistics
ModernscientificlinguisticsistraditionallydatedtothediscoverybySirWilliamJonesofthegeneticrelationshipbetweentheclassicallanguagesofEurope,LatinandGreek,andtheclassicallanguageofIndia,Sanskrit.In1786JonesannouncedinCalcuttahishypothesisthattheselanguagesmusthave''sprungfromsomecommonsource,which,perhaps,nolongerexists"(Lehman1967).Duringthefollowingcenturyandahalf,linguistsprovedtherelationshipandexpandedtheputativeancestrallanguagefamily,nowcalledIndo-EuropeaninEnglish,toincludemostofthelanguagesofEuropeandmanyofthoseofwesternandsouthAsiaaswell.ClassificationofthelanguageswasfollowedbyeventuallysophisticatedattemptstoreconstructtheIndo-Europeanancestor,basedoncomparisonoftheirstructuresandvocabularies.Theresultswerespectacular,inboththeirexplanatorypowerandtheirprovisionoffruitfulhypothesesforallofthehumansciences,andnineteenth-centurylinguisticsisrightlyconsideredasoneofthegreatscientificachievementsoftheperiod.Thus,fromitsveryinception,andwellintothepresentcentury,linguisticswasregardedasahistoricaldiscipline,withpre-,proto-,andunrecordedhistoryasitsareaofprimaryinterest.
Theriseofstructurallinguisticsinthelate1920sshiftedtheinterestoflinguisticsciencetodescriptivetheoryandlanguagedescription,andconcernwiththehistoricalimplicationsoflanguagestudybecamelessprominent.Sincethe1950s,linguisticshasbeenconcernedmostlywiththeroleoflanguageincognition,attemptingtounderstandinparticularhowpeoplelearnanduselanguages.
Sincetheheydayofhistoricallinguisticsinthelatenineteenthcentury,languageasatoolforthestudyofprehistoryhasnot,however,beenneglected,andtheabundanceofsophisticateddescriptiveworkproducedinthiscenturyhasmadehistorical
linguisticsapowerfuladjuncttothetraditionalhistoricalsciences.
Workinlanguageclassification,withallthatimpliesforprehistory,andthereconstructionofprotolanguages,hasbeenontheincreasesinceitsnadirinthe1950sand'60s,and
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present-dayknowledgeaboutdeeprelationships,theoryandtechniquesofreconstruction,andthedynamicsofdiachronicchangewouldastoundoureighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryforebears.
GeneticclassificationofAmerindianlanguagesfraughtwithimplicationsfortheprehistoryofthespeakersoftheselanguagesbeganalmostasearlyasdidconcernabouttheprovenienceandprehistoryofthebetter-knownOldWorldlanguages.ThelaborsofsuchscholarsasGallatin,Powell,Sapir,andKroeberaretoowellknowntorequiredescriptionhere.SufficeittosaythatthereisatpresentnoAmericanlanguagethathasnotbeenexaminedfromthepointofviewofwhereitfitsinthemosaicofAmericanlanguages.
EarlyworkontheAmericanlanguagessoughttoestablishfamily-levelrelationships,comparabletotheprincipalbranchesofIndo-EuropeansuchasGermanicorSlavic.Powell's(1891)workisaclassicexampleoffamily-levelclassification.Laterworksoughttofittheselow-levelrelationshipsintohigh-levelcategoriescomparabletoInto-AryanwithinIndo-European,toIndo-Europeanitselfasamotherstock,orevenhigherconstructssuchasNostratic,asuperphylumincludingIndo-EuropeanandmanyotherancestrallanguagesofwesternAsic.Sapir(1919),Swadesh(1959),andGreenberg(1987)arewell-knownexamplesofreductionisteffortsofthiskind.
Recently,however,mostscholarsofAmericanlanguageshavereturnedtosplitting,basedonmuchmorestringentstandardsofproofofrelationship(e.g.,CampbellandMithun1979).ClassificationofSouthAmericanlanguages,withafewnotableexceptions,hasalwaystendedmoretosplittingthantolumping(cf.Loukotka1968,Kaufman1990).
Mostoftheearlyclassificatorywork,bothchronologicallyandintermsofproceduresused,involvedinspectionandsuggestionofputativerelationshipsonthebasisofresemblancesofformand
meaning.Workinghypothesesforgedinthiswaywerethensubjectedtodetailedcomparativeworkwhichsoughttodiscoversignificantsystematiccorrespondencesbetweenitems.Alargeenoughnumberofsystematiccorrespondencespermitsaclassificationacceptedbyotherscholars.Thehypothesishasnowbecomeatheory.
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Wheretheresemblancescannotbe"proved"byrecurrentcorrespondencesofsomekind,relationshipisrejected.Obviouslythereisroomfordifferenceofopinionhavingtodowithsufficiencyofexamplesandstandardsofproof;GoddardandCampbell(1994)andRuhlen(1994)areexamplesofsuchinterpretativedifferences.
The"allornothing"approachofthetraditionalcomparativemethodworksadequatelywhenarelationshipisclose(therearealwaysenoughclearcorrespondencestopermitthrowingoutthosewithproblems)butlesswellasonegoesbackintime.Atdeeplevels(anythingbeyond6,000yearsBP,althoughmanywouldargueforevenlesstimedepth),resemblancesarefewerandtheyceasetobetightlysystematic.Manyhistoricallinguistsstopprobingatthispoint.Buttheresemblances(suchasthosecalled"Panamericanisms"byscholarsofAmericanlanguages)donotceasetherebytobeintriguingandtodemandsomesortofexplanation,evenifnotgenetic.
Additionalmethodologiesareneeded,perhapsbasedonsomethingotherthanthetraditionaliron-cladregularityrequiredbythecomparativemethod,whichcandealwithresemblancesunamenabletostandardtechniquesofcomparison.Itisverypossiblethatanewapproachwillbedirectedattheglobalissuenotattheresemblancesthemselves,butattheirverypresence.
Statisticswillcertainlybeoneofthetoolsofsuchnewmethodologies,aswillvariouskindsoftypology.Argumentswillofnecessitybeindirectandcomplex,butthesefactsshouldnotandwillnotpreventtheformulationofnewtechniquesforaddressingthemultiplicityoflanguageandotherkindsofdatanowathand.
OnescholarofthenativelanguagesoftheAmericas,JohannaNichols,isalreadymovinginthesedirections,andherworkisprobablythemostpromisingatthemoment.Inseveralrecentpapers(e.g.,Nichols1990,1992),sheusesprimarilylinguisticdatato
confrontthequestionofwhenandhowtheAmericasweresettled.SheassumesaxiomaticallythatthepeoplingsofthePacificBasinandtheAmericaswereseparateaspectsofthesameevent.SoliddatesfortheearliestoccupationofAustraliaandNewGuineaestablishaterminusaquo.Usingmuch
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persuasiveanalogicalargument,shefixesadateofsettlementoftheAmericassomewherebetween40,000and50,000yearsago,correspondingwithrecentdatesfromAustralia.Notsurprisingly,Nichols'sargumentsdrawonotherdisciplinesaswell(e.g.,thehistoryofagricultureforplantdomestication),andherpersuasiveconclusionscallintoseriousquestionthewidelyacceptedClovis-basedchronology.
WorkofthiskindwillmakethepictureofthesettlementoftheAmericasclearer,andmaywellpointtowardconclusionsevenaboutlinguisticprehistorywhichcannotnowbemadeonlinguisticbasesalone.
Regardlessofshufflingandreshufflingbyscholars,NorthandCentralAmericanlanguagesareforthemostpartwelldocumentedanddescribed;thiscorpusisinastatetobeusedindefinitelyforscientificpurposes.ThesameisnottrueofthelanguagesofthesouthernAmericancontinent.Manylanguageshavebeenlosttherewithscarcelyatrace,andmanyothersareonthevergeofextinction,withlittleornodocumentation.Rainforestspeciesandlanguagesareaffectedequally.WorkonthedocumentationoftheremainingnativelanguagesofSouthAmericamustbeanissueofhighestpriorityforthestudyofAmericanprehistory.
ConservationandPublicPolicy
BecauseofthemultinationalscopeofFirstAmericansresourcesandstudies,nosingleinstitutionalframeworkexistsforthemanagement(includingthepreservation,conservation,anduse)oftheseresources.Indeed,nosuchframeworkexistswithinanynationwhoselandsholdarchaeologicalandrelatedpaleoenvironmentalmaterialsrelevanttoFirstAmericansresearch.Thislackofaunifiedframeworkhasimpactedresearchandmanagementpoliciesandpracticesusedto
locate,investigate,andprotectearlysitesandrelateddataonpublicandprivatelands,andhasledtoafailuretomakeimportantresearchdevelopmentsavailablethroughpubliceducationprograms.
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ThefocusofthesymposiumpublishedinthisvolumewasthepublicnatureoftheFirstAmericansresourcebase,includingtheinformationderivedfromthearchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalmaterialsincludedintheseresources."Thereisaworldwidemoralconsensusthatthelong-termconservationofasignificantportionofourculturalpastisgoodforthehumancommunity"(Knudson1984:245),and"allpeople...havestewardshipresponsibilitiesfor...theseresources...Ultimately,governmentshavearchaeologicalstewardshipresponsibilitiestoactonthepublic'sbehalf"(Knudson,thisvolume).FormerU.S.SecretaryoftheInteriorManuelLujan,Jr.(1991)statedthat"[thearcheologicalpaleoenvironmentalrecord]isapublictrusttobeunderstoodandevaluatedtohelpshapeourpresentresponsestochangingenvironments.''Thispublictrustconceptandethicareadministereddifferentlybyvariousgovernmentsbasedprimarilyon(1)theirlegalheritage;and(2)thedirectnessofeachcountry'spoliticallydominantpopulation'stieswiththeculturerepresentedbythearchaeologicalremainswithinthatcountry'sadministration.ThelegalheritageofCentralandSouthAmericannationsisdirectlytiedtoRomanorBritishcommonlaw.Thesenationsgenerallyhavecodifiedorregularlyapplythepublictrustconceptwhendealingwithheritageresourcesonalloftheirlands,whetherthoselandsareprivatelyorpubliclyowned.ThelegalbasisinboththeUnitedStatesandCanadaisalsoinBritishcommonandRomanlaw,butinadditionbothlegalsystemsexhibitstrongsupportforindividualrights,developedinreactiontothetraditionalEnglishpowerofthecommunity(thegovernment)overtheindividual(cf.Fowler,Knudson,thisvolume).Thus,thebasiclaworlegalpracticeinthesecountriesinmostcaseshasassertedthepriorityofindividuallandownerrightsovercommunityheritageinterests.Howseriouslyandconsistentlyanyheritageprotectioncodesareenforcedalsovariesamongnations,basedinpartontheeconomicsofsitelootingandartifacttraffickingaswellasonthedirectnessoftheculturaltiesof
theenforcersandthethreatenedsites.
TheauthorsofthispaperareallbasedinNorthAmerica,andthosewithpublicarchaeologicalconservationormanagement
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experienceareallU.S.-based.Thus,thisdiscussionfocusesonexperiencesinU.S.publicarchaeologicalconservationpoliciesandpractices.ThereisnonationalprogramformanagingprivatelyownedarchaeologicalsitesintheUnitedStates,butsuchprogramsoperatethroughsomestate,tribal,andlocalgovernments.Elsewhereinthisvolume(Fowler,Magne,McGimsey)therearediscussionsoflegalapproachestotheprotectionofFirstAmericansresourcesinothercountries.However,noneofthesediscussionsaddressespublicresourcemanagementprogramsthatcansupport,orsometimesinhibitoractuallyharm,FirstAmericansresearch.TheUnitedStateshasanarchaeologicalmanagementprogramthatmustbeappliedonthe1.2millionsquaremilesoffederalU.S.publicandIndianlands(athirdofthenation).ThefollowingdiscussionoftheimplementationofU.S.publicarchaeologicalconservationpolicyisabasisforcomparisonofthepublictreatmentofFirstAmericansresourcesonbothpublicandprivatelandsinsideandoutsidetheUnitedStatesasreflectedingenericissuessuchascompetingmanagementinterests,bureaucraticstructures,andtheconflictbetweenscholarshipandmanagement(cf.Keel1979,King1987).Cleere(1989)hascompiledanexcellentsetofpapersonarchaeologicalresourcemanagementaroundtheworld,withspecificdiscussionsofprogramsinthenorthernAndes,southernOntario,Canada,andtheformerUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics,aswellasintheUnitedStates.
Inadditiontohavingalegalheritageorientedtowardsprivaterights,thedominantU.S.politicalandresourcemanagerialcommunityhasfewdirectculturaltiestotheprehistoricarchaeologyofFirstAmericansresources.TheU.S.NationalTrustforHistoricPreservationwascongressionallycharteredin1949"toprovideforthepreservationof...antiquitiesofnationalsignificance...andtofacilitatepublicparticipationinthepreservationofsites,objects,andantiquitiesofnationalsignificance"(PublicLaw[P.L.]408,16United
StatesCode[U.S.C.]461).TheTrusthasexhibitedlittleinterestinanyprehistoricU.S.resources,muchlessthoseoftheFirstAmericans;however,thatbegantochangein1993(Edmondson1993).Historically,theTrusthasapparentlybelievedthatarchaeologicalresourcesareadequatelyaddressedbythe
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SmithsonianInstitution'sNationalMuseumofNaturalHistory(note,nottheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory),whichinthelatenineteenthcenturyencouragedthestudyoftheFirstAmericansasabioevolutionaryinterest(Hinsley1981:104-108).Similarly,academicdisciplinesgenerallydifferentiateamonganthropology(includingprehistoricarchaeology),historyorAmericanStudies(oftenthehomeofhistoricarchaeology),chemistry,physics,linguistics,geology,agriculturalsoils,andbiology.MostpeopledonotunderstandthecomplexitiesofFirstAmericansresearchandresourcemanagement,whichshouldbebasedonmultidisciplinaryanalysisofnonhumanpaleoenvironmentsaswellasearlyprehistoryandmodelsofhumangeneticsandlanguage.
Giventhisperceptualbackground,itisnosurprisethattheU.S.legalframeworkforinsitumanagementofFirstAmericansresourcesismisunderstood.ThislegalframeworkonlyimplicitlyvaluestheinformationcontentofU.S.archaeologicalsites,sinceitisorientedtoprotectioninplace.TheU.S.AntiquitiesActof1906madeitacrimetodisturbanyprehistoricsiteonpubliclandswithoutapermit,whichwastobegrantedonlytoqualifiedindividualsfromrecognizedscientificoreducationalinstitutions,butthelawdoesnotincludeanyexplicitstatementofwhythesesitesarevaluable.Theintentofthelaw'sscientificsupporterswastoreservesitesforscholarlyresearch(Lee1970),butcodificationofamonumentpreservesysteminthesamelegislationwasanexpressionofpublicrecreationalintereststhatfrequentlyconflictwithscientificanalysis(Rothman1989).The1960ReservoirSalvageact(P.L.86-523)wascomparablyphrased,aswasitsamendment("Moss-Bennett,"P.L.93-291)in1974.Thelatterincludedamechanismtofederallyfundtherecoveryof"significantscientific,prehistorical,historical,orarcheologicaldata"ifdesiredbytheimpactingfederalagencyorbytheSecretaryoftheInterior.TheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979(ARPA;P.L.96-95)
hasastatementoffindingsandpurposethatthelawisto"secure,forthepresentandfuturebenefitofthe[UnitedStates]Americanpeople,theprotectionofarchaeologicalresourcesandsiteswhichareonpubliclandsandIndianlands"(Sec.2(b)),andthisdoesnotelaboratethescientificinformationvaluesthatarebasictotheprotectedbenefits.
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Incomplement,theNationalHistoricPreservationAct(NHPA)in1966statedthat"thehistoricalandculturalfoundationsoftheNationshouldbepreserved...togiveasenseoforientationtotheAmericanpeople"(P.L.89-665,preamble)andincludedmechanismsforevaluatingwhichheritageresourceswereimportantenoughtopreserve,andtheappropriatenessofsuchpreservationincompetitionwitheconomicdevelopments(Sec.106).
Inthelate1960stheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA;42UnitedStatesCode[U.S.C.]4321)statedthatitwasthe"continuingresponsibilityoftheFederalGovernmentto...preserveimportanthistoric,cultural,andnaturalaspectsofournationalheritage[toenhancethequalityofU.S.Americanlife]"(Sec.101(b))andrequiredpubliclyavailabledocumentationofresourcemanagementdecisions.NEPArequiresthatinterdisciplinaryscientificanalysesofresourcesandimpactstothembeusedinmakingthosemanagementdecisions(Caldwell1982).Thispolicystatementdoesnotmandatetheprotectionofeitherarchaeologicalmaterialinplaceoritsderivedinformationvalues,butrequiresuseofthatinformationindecisionmaking.
NEPAisalanduseandresourcelegaltoolthatoverridestheconceptofprivatelandownership(Caldwell1970,Knudson1986:397-398),andhasascientificinterdisciplinarybasisthataddressesboththenaturalandsocialworld.TherearecomparablelawsthroughouttheU.S.states,inCanada(CanadianEnvironmentalAssessmentActof1994,seeMagnethisvolume)anditsprovincesandmanynations,andseveralinternationallendinginstitutions(e.g.,WorldBank)requireenvironmentalassessmentsaspartofprojectfundingapproval.IntheUnitedStates,NEPAclearlyisanumbrellathatincludesalltheresourcesofconcerntoFirstAmericansstudies.Itisaplanningtool,asaretheU.S.stateandCanadianprovincialhistoricpreservationplansandtheresourcemanagementplansoftheU.S.
ForestService,BureauofLandManagement,NationalParkService,ArmyCorpsofEngineers,andotheragencies.InvolvementofFirstAmericansscholarsinthedevelopmentoftheseplanningdocumentsisacriticalelementinresponsiblestewardshipofFirstAmericansresources.
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Thesearchaeological,heritage,andenvironmentalprotectionlawsintheUnitedStatesandothercountriesareallorientedtothepublicbenefitandallincludemechanismsthatrequirerules,regulations,andregulatorybureaucracieskeyedtofundingcyclesandpersonnelauthorizations.NoneoftheU.S.lawsisexplicitlyfocusedontheresearchvaluesofarchaeologicalresources,thoughthoseareimplicitlyunderstoodtobethebasisforpublicunderstandingofthepreservedheritageresources;thefocusisontheprotectionofphysicalthingsfirstandinformationsecond.ARPAismostexplicitabouttheprotectionofinformationanddata,notjustsitesandobjects.Intheseandotherlaws,insituarchaeologicalsiteprotectionhasalwaysbeenrequiredtobeconductedinacontextofmanyland-basedresources,allofwhichinturnhavemanyuses.
FirstAmericansscholarshavehadlittleinvolvementinthepromulgationandimplementationofthislegislation.Mostsuchscholarsareinacademiaandmuseums,corporateculturesthathavetraditionallynotencouragedpublicandpoliticalinvolvementbytheirmembers.Further,theindividualsandorganizationswhodeveloplegislationandthebureaucracythatimplementsithavetheirownculture,withwhichfewFirstAmericansscholarshavehadanyfamiliarityoreveninterest.YetthatcultureisresponsibleforthemanagementofthepubliclyvaluedprehistoricFirstAmericansresourcesandtheirincludedinformation,asapublictrust.
Giventhislegalframework,howcanFirstAmericansscholarsfulfilltheirworld-widepublictrustresponsibilitiesto(1)identifyAmericanandrelatedAsianarchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalsitesatleast10,000yearsold;(2)conservativelyderivetheirincludedinformation(Fowler1986,Lipe1974,Lujan1991);and(3)conserveallorpartsofthemforfuturescholarsandtheinterestedpublic?Amajorbasisfortheanswerstothesequestionsliesintheresearchquestions,methods,andtechniquesthatwerethefocusoftheconferencereportedinthese
volumes,andwhicharesummarizedinthischapter.AsecondimportantresponsibilityforscholarsistoparticipateinpublicmanagementandawarenessactivitiesthatrelatetoFirstAmericansresources.
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IntheUnitedStates,whentheMoss-BennettbillpassedCongressin1974,manyarchaeologistsanticipatedafuturewithincreasedresearchfunding.Theydidnotrealizethatthebenefitsofthislegislationwouldnotautomaticallybehandedouttothemintheformofexpandedresearchfunding.Instead,itsdistributionwouldbedeterminedbyabodyofregulationsformulatedbyindividualswhosemaininterestwasnotnecessarilytheinvestigationofarchaeologicalorotherpaleoenvironmentalresourcestogainmaximuminformation.ArchaeologicalresourcesonU.S.publiclandsaremanagedbyagencylandmanagerswhoseresponsibilitiesarefocusedontheiragency'scongressionallymandatedmissionwhichisgenerallyanythingbutarchaeologicalorpaleoenvironmentalprotectionorresearch(Keel1979).
NoU.S.lawsprotectnonculturalpaleoenvironmentaldataperseincludingpollen,soils,tephra,plantandanimalmacrofossils,orlandformscriticaltoFirstAmericansresearchandpublicinterpretation.
U.S.federalarchaeologylawsaregenerallyplaceoriented,focusedontheprotectivemanagementofthingsinplace,complementedbyaconcernforthemanagementofobjectsremovedfromtheiroriginalarchaeologicalcontext.Therefore,inventoryofthoseplacesthathaveprotectedarchaeologicalresourcesisapriorityforland-managingagencies,sothatotherusescanbeauthorizedwherenoarchaeologicalresourceshavebeenfound.Ifpubliclydesirableeconomicdevelopmentscannotavoidimportantarchaeologicalresources,time-consumingandexpensiveresourcerecoveryislegallyrequired.Thus,avoidanceisdesirableforboththeland-managingagencyandtheland-usingeconomicinterest.
U.S.archaeologicalprotectionlawonlyimplicitlyfostersdesirableresearch(cf.Elston1992).MostscholarlyarchaeologistsintheUnited
Statesdidnotunderstandthelegalandbureaucraticframeworksdevelopedtoimplementarchaeologicalprotectionbut,inordertoconductFirstAmericansresearchonpubliclands,mustnowworkwithinasystemthathasbeenconstructedlargelybybureaucraticnon-scholarsandnon-archaeologistsand/orworktowardchangingthesystem.
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GiventhevastexpansesoffederallandsintheU.S.andnumbersofprojectsrequiringfederalauthorizationandthussubjecttoNHPA,NEPA,orARPArequirements,bytheearly1970salargenumberofarchaeologistswasrequiredtoconductthemandatedinventory,evaluation,andrecoveryofimportantarchaeologicalresources.AsimilarsituationdevelopedinCanada.ThisledtotheexpansionofU.S.andCanadianpublicarchaeology,includingbothgovernment-employedandprivatecontractingarchaeologists.IntheUnitedStates,thelatterwererequiredtohaveAntiquitiesAct,andsubsequentlyARPA,permitstoconductthesearchaeologicalinvestigations,butmostsuchinvestigationsrequiredminimaltechnicaloranalyticalarchaeologicaltrainingandprovidedfewopportunitiestoconductmoresyntheticstudies.Thiscomplianceorientedarchaeologicalactivityemployedalotofpeople,butdidnotproducemuchacademicallyacceptableresearchbecauseitsgoalswerequitedifferent.TherelativelycomplementaryassociationofpublicandacademicarchaeologythathaddevelopedintheUnitedStatesduringthe1930sWorksProgressAdministrationarchaeologicalinvestigations,andwhichcontinuedduringthe1950sRiverBasinSurveysprojects(Fowler1986),rarelycarriedthroughinthe1970sand'80spublicarchaeology.
ThegrowingseparationofpublicandacademicarchaeologyinNorthAmericainthelatetwentiethcenturyhasmeantthatacademiccontributionstotheory,methods,andtechniquesusedinpublicarchaeologicalprojectsareusuallysecondhand.Therehasbeensignificantdissensionoverwhoisa"professional"archaeologist,thatappellationbeingmoreimportanttopublicarchaeologiststhanitistoacademiciansdefinedbytheiraffiliation.Andtherehavebeenargumentsaboutthenatureoftheresourcewhenitsregulatorystatusmeantdollarstooneperson,whileitsresearchcontributionmeantmoretoanother.Manywordshavebeenexpendedoverthe
philosophicaldifferencebetweenthesignificanceandimportanceofaNorthAmericanarchaeologicalsite,fromvaryinglegalandscholarlyperspectives.FirstAmericansresearchisaffectedbyallofthis.
Archaeologicalresourcemanagementdevelopedacrosstheworldoverthelasttwodecades.ButintheUnitedStates,to
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protectallpotentiallyusefulinformation,every"culturalresource"(whichincludesarchaeologicalaswellasarchitecturalandfolkliferesources[Knudson1986]),howeverlargeorsmall,wassometimesidentifiedasbeingeverybitasimportantasanyotherculturalresource.Theideathatkeysitesorsitesofhighintegrityareofgreaterimportancethanasurfacescatterofflakeswasoftendenied,whileatthesametimeundistinguishedsmallsitesofcriticalresearchvaluewereidentifiedasexpendable.NorthAmericanpubliccompliancearchaeologyproduceshugequantitiesofmonograph-sizepublicationsoutliningdata-recoveryplans,samplesurveys,eligibilitystatements,memorandaofagreement,guidelines,rulesandregulations,andinnumerableothertopicsthatareoftenjudgedtobeirrelevantbyscholarlyarchaeologists.Thesereportsarewrittentomeetregulatoryrequirementsandguidelines,andoftenarealmostunintelligibletoanyonelookingforinformationrelatedtoFirstAmericansresearch.MostNorthAmericanpublicarchaeologistshavelittleornoworktimeavailableforconductingsyntheticanalysesoftheinformationacquiredincompliancearchaeology,muchlessthetimeandlibrarynecessarytopublishscholarlytreatises.Thepublic'sattitudeisthatresearchshouldbedoneinuniversities,andresourcemanagersshouldmanage;thisisreflectedingovernmentagencies'lackofrewardsfor,orevenauthorizationof,employeescholarship.
Theminimallydistributed"greyliterature"ofNorthAmericanpublicarchaeologyincludesimportantinformationaboutwheresiteshaveandhavenotbeenfound,andsometimesimportantcluestoFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalresourcelocationsandcharacteristics,butworthwhiledataaredifficulttoextractandhavenotbeenabstracted.Asaresult,anyonewishingtodoresearchwiththisliteraturemustspendinnumerablehoursseparatingoutvaluabledatafromlegallyrequireddocumentationofdataandprocesses.Asmentionedearlier,aNationalArchaeologicalDatabase
(NADB)-Reports,acomputerizedbibliographyofreportsandotherwrittenproductsofU.S.archaeologicalinvestigations,isbeingdeveloped(Canouts1991)andin1994includedmorethan150,000citations.Keywordcategoriesare
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tobeincludedinthefuture.InclusionwithinNADB-ReportsofkeywordssignificanttoFirstAmericansresearchisimportant.Thissystemisavailableon-lineandtheU.S.NationalParkService,whichhasdevelopedseveralNADBmodules,ispresentlytalkingwithothercountriesaboutlinkingsystemstocreateinternationalarchaeologicalbibliographies.
Probablyover90percentofthearchaeologicalsitesknowntooccurintheUnitedStatesandCanadahavebeenidentifiedduringcompliancearchaeology,andtheirpubliclyavailabledocumentationisrarelyfoundanywherebutinthegreyliterature.Whilemostofthewell-knownFirstAmericanssiteshavebeenfoundbyamateurs(Knudson1991),theyarefewinnumbercomparedwiththeinformationcollectedbypublicarchaeologyprojects.ManycriticalFirstAmericansresourcesarecurrentlyidentifiedonlyincomplianceinventoryrecords.TherelativeinaccessibilityofimportantFirstAmericansresourceidentificationinformationisaggravatedbytherefusaloftheU.S.NationalScienceFoundation(NSF)tosupportbaselinearchaeologicalsiteinventory,believingthatsuchinformationshouldbeprovidedinotherways(bytheland-managingagencycomplianceinventory?)toidentifysitesimportantenoughforNSFsupportoftheiranalyticalinvestigation.
ManyconflictsofinteresthavesurfacedinNorthAmericanpublicarchaeology,allofwhichaffectFirstAmericansresearchandmostofwhicharereflectedinothernations'publicarchaeologyprograms.IntheUnitedStates,thesameagenciesthatissuearchaeologicalpermitsoftenjudgetheresultsofthepermittedworkinreviewingrelatedlandmanagementdecisions.Researchisencouraged,inmostcircumstances,onlywithnon-agencyfundsunlesstherehasbeenagencysupportthroughadevelopmentproject,whichtendstoresultinsitedestructionthrough"mitigative"excavationandanalyses(seeDouglas,thisvolume).Likearchaeologicalinvestigationsrelatedto
landmanagement,exploitationofanarchaeologicalresourceonU.S.publiclandmustbedoneunderapermitevenwhentheonlygoalistheaquisitionofinformationthroughproperscientificquery.Allsuchland-usepermitswhichhavebeenrequiredforarcheologicalworkonpubliclandsinthe
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UnitedStatessince1906mustbejustifiedasbeinginthepublicinterest.Inthe1990s,U.S.publiclandismanagedunderacomplexwebofoverlappingandsometimescompetinglaws,regulations,andguidelines.Becausetheselawsaredirectedtositeprotectionorpreservation,andbecausearchaeologicalexcavationisinherentlydestructiveofanonrenewablesite,itcanbelegallydifficultforaU.S.publicarchaeologisttojustifytoresourcemanagerswhoarenotarchaeologists,butareempoweredtoissuethepermitstheexcavationandstudyofanotherwiseunthreatenedarchaeologicalresource.
Somepublicarchaeologistsbringsuperiorresearchcredentialstotheircontractsandjobs,butmanyhaveonlyminimalacademicbackgroundsandhaveverynontechnical,bureaucraticresponsibilitiesthathoweverincludecriticalrecommendationsaboutresourcevaluesandresearchauthorities.Manyoftheseindividualsareover-committedmembersofunder-staffedagencies,whichinturnarecompliancedrivenwithinaverycomplexbureaucracy.
Toreestablishthetraditionallinkbetweenscholarlyandpublicarchaeology,tosupportthestudyaswellastheconservationofFirstAmericansresources,thefollowingmeasuresareproposed.
1.EverypracticingFirstAmericansscholarshoulddevelopaworkingknowledgeoftheland-basedresourcelaws,regulations,guidelines,andmanagingagenciesthatimpingeonFirstAmericansresearchinthatscholar'scountryandresearcharea.Participationinbroadenvironmentalassessmentandmanagementactivitiesisdesirable,tofindouthowtolocatekeyFirstAmericansdatainthemassesofpaperandjargonthatgowithmulti-resourceenvironmentalmanagementdocumentation.AcriticalelementinFirstAmericansresourceconservationistolearnaboutanyavailableregionalhistoricpreservationplans(e.g.,anexcellentplanningdocumentjustforPaleoindianresourcesinGeorgiaintheUnitedStates[Andersonetal.
1990])andotherlanduseplans.
2.WithineachcountryholdingFirstAmericansresources,thenationalscienceacademyshouldevaluatetherelationship
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betweenFirstAmericansscholarlyresearchandpublicmanagementofFirstAmericansresources,andrecommendanyneededpublicprogramandpolicychangestoenhanceresearchinthepublicinterest.Itisappropriatethatsuchanoversightreviewbeconductedatanationallevel,involvingindividualsknowledgeableaboutthecountry'sresourcemanagementneedsandcurrentprograms,aboutmultidisciplinaryFirstAmericansresearchneeds,andaboutspecificfieldandanalytical/curatorialarchaeologicalconservationmethodsandtechniques.
3.Everypost-secondaryarchaeologyeducationprogramshouldprovidecoursesontopicssuchasarchaeologyandthelaw,archaeologicalresearchandconservation,archaeologicalprojectfiscalandpersonneladministration,andethicsandarchaeology.DiscussionsoflawsandprogramsaffectingnonculturalpaleoenvironmentalHoloceneandLatePleistocenedatacriticaltoFirstAmericansresearchshouldbeincluded.
4.Everygraduatearchaeologyprogramshouldincludeaminimumcourserequirementinheritageresourcemanagementandrelevantlocal,state,provincial,tribal,national,andinternationallegislation,andingeneralenvironmentalmanagement.Environmentalmanagementeducationshouldaddressspecializedprogramssuchasair,water,endangeredspecies,andwetlandsconservation,wheretheyexist,becauseofthepotentialeffectsofthosemanagementprogramsonmultidisciplinaryFirstAmericansresources.
5.PublicresourcemanagementagenciesandresourcedevelopmentorganizationsthatencounterFirstAmericansresourcesshouldsupportscholarlyresearchrelatedtothoseresources,notjustminimalidentification,evaluation,andavoidance.CompletionofresearchonrareandnonrenewableFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleoenvironmentalresourcesisinthepublicinterest(e.g.,inrelation
tounderstandingglobalclimaticchange),providinginformationforpubliceducationandrecreationaswellasformorereliableevaluationsofthemanagementneedsofotherFirstAmericansresourcesencounteredinthefuture.
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6.OrganizationsdevelopingbroadbibliographicorresourcedescriptiondatabasesshouldincludekeywordsorotherinformationidentifiersthatrelatetoFirstAmericansresearch.ThisisparticularlyimportantintheU.S.NationalParkService'sdevelopmentofNADB-Reportskeywords,sincethatprogramcouldbecomeaninternationalmodel.
7.Professionalandavocationalarchaeologicalorganizationsshouldbeencouragedtoestablishandmaintainforumsforthetwo-wayexchangeofinformationbetweenacademicandpublicarchaeologists,andfromtheseshouldcomeprogramstooverseeandadvisegovernmentarchaeologicalresourcemanagementprograms.Thisshouldinvolvemoreactiveparticipationinthedevelopmentoflaws,regulations,policies,andguidelines,ateverygovernmentallevel.
8.FirstAmericansscholarsshouldencouragetheprofessionalandpublicorganizationsofwhichtheyarememberstorewardpublicservantsforgoodmanagementofFirstAmericansresources.Suchrewardsshouldbefornon-archaeologistsaswellasarchaeologistswhoprotecttheculturalandpaleoenvironmentalinformationsocriticaltoFirstAmericansstudies.
9.FirstAmericansscholarsshouldparticipateinthedevelopmentofgeneralland/resourcemanagementplanningdocuments,andshouldbeinvolvedbyplanningagenciesfromtheearliestplanningstagesthroughprojectdecision-makingandimplementation.Agenciesshouldroutinelyinvolveprehistoryscholarswithpaleoenvironmentresearchexperience,usuallyfoundoutsidetheagency,atalocalcollegeormuseum,inallmajorplanningefforts.Suchexpertisecanoftenbecriticalinidentifyingprojectopportunitiesorconstraintsasearlyaspossibleintheplanningeffort.Forscholars,thisbeginswithfindingoutwhatplanningdocumentsarebeingwrittenorscheduledintheirhomeregionorregionofresearchinterest,andidentifying
criticalconcernstotheagency.Itinvolvesunderstandingthedecision-makingprocessandtheagency'smissionandresponsibilities,carefulreadingofthedraftplans,andprovidingusefulandtimelyreviewcommentstothemanagementagency.Ifindividualscholarsdonothave
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thetimeorinterestinbeingsoinvolved,theyshouldensurethatsomeoneelsewithFirstAmericansresearchinterestsisinvolvedinsuchplanningefforts.
FirstAmericansStudiesinaPublicArena
Stewardshipofhumanity'spastconstitutesachallengeofimmenseproportions.Largelythroughtheeffortsofadedicatedfew,thescopeofthechallengeisbecomingmoreclearlydefined.Traditionallytheresponsibilityforpreservingandconservingourculturalheritagehasfallenonthearchaeologicalprofession.Itisnowapparentthat,forthoseprofessionalsaswellasforthenonprofessionalarchaeologicalpublic,responsiblestewardshiphasdiverseimplicationsthatincludesocial,political,legal,educational,economic(e.g.,landdevelopment,pollutioncontrol,tourism),andotherdimensions.
Thereisaneedforimmediatecollaborationamongcultural,natural,andgeophysicalscholars,economists,andconstitutionallawexpertstoformulatestrategiesandpoliciesfortheconservationandpreservationofFirstAmericansresourcesonprivateandpubliclandsinallcountries.Oneofthegreatestimperativesfacingindividualsandgroupsinterestedinourearliestculturalheritageistheneedtoidentifythekeyplayersinheritagepreservationandtolegitimizetheirrolesandresponsibilitieswithinavoluntaryassociationofdedicatedparticipantssharingcommonconcerns,goals,andobjectives.
Wealsoneedcoordinatingmechanismsatthelocal,national,andinternationallevels,greaterpublicawarenessandunderstandingofheritageissuesthroughmassmediaandpubliceducation,andtomoveheritageconservationfromtheperipherytothemainstreamofpubliclifeandconsciousness.Althoughstate,provincial,tribal,national,andUnitedNationsagenciesdoexistthathavebeenchargedwiththeresponsibilityofconservinghumanity'sculturalandbiological
heritage,coordinationofeffortsinthepastcanbecharacterizedasgenerallyadhocandcrisisoriented.Itisimperativethatprotocolsbeestablished,takingadvantageofbreakthroughsininfor-
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mationtechnology,tofacilitatedisseminationofinformationrelatingtoFirstAmericansheritagepreservation.Inthiseraofinternationalcooperationamongonce-rivalnations,theopportunityexiststoforgelinksamonginstitutionsandindividualswhoshareaninterestandcommitmenttopreservinghumanity'spastandtherecordoftheFirstAmericans.
Publicoutreachandeducationhaveneverbeenmorevitalthanatpresenttoinculcateaconcernforheritagepreservationandconcern.CelebritiessuchasJeanAuel,authorofTheClanoftheCaveBearandseveralotherwell-researched''Paleolithicromances,"havehadanextraordinarilypositiveeffectonshapingpublicperceptionsofthehumanpast.Inturn,Auel(1991:125)hasnoted:"Ifthescientistwantsthecooperationofthepublic,itistheresponsibilityofthescientisttocommunicateinwaysthatareunderstandable."
SchooleducatorsandcurriculumplannersneedtoberecruitedintotheprocessofenhancingpublicawarenessofFirstAmericansheritageissuesandenvironmentalvalues,sothatAmericancitizensdonotcontinuetoregardthehemisphere'sculturalheritageasanexpendablecommoditythatrepresentsonlyanaliencultureandbenefitsonlyaprivilegedfew.
AnimportantelementinallFirstAmericansscholarshipshouldbetheinvolvementoftoday'sAmericanIndiansintheinvestigationoftheirownheritageanditsresources.InformationshouldbedevelopedforAmericanIndianheritageprograms,andAmericanIndiansshouldbetrained(withfinancialsupport)andemployedinFirstAmericansstudies.ThatispartoftheresponsibilityofusingaswellasconservingsuchanimportantelementofthepublicarchaeologicaltrustasFirstAmericansresources.
TheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericasaffordedanunparalleledopportunitytoconvenesomeoftheleading
playersinheritageconservationandtoprovideaforumfordiscussinggoalsinmanagingFirstAmericansresourcestosupportscholarlyresearchthatinturnsupportspublicunderstandingofthepast.IssuesraisedatSummit'89pointtotopicsseriouslyinneedofpublicdebate.Howcanthecurrentapproachtoheritageresearch,conservation,education,andrecreationbemodifiedtobenefitFirst
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Americansresources?Howcanthepublic'sawareness,understanding,andappreciationofFirstAmericansheritageissuesbeachievedatallsociopoliticallevels?Whatstepscanbetakentoincreasecommunicationandcooperationamongthevariousculturalandnaturalresourceprivateandpublicsectororganizations,tobenefitFirstAmericansresources?WhatcanbedonetoachieveoptimaldivisionofheritagemanagementresponsibilitiesamongprivateandpublicindividualsandsectorstofosterglobalcooperationonFirstAmericansheritageissuesofmutualconcern?WhatmeasurescanbetakentoensureadequatefundingformeritoriousFirstAmericansresearch,conservation,andpubliceducationprojects?
Conclusion
ScientificresearchdriveswhatisknownaboutFirstAmericansstudiesandprovidesthebasicinformationonwhichconservationandeducationprogramsshouldbebased.WeneedtolocateFirstAmericansresources,andthentodevelophigh-qualitysitereportsusingthefullcomplementofmethodsandconceptsofferedbytheQuaternarysciencesandcontemporaryarchaeology.LocalsiteandenvironmentalinformationcanbeintegratedintoaninternationaldatabasefocusingonFirstAmericansstudies.Thisinformationisofinteresttotheresearchcommunityandthepublic,anditsvaluecanbecommunicatedtothoseresourcemanagerschargedwithstewardshipresponsibilities.ParticipationinthepublicforumsthataffecttheimplementationoftheFirstAmericanspublictrustisacriticalresponsibilityforthescholarlycommunity.
ConservationpolicyisincompleteandFirstAmericansculturalresourcesareinadequatelyprotected.Tofocusresearch,protectFirstAmericansresources,andeducatethepublicandschoolchildrenaboutAmerica'searliestculturalheritage,leadershipisneededtocoordinatetheeffortsofallnations,organizations,andindividuals
involvedinthisimportantpublicprogram.
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IVTHELEGALENVIRONMENTArchaeology,likemostotherhumanendeavors,iscontrolledtoonedegreeoranotherbylegalconstraints.Forexample,howandwherearchaeologicalexcavationstakeplacemaybecontrolledbypropertyrights,bothprivateandpublic.Allthingsbeingequal,anarchaeologist,unlessheorsheisthetitleholderpersonally,musthavetheconsentofalandownerbeforeconductingexcavations.Evenifthepropertyisownedbythearchaeologist,otherlegalrequirementsmayimpacttheconductofthework.IntheUnitedStates,iftheresourceisownedbythegovernment,permitsmustbeobtainedfromtheappropriateland-managingagency,beitlocal,state,orfederalpropertyortribaltrustland.IntheUnitedStatesandAustralia,archaeologistsmaybelegallyimpededbystateorhigherjurisdictionalrequirementsfromconductingexcavationsatsacredormortuarysites.
Inmanypartsoftheworldthelegalenvironmentofarchaeologyischanging,withincreasedoppositionfromnativepeoplestoarchaeologicalimpactsontheirreligiousrights,supportedbynationalaswellasinternationalpublics.Allarchaeologistsdecrythedestructionofarchaeologicalresourcesbyvandalism,butoftenfindthemselvesviewedasvandalsbynativepeople.Asagroupthatseesitselfconductingitsbusinessfortheenrichmentof
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allcitizens,archaeologistsaredisturbedbytheoutcryofnativepeopleandareintheprocessofadjustingtheirprofessionalvaluesandcultureinresponse.
Archaeologistshavemadetremendousstridesinprotectingtheprehistoricandhistoricculturalheritagebylobbyingeffortswithlocal,state,national,andinternationallegislativebodies.Raisingpublicmoneyforarchaeologicaldatarecoveryandresourceinventorieshasbeensuccessfulinsomecountries.Thesesuccessfullegislativeeffortsmustcertainlybetheresultofpublicawarenessthattheculturalheritagemanifestedinthearchaeologicalrecordisavaluablenationalcommodity.Eachgovernmenthasaresponsibilitytoaffordsomecontroloveritsconsumption.
ThefollowingpapersexploresomeofthelegalenvironmentsinwhichFirstAmericansscholarsconducttheirwork.Asthepaperspointout,mostofthelawsdiscussedhereareprotectiveinintentandreactiveintheirimplementation.Mostofthecitedlawsseektoprotectnationalheritages,restrictaccesstoarchaeologicalproperties,controltheownershipofarchaeologicalspecimens,andgoverntheirexportfromthecountryoforigin.Additionally,legalsystemssuchasthoseinCanadaandtheUnitedStatesatleastrequirebureaucraticconsiderationoftheimpactofdevelopmentonpublicorprivatelyownedresourcesdirectlyorindirectlyaffectedbygovernmentalactions.Despitetheparticularperspectivefromwhichtheindividualnationsviewtheirarchaeologicalheritage,theirlegislativeeffortspresumethenationalimportanceofhumankind'spastanditsartsandmonuments.
BENNIEC.KEELRUTHANNKNUDSON
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TheLegalStructurefortheProtectionofArchaeologicalResourcesintheUnitedStatesandCanadaJohnM.Fowler
TheEnglishcommon-lawtraditionisbasictomuchUnitedStatesandCanadianlaw,andoverthepastseveraldecadesbothnationshaverespondedtosimilarthreatstoprehistoricandhistoricresources.BothnationshavegivenattentiontotherightsandinterestsofNativeAmericansinthoseresources.TheNationalHistoricPreservationActasamendedisthekeystonetoU.S.federalhistoricpreservationlaw,whichreliesheavilyontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlacesandthe''Section106"consultationprocesstodeterdamagetosignificanthistoricproperties.EachoftheU.S.statesandterritoriesandtheDistrictofColumbiahavetheirownpreservationlaw,andthesearecomplementedbymanylocalpreservationrequirements.Privatelawapproachestopreservation(e.g.,easements,zoningrestrictions)arebeingusedincreasinglyinboththeUnitedStatesandCanada.Canada'slackofastrongfederalpreservationmandatehasresultedinplacementofstrongerpreservationemphasisontheprovinciallevels.
ThelegalsystemsoftheUnitedStatesandCanadaarestronglyrootedintheEnglishcommon-lawtradition.Likewise,theysharethefederalformofgovernment,whichlodgescertainpowerswiththenationalgovernmentandreservesotherstostateorprovincialandlocalauthorities.Asaresult,whiletheU.S.andCanadianprogramsforprotectingandmanagingculturalresourcesarehardlyidentical,theydosharemanysimilarmechanismsandconcepts.ThispaperwillprovideanoverviewoftheU.S.legalstructureforprotectingarchaeologicalresourcesandthenbrieflycomparetheCanadian
experience.
Asthenationalpreservationprogramshaveevolvedoverthepastthreedecades,bothcountrieshaverespondedtosimilarthreatstohistoricproperties.Theexpansionofurbancenters,developmentoftransportationsystems,andexploitationofenergyresourceshavewreakedhavoconhistoricstructuresandarchaeologicalresourcesinbothcountries.Inturn,thishasledtotheenactmentofnewlawsatthenational,
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tribal,state/provincial,andlocallevelsofgovernment,supplementingexistingauthoritiesthathadaffordedmorelimitedprotection.
Historically,thedevelopmentofpreservationlawsinbothcountrieshasbeenreactivetotheimmediatethreatsofthetime.Thus,intheUnitedStates,forexample,earlylegalresponsesfocusedonthelootingofprehistoricarchaeologicalsitesintheSouthwest.Laterrecognitionoftheimportanceofhistoricstructuresanddistrictsledtofurtherlegalenactments.TheCanadianexperiencehasnotbeendissimilar.Animportantconsequenceisthatadistinctbodyoflawhasevolvedinbothcountriesregardingtheprotectionofarchaeologicalresources,withprovisionsuniquelyapplicabletothosepropertiesandoftensomewhatapartfrombroaderhistoricpreservationlawsandprograms.
Likewise,thererecentlyhasbeenmuchattentiongiventotherightsandinterestsofNativeAmericansinthoseitemsandhumanremainsthatnotonlypossessarchaeologicalorhistoricvaluebutalsohaveimportantassociationswithculturaltraditionsandreligiousbeliefs.Thishasfosteredanongoingdebateregardingthetensionbetweenscientificinvestigationandthesanctityofhumanremainsandgravegoods.RecentU.S.lawonthisissuewillbediscussedbelow.
TheU.S.NationalHistoricPreservationProgram
ThestructureofpreservationlawintheUnitedStatesisdeterminedlargelybytheprinciplesoffederalismandthetraditionalallocationoflegalauthorityandpoliticalpowertothevariouslevelsofgovernment.Asaresult,whileacohesiveprogramofadministrativestructuresandlegalprotectionsexistsatthenationalgovernmentlevel,themoststringentprotectionsareprovidedforhistoricpropertiesatthelocallevel,thetraditionalrepositoryofauthorityoverlanduse.Indeed,itisimportanttonotethatnoprovisionoffederal
lawexiststoprohibitthedestructionofahistoricresource,unlessitisinfederalownership.
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FederalProgramsandProtections
Attheoutset,adistinctionmustbedrawnbetweenfederallawsthatapplytofederalandtononfederallands.Notsurprisingly,themoststringentU.S.protectionsforarchaeologicalandhistoricpropertiesapplyonlytothosepropertiesingovernmentownership.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthebroadprovisionsoflawsconcerningallkindsofhistoricpropertiesareaugmentedbyseveralfederallawsthataredesignedspecificallyfortheprotectionofarchaeologicalresources.
TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActof1969(42USC[U.S.Code]4321,4331,4332)declaredthatitwasnationalpolicyto"assureforallAmericans...culturallypleasingsurroundings"andto"preserveimportanthistoric,cultural...aspectsofournationalheritage."Thisbroadprovisionhasresultedinconsiderationofarchaeological(includingFirstAmericans)sitesthreatenedbydevelopmentactivitiesacrosstheUnitedStates,butoffersnolegalprotectionperse.
ThekeystoneoffederalhistoricpreservationlawistheNationalHistoricPreservationActof1966(NHPA;16USC470)asamended.Itestablishesthebasicelementsofthenationalhistoricpreservationprogramandstronglyinfluencestheshapeofstateandevenlocalpreservationlaws.TheNHPAcreatesacomprehensivesystemfortheidentification,evaluation,protection,andenhancementofhistoricresources.Italsoprovidesanadministrativestructuretocarryouttheseauthorities.
AtthecenteroftheprogramistheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces(hereafter"theRegister"),whichembracesthebuildings,sites,districts,structures,andobjectsthataresignificantinU.S.history,archaeology,architecture,culture,andengineeringatthenational,state,andlocallevel.ListingontheRegister,ormeetingthecriteriaof
eligibilityforit,isabasicprerequisiteforapropertytobenefitfromtheNHPA'sprotectionsandassistance.TheRegisterisadministeredbytheSecretaryoftheInterior,actingthroughtheNationalParkService(NPS).
TheRegistercapsanationwideinventoryprocessforidentifyingsignificanthistoricproperties.Conductedprimarilyat
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thestatelevelthroughindividualstatehistoricpreservationofficers(SHPO)inaccordancewithfederalstandardsandcriteria,surveysareongoingtodevelopanationwidedatabaseforplanningandresourceallocationdecisionsaffectinghistoricproperties.
PropertiesmeetingthecriteriaoftheRegisterareaffordedprotectionthroughSection106oftheNHPA.Thisrequiresthatafederalagency"takeintoaccount"theeffectsonsuchpropertiesofactivitieswhichitcarriesout,fundsorotherwiseassistsorapproves.Whenahistoricpropertyisaffected,theagencymustobtainthecommentsofthecabinet-levelAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(hereafter"theCouncil").
TheSection106process,setforthinregulationsat36CFR(CodeofFederalRegulations)800,isthebasicprotectioninU.S.federallawforhistoricproperties.ItappliestoallpropertiesonoreligiblefortheRegister,regardlessofownership,aslongasthereissomefederalinvolvementintheactionaffectingthem.Inpractice,thisisaconflict-resolutionprocess,bringingtogethertheprojectsponsor,preservationexperts(theCouncilandtheSHPO)andinterestedmembersofthepublic.Agreementissoughtonmeasuresthatwillpreservesignificantfeaturesofthehistoricresourcebutalsoallowtheprojecttogoforward.
Agreementisreachedinthevastmajorityofcases.Ifthereisnoagreement,theCouncilissuesformalcommentstotheheadofthefederalagencyproposingtheproject.Theagencyisobligatedtoconsiderthecommentsinreachingadecision,butisnotrequiredtofollowthem.Itisimportanttorecognizethatthissystemprovidesnofinalauthoritytovetoafederalactionthatmightdestroyahistoricproperty,regardlessoftheimportanceoftheresource.
Arelatedprogramprovidesfortherecoveryofhistoricandarchaeologicaldatathreatenedwithlossasaresultofaprojectwith
federalinvolvement.UndertheArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974(16USC460),anagencymustnotifytheSecretaryoftheInteriorwhensignificantdatawillbelost.TheagencyorSecretaryisauthorizedtoundertakerecoveryofthedata,inaccordancewithspecifiedstandards,andprojectfundsareallowedtobeusedforthispurpose.ThisprogramisadministeredbytheNPS.
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ForarchaeologicalresourceslocatedonU.S.federalorIndianlands,substantiallygreaterprotectionsexist(Hutt1994,Huttetal.1992).TheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979(16USC470aa-mm)prohibitstheunauthorizedexcavationofarchaeologicalsitesandartifactsonthoselands,establishescivilandcriminalpenaltiesforviolations,andrequirestheestablishmentofpublicarchaeologicalawarenessprogramsonfederallands.Apermitsystemregulatestheconductoflegitimatescientificinvestigations.
AfinalprovisionofgeneralapplicationtoU.S.federalagenciesisSection110oftheNHPA.Thisobligatesfederalagenciestomanagehistoricresourcesundertheircontrolinaccordancewithprofessionalpreservationstandardsandpolicies.In1988,theNPSissued"GuidelinesforFederalAgencyResponsibilitiesunderSection110oftheNationalHistoricPreservationAct"(53FR[FederalRegister]4727).Thesecomplementthe"Secretary'sStandardsandGuidelinesforArcheologyandHistoricPreservation"(48FR44716),whichgenerallyapplytogovernmentalactivitiesaffectinghistoricproperties.Section110requirementswerestrengthenedintheNationalHistoricPreservationActAmendmentsof1992(PublicLaw102-575),whichrequirefederalagenciestoestablishpreservationprogramsfortheidentification,evaluation,Registernomination,andprotectionofhistoricproperties.ManyfirstAmericanssitesareonlandsownedorcontrolled(bylicense,permit,orfinancialsupport)bythefederalgovernment.
Asnotedearlier,particularprovisionsofU.S.federallawandregulationdealwiththeinterestsofNativeAmericansinhistoricresources.TheregulationsimplementingSection106makespecialprovisionfortheinvolvementofIndiantribesandotherNativeAmericansintheprojectreviewprocess.Likewise,theCouncilhasadoptedspecificpoliciesregardingthetreatmentofhumanremainsandgravegoodsinSection106cases.Morespecifically,theU.S.
NativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationActof1990(NAGPRA;26USC3001)legislatedtheownershiporcontrolofcertaintypesofNativeAmericanculturalitems(includinghumanremainsandassociatedfuneraryobjects,andunassociatedfuneraryobjects,sacredobjects,andobjectsofculturalpatrimony)excavated
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ordiscoveredonfederalortriballands.ownershipoftheseculturalitemsisassignedtoNativelinealdescendantsortribesorNativeorganizationsinadesignatedpriorityorder,andownershavetherighttoclaimthoseitemsandrequesttheirreturn.FirstAmericanshumanremainsandassociatedfuneraryobjectsmaybesubjecttoNativerepatriationunderthislaw.
TheAmericanIndianReligiousFreedomAct(AIRFA;16USC1996)declaresittobethepolicyoftheUnitedstatestoprotectthefreeexerciseoftraditionalreligionsbyAmericanIndiansandtoprovideaccesstosacredsitesandtheuseofsacredobjects.Asecondprovisionrequiresfederalagenciestoevaluatetheirprogramstoaccommodatethispolicy.Whilethishasnotprovidedspecificlegalprotectiontotraditionalsitesandobjects,ithasinfluencedtheimplementationofotherfederalpreservationlaws,suchastheNHPA,andisoccasionallyreferredtoinregulationsandguidelinesrelatingtoarchaeologicalandhistoricpreservation.TheReligiousFreedomRestorationActof1993(42USC2000bb)saysthatthegovernmentshouldnot"substantiallyburdenreligiousexercisewithoutcompellingjustification."ThislawisexpectedtostrengthenagencyconsiderationoftheAIRFApolicystatementinagencyplanningandoperations.
Insummary,theU.S.federalprogramprovidesfortheidentificationofarchaeologicallyandhistoricallysignificantresourcesandensurestheircarefulconsiderationintheplanningoffederalandfederallysupportedprojects.Likewise,federallyownedarchaeologicalresourcesaregivenstringentprotectionagainstvandalismandlooting.However,thereachoffederallawtoprivatelyheldresourcesislimitedanditsstricturesonlyapplytotheactionsoffederalagenciesthatmayharmsuchproperties.
StateHistoricPreservationLaws
Theroleofthestategovernmentisessentiallythreefold:itisapartnerwiththefederalgovernmentincarryingoutthepro-
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visionsoffederallaw;animplementerofstatepreservationlaws;andanauthorizerfortheconductofpreservationregulationatthelocalgovernmentlevel.Thefirstroleisembodiedinthestatehistoricpreservationprogram,throughwhichtheSHPOparticipatesinthesurveyandinventoryingactivitiesrelatedtotheexpansionoftheRegisterandplaysanactiveroleintheconflict-resolutionprocessofSection106.
Thesecondrolevariesgreatlyfromstatetostate.AnumberofstateshaveprojectreviewprocessessimilartoSection106oftheNHPA,coveringactivitiesinvolvingstateagencies.Theseareoftentiedtostateinventoriesofhistoricproperties,similartotheRegisterbutusuallyembracingalargernumberofpropertiesthanthestatehasnominatedtothefederallist.Onlyafewstates,though,extendtheseprotectionstoprivateactionswithnogovernmentalinvolvement.
Closelyrelatedarestateenvironmentalpolicyacts,requiringconsiderationoftheimpactsofstateandlocalgovernment-sponsoredprojectsontheculturalandnaturalenvironments.Theselawscustomarilymandateenvironmentalimpactstatementsandoftenprovideamechanismforrejectingprojectsthathaveunacceptableimpacts.Theyareoftenusedtoprotecthistoricandarchaeologicalresources.
Moststateshaveenactedspeciallawsfortheprotectionofarchaeologicalsites.Mostcommonarelawsthatparalleltheprotectionsforfederallyownedlands.Theyestablishapermitsystemforexcavationonstate-ownedlandsandoftenplacetheadministrationofthesystemunderadesignatedstatearchaeologist.Afewstateshaveextendedprotectiontoprivatelands,requiringtheconsentoftheownerbeforeanyonedisturbsanarchaeologicalsite.
Arelatedareaofstateactivitytoprotectarchaeologicalresourcesextendstothoseresourceslocatedunderwater.Withauthorityfrom
thefederalAbandonedShipwreckActof1987(43USC2101),statesnowhavetitletohistoricshipwreckswithintheirjurisdictionandcanissuepermitstoregulatesalvage.The1987lawclarifiedstateauthorityandisexpectedtogenerateanumberofneworrevisedstatelaws.
Anothersomewhatarcaneareaoflawisalsousedforarchaeologicalprotectionlegislationenactedtoprotect
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cemeteries.Whilenotalwaysspecificallydirectedathistoriccemeteriesandburials,prohibitionsonthedisturbanceofgravesofferalegaltoolthatcanbequiteeffective.Cemeteryandunmarkedburiallawsarealsofoundatthestate(Price1991)andlocallevel.
Finally,undertheU.S.Constitutionthosepowersnotgiventothefederalgovernmentarereservedtothestates.Asaresult,theexerciseofsuchauthoritiesasthepolicepowerbylocalgovernments,whicharecreaturesofthestate,mustbebasedondelegationsofauthorityfromthestategovernment.Accordingly,thebasisforlocalgovernmentregulationmustbefoundinstateconstitutionsorlegislativeenactments.Thusthestateplaysanimportantroleinshapingtheprotectionofhistoricresourcesatthelocallevel.
LocalRegulationofHistoricProperties
ItisatthelocallevelofU.S.governmentthatdirectregulationofprivateactivityaffectinghistoricresourcesoccurs.Consistentwithstateenablinglegislation,generalzoningauthority,orconstitutionalprovision,alocalgovernmentmayenactasystemthatrequiresapprovalfromagovernmentalbodybeforeaprivateactionisallowedtomodifyordestroyahistoricproperty.ThishasbeendoneinhundredsofcommunitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates.
Essentially,theprotectiveprocessrequiresformaldesignationofapropertyasalocallandmarkandthenestablishesagovernmentalcommissiontoreviewandapproveproposedalterationsordemolition.Whilethisprocesscanbeusedforindividuallylistedproperties,itismostoftenappliedtohistoricdistricts.Theextentofcontrolmayvaryfromsimplydelayingtheproposedactionforaperiodoftimetoallownegotiationtooutrightprohibition.
Whilethesetechniqueshavebeenprimarilyusedtoprotecthistoricstructuresandneighborhoods,theyhavealsobeenemployedinsome
jurisdictionstoprotectarchaeologicalresources.Whensoused,asimilarpublicagencyreviewoccurs
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ofproposedprivateactionwhichmaydisturbarecognizedarchaeologicalsite,leadingtoapprovalordisapproval.
APrivateLawApproachtoPreservation
Theforegoingdiscussionhasfocusedonpublicregulationtoprotecthistoricproperties.Oneofthemosteffectivetoolsforlong-termpreservationofhistoricandarchaeologicalresourcescomesfromconsensualarrangementsamongprivatepartiesandgovernmentagencies(seeHenry1993).Throughtheuseofeasementsorpreservationrestrictions,privatepropertiesarevoluntarilyremovedfromthethreatofdevelopment.
Aneasementessentiallyisthesurrenderofcertaindevelopmentrightsbytheownerofaproperty,usuallyinexchangeformoneyorsometaxbenefit.Aholdingorganization,eitheragovernmentalbodyornonprofitorganization,isgiventhelegalrighttoreviewproposedchangestoahistoricpropertyoralterationsareprohibitedaltogether.
Theserestrictions"runwiththeland,"bindingsuccessivepurchasersinaccordancewiththetermsoftheeasement.Astheyarenotimposedonanunwillingownerbyagovernmentalbody,theytendtobemoresuccessfulinachievingtheirpreservationobjective.Easementsarewidelyusedtoprotectopenspaceandarchaeologicallysignificantproperties.
Summary:TheU.S.ProtectiveSystem
ProtectinghistoricresourcesintheUnitedStatesreliesupontheinterplayofthreelevelsofgovernment.Whilethestandardsfordecidingwhatissignificantarelargelyderivedfromthefederalgovernment,theirapplicationandthemosteffectiveimpositionofcontrolsoccursatthestateandlocallevels.Onlyatthelocalleveldoestheauthorityexisttoabsolutelyprohibitthedestructionofa
privatelyownedhistoricproperty.However,theintegrationofhistoricpreservationconcerns
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intotheplanningofpublicprojectsishighlydevelopedandachievessubstantialsuccessinaccommodatingdevelopmentandpreservationgoals.
TheCanadianExperience:ABriefComparison
WhileCanadahasafederalstructureinmanywayssimilartothatoftheU.S.,therearesubstantialdifferencesinthegovernmentalapproachtopreservation(seeMagne,thisvolume).Thisstemsfromtheconstitutionalassignmentofallmatterspertainingprimarilyto"propertyandcivilrights"toprovincialjurisdiction.Theprotectionofhistoricpropertiesissuchamatter.Asaresultthenationalgovernment'sinvolvementwithhistoricresourcesislimitedtopropertieswhichitowns,propertiesintheterritories,propertyofficiallydeclaredtobe"forthegeneraladvantageofCanada,"andpropertyinvolvedinanundertakingoverwhichthefederalgovernmenthasjurisdiction.
Thenationalgovernmenthastakenstepstoprotectthosehistoricpropertiesoverwhichithassomejurisdiction.Forexample,inCanadatheFederalHeritageBuildingPolicyof1982establishesapreservationagencytooverseeactivitiesaffecting"heritageproperties"overfortyyearsold.ItsfunctionsareakintothoseoftheUnitedStates'NPSwithregardtothedevelopmentofaregisterofhistoricproperties,promotionofconservationatprovincialandterritoriallevels,andmanagementofhistoricproperties.LiketheU.S.AdvisoryCouncil,theCanadianFederalHeritageBuildingReviewOfficeischargedwithestablishingcriteriaandprocedurestoevaluateplansforalterationsanddemolitionofheritageproperties.
AgainasintheU.S.,CanadahasspecialprotectionsforresourceslocatedonIndianreserves.UndertheIndianAct,governmentapprovalisrequiredfortheacquisitionofcertainhistoricand
archaeologicalresourcesassociatedwithIndianculture,graves,andart.
WhiletheroleofthenationalgovernmentinprotectinghistoricpropertiesissubstantiallylessthanintheUnitedStates,
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substantialstepshavebeentakenattheprovinciallevel.OftentheseparalleltheactivitiesofstatesintheU.S.,withsomeadditionalactionstakentocompensatefortheabsenceofnationalgovernmentauthority.ProvincialprogramsaresimilartothoseintheU.S.states:effectivepreservationprogramsarebasedonaninventoryofsignificantproperties,evaluatedagainstprofessionalcriteria,andthenaffordedprotectionsinplanningandthrougharegulatoryprocess.Theprotectiveprocessesvary,butsomeprovincesrequirethataspecifiedamountoftimeelapsebeforeaheritageresourcecanbealteredandothersextendmorestringentformsofpriorapproval.
Archaeologicalresourcesareoftengivenspecialprotection,againinamannersimilartothatintheUnitedStates.Protectedsitesmayrequiregovernmentpermits,andsometimestheconsentoftheowner,forexcavation.Removalofartifactsfromaprovincemaybeprohibitedwithoutprovincialgovernmentapproval.
Finally,manyprovincesrecognizetheimportanceofmunicipalcontroloverhistoricproperties.Provinciallegislationmayenablelocalgovernmentstoestablishconservationadvisorycommittees,which,liketheirU.S.counterparts,overseetheprotectionofheritageconservationdistricts.
Insum,theCanadianlegalenvironmentfavorstheapplicationofpreservationprotectionsattheprovincialandlocallevel.TheparallelswiththeU.S.experiencearemany,buttheconstitutionallimitationsonnationalgovernmentactionresultinimportantdifferences.
Conclusion:TheNorthAmericanLegalLandscape
ThetraditionsofEnglishcommonlawhavejoinedwithadistinctlyNorthAmericanapproachtotheprotectionofprivatepropertyrightsandthedecentralizationofgovernmenttoplaceadistinctivestamponhistoricpreservationlaw.Whilethenationalgovernmentmayset
generalstandardsandcriteriaandtaketheleadershipinanationwidepreservationprogram,effectiveregulationandprotectionofhistoricpropertiesoc-
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cursatalevelofgovernmentclosertotheregulatedpropertyowner.
Thisdoesnotnecessarilyresultinalowerlevelofprotectionforhistoricproperties,butdoeschangethepoliticaldynamicsofestablishingandadministeringprotectiveprograms.Recognitionofwheretheeffectivelegislativeandadministrativedecisionmakingoccursisessentialtotheeffectivecreationanduseoflegaltoolstoprotecthistoricresources.
ReferencesCited
Henry,SusanL.
1993ProtectingArcheologicalSitesonPrivateLand.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,InteragencyResourcesDivision,PreservationPlanningBranch,Washington.
Hutt,Sherry
1994TheCivilProsecutionProcessoftheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceTechnicalBriefNo.16.
Hutt,Sherry,ElwoodW.Jones,andMartinE.McAllister
1992ArcheologicalResourceProtection.ThePreservationPress,Washington.
Price,H.Marcus,III
1991DisputingtheDead.U.S.LawonAboriginalRemainsandGraveGoods.UniversityofMissouriPress,Columbia.
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Archaeology'sWorld:TheLegalEnvironmentinAsiaandLatinAmericaCharlesR.McGimseyIII
Legalsystemsare,ultimately,statementsofpoliticalphilosophy,andnoonepoliticalphilosophyisheldworldwide.NearlyallcountriesinAsiaandLatinAmericaexpress,throughlegislation,aconcernforculturalresources.Inmostinstancesacountryassertslegalstandingwithrespecttoculturalresourcesbecauseitrecognizesthatitsarchaeologicalandhistoricalheritageisakeyelementinthedelineationofitsmodernnationalidentity.MostcountriesinAsia,butfewerinLatinAmerica,assertoutrightownershipandnearlyallendeavortoexertsomemeasureofcontrolthroughregistrationofsites,permits,orcontrolofexportationofartifactstoforeignlands.LawswithinternationalramificationssuchasthatoftheUnitedStatesonImportationofpre-ColombianMonumentalandArchitecturalSculptureorMuralsandUNESCOconventionswhich,whenadoptedbyacountry,havetheforceoflawareplayinganincreasingroleasareparalegaldocumentssuchasUNESCORecommendationsandICOMOSCharters.
Indiscussingthelegalenvironmentofarchaeologyitmustberecognizedattheoutsetthatlawsandlegalsystemsarefirst,foremost,andforeverpoliticalstatements.Politics,inturn,istheartofthepossible.Legalstructuresdohave(fortunately)acertaininertiaagainsttheebbandflowofpopularopinionbuttheyare,andintheendmustbe,areflectionandanexpressionofthestrongestcurrentculturalforce.Sometimesthatstrengthisexpressedbyrawpower.Moreoftenitisanexpressionoracontinuationofculturaltraditionas
adjustedbywidespread,deeplyfelt,currentgoals.Itmaybethat,''Weholdthesetruthstobeselfevident,"butifsucceedinggenerationsdonot,theprinciplessetforthintheU.S.DeclarationofIndependenceandreflectedinU.S.lawswillbechangedorabandoned.
Thesecondimportantimplicationofthefactthatlawsareastatementofapubliclyacceptedphilosophyisthatnoonephilosophyisacceptedworldwideandthereforelegalprincipleswilltendtodifferasphilosophiesandculturalhistoriesdiffer.(However,attemptsarecontinuingtodevelop,andhaveadopted,broadlyacceptedprinciples[seebelow]).Thereap-
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peartobe,worldwide,threemajorlegalphilosophiesorapproaches:
CommonLawsystemsarethosebased,likeEnglishlaw,onjudicialdecisionssupplementedbyoftenverydetailedstatutesonvarioustopics.MostEnglish-speakingnations,andthosecountrieswithlegalhistoriescloselyassociatedwithEnglish-speakingnations,havesuchsystems.
CivilLaworCodeLawsystems,basedonRomanlaw,aregenerallycodifiedinstatuteswhichsetforthgeneralprinciples.Thesearethenappliedbyjudgestoallareasoflaw.
LegalsystemsbasedonMarxist/LeninistsocialtheoryaresomewhatsimilarintechniquetoCivilLawbuttheirconceptofpropertyisdistinctfromCommonLaw.
Allthreeoftheselegalphilosophiesareoperativeinthegeographicareasunderconsiderationhere.
WhilenearlyallcountriesinAsiaandinLatinAmericaexpress,throughlegislation,aconcernabouttheirculturalresources,thespecificsvarywidelyanddefyconcisesummarization.Inmostinstancesacountryassertslegalstandingwithrespecttoitsculturalresourcesbecauseitrecognizesthatitsarchaeologicalandhistoricalheritageisakeyelementinthedelineationofitsmodernnationalidentity.Onlyaveryfewcountries(e.g.,Paraguay)havemadealmostnorealisticattempttoassertlegalstandingwithrespecttotheirarchaeologicalresources.Others(e.g.,China,Japan,Mexico,andPeru)devoteconsiderablelegislativeattentiontosuchresources.Thereisenormousvariationinbetween.
NationalLegalApproaches
MostcountriesinAsiadeclaretoonedegreeorinonemanneroranotheroutrightstateownershipofculturalresources(e.g.,China
assumesnationalownershipofallculturalobjectsundergroundorunderwater)and/ortheyexertahighlevelofcontroloverarchaeologicalresearch(e.g.,inMongoliaallresearchissubjecttoapprovalbytheAcademy).Chinaand
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Japan,inparticular,emphasizeplanning(e.g.,Japanrequiresadvancenotice,planning,andconsultationwheneverconstructionworkwillinvolvetheexcavationofanysitewellknowntocontainburiedculturalproperty).
AlmostallAsiancountriestrytorestricttheoutflowofculturalpropertiesandmanyattempttocontrolexcavationbyvarioustechniquessuchaspermits,bytheregistrationofsites,orbyrequiringthereportingoffinds.
AnumberofAsiancountriesareparticularlynotedfortheirlong-standingaffirmativeapproach,ascontrastedwithrestrictivelegislation,inidentifyingandprotectingtheirculturalresources.IndiaandPakistanhavehadanArchaeologicalSurveysinceitwasestablishedbytheBritishin1861.China,Japan,andIndonesiaalsohaveactivenationalprogramsofresearchandprotection.
LatinAmerica,despitealonghistoryofwholesalelootingofitsculturalresources,byforeignersandcompatriots,fromconquistadorstohuaqueros,hasnothadauniformattituderegardingtheprotectionofthearchaeologicalheritage.Insomecountriesthereisanemphasisonthearchaeologicalheritageasapartofthenationalidentity.Inothers,privateinterestshavebeenabletorestrictlegislationaffectingprivatepropertyorpreventingthedestructionofarchaeologicalresourcesbyconstructionprojects.Onlyafewcountriesappeartohavereallyactivepositiveprograms.TheprogramsinMexicoandPeruareperhapsmostnotable,buttherearesomeotherssuchasinGuatemalaandEcuador.
Overall,MexicoandPeruhavedevotedthegreatestattentiontotheirculturalresources.Mexico,likemostCentralAmericancountries,assumesnationalownershipofallculturalmonuments,butPanamahasnosuchlegislation,andCostaRicaconcentratesonartifacts.
Peruassumesnationalownershipofallsites,butprivatelandownersmayretainpropertyrightsifthesiteisregistered.Clandestineexcavationsareoutlawed.Honduras"takesproperty[assumesnationalownership]inallregisteredhistoricmonumentsandtheircontentsandprovidesspecialprotectionofotheritems'irrespectiveoftheirownership'"(O'KeefeandPrott1984:58),andinEcuadorandArgentinasitesare
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declaredtobestateproperty.Elsewhere,ownership,orevencontrol,isextremelyvariedandlessclearlyenunciated.Forexample,Brazilprovidesforregisteredsites,ChilerequirespermitsforexcavationatallNationalMonuments,andanumberofcountriesassumenationalownershipofallartifactsdiscoveredafterspecificestablisheddates.
Controlsoverexcavationbyforeignersand/orovertheexportofartifactsareextremelywidespreadinLatinAmericawith,again,MexicoandPeruhavingthemostdetailedregulations.InPeruitisstipulatedthatworkmayonlybedonebyscientificorganizations,thatallartifactsarestatepropertyandmustremaininthecountry,andthatallresearchprogramsmustincorporatelocalscientistsandstudents.
The1972U.S.lawontheImportationofpre-ColumbianMonumentalorArchitecturalSculptureorMuralsmakesitillegaltoimportintotheUnitedStatesculturalitemswhoseexportisforbiddenbyMexico,andCentralandSouthAmericanstates.WithrespecttoAsia,theUNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization)conventiononillicitimport,notedbelow,canhaveasomewhatsimilareffect.
InternationalApproaches
Legalapproachesareuniquetoeachcountrytoamarkeddegree,but,particularlysinceWorldWarII,therehavebeenincreasingefforts,throughUNESCOand,morerecently,throughtheInternationalCouncilonMonumentsandSites(ICOMOS),todesignandhaveadoptedmoreuniversallyaccepteddocumentsandguidelines.
ThreeUNESCOconventionshaveparticularrelevancetotheprotectionofthearchaeologicalheritage:
ConventionfortheProtectionofCulturalPropertyintheEventofArmedConflict,1954
ConventionontheMeansofProhibitingandPreventingtheIllicitImport,ExportandTransferofOwnershipofCulturalProperty,1970
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ConventionfortheProtectionoftheWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritage,1972
Conventions,bytraditionalinternationallaw,are"immediatelybindingonthestatespartytothem,thoughtheyoftencannotbeinvokedbyindividualsorgroupswithinthosestatesuntiltheyhavebeenincorporatedinnationallaw"(O'KeefeandPrott1984:75).
TherearealsofourteenUNESCOrecommendationsonculturalheritage,severalofwhichhavesubsequentlybecomeconventions.RecommendationsarenotlawbuttheInternationalCourtofJusticerecognizesthat"theteachingsofthemosthighlyqualifiedpublicistsofthevariousnations[are]subsidiarymeansforthedeterminationofrulesoflaw"(StatuteoftheInternationalCourtofJustice,Art.38(c)and(d)).UNESCOrecommendationswouldcertainlyseemtoqualifyunderthiscriteriaandthusbecomepartofthegeneralprinciplesoflawrecognizedbynations.
Finally,thereisanothersetofdocumentswhich,liketheUNESCOrecommendations,constitutepowerfulconsensusstatementswithdirectrelevancetotheprotectionoftheworld'sarchaeologicalandhistoricalheritage.ThesearetheICOMOScharters.OfgeneralinterestistheCharterfortheConservationofHistoricTownsandUrbanAreas,theso-called"VeniceCharter,"whichhasonlyrecentlybeenadopted.OfmuchgreaterpotentialrelevancetoarchaeologyistheCharterfortheProtectionoftheArchaeologicalHeritageunderdevelopmentbytheICOMOSInternationalCommitteeonArchaeologicalHeritageManagementandadoptedbytheNinthICOMOSGeneralAssembly,Lausanne,1990.Thisdocumentendeavorstosetforthinternationallyacceptableguidelineswithrespecttolegislation,inventories,research,curation,professionalqualifications,andinternationalcooperationwhichwillbeessentialtousallasweworkwithinalegalenvironmenttocarryoutthemost
effectivearchaeologicalresearch,management,andconservation.
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Acknowledgment
IamdeeplyindebtedtoP.J.O'KeefeandL.V.Prott(1984)forthemajorityofthespecificlegaldetailsandmanyofthethoughtsreportedinthispaper,buttheycannotbeheldresponsibleformyinterpretations.
Reference
O'Keefe,P.J.,andL.V.Prott
1984LawandtheCulturalHeritage,Volume1,DiscoveryandExcavation.ProfessionalBooksLtd.,Abingdon,Oxon.
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GovernmentSupportofArchaeologyinCanadaMartinP.R.Magne
Whenthispaperwaspresented,Canadadidnothavefederalarchaeologicalresourcemanagementlegislation.However,theCanadianDepartmentofCommunicationsisinprocessofcompletinganationalreviewofarchaeologicallegislationandpolicy,hopefullyleadingtodraftlegislation.ProfessionalactivityinCanadaleadingtothepolicyreviewisdiscussed,asarethekeypointswhichthefederalpolicymakersareconsidering.Theprovincialexperience,inparticularthatofAlberta,ispresentedascontrastandexample.InternationalrecognitionofCanadiansitesandinterpretivedevelopmentshavecreatedanenvironmentofpublicappreciationforthevalueofproperarchaeologicalresourcemanagementonwhichtheCanadiangovernmentwouldbewisetocapitalize.
ThetopicofgovernmentsupportforarchaeologyinCanadaistimely,becausetheCanadiangovernmentiscompletingafullandlong-awaitedreviewofitsarchaeologicalheritagepolicy.Asofthetimethisarticlewenttopress,Canadahasnooverridingarchaeologicalprotectionandmanagementlegislation,buttheCanadianDepartmentofCommunicationsstaffhavepreparedlegislative"draftinginstructions"fortheirministertobringtocabinet.
Thisarticleaddressesthissituationatsomelength,becausethereisacommonperceptionthatCanadahashadawelldevelopedpublictrust,atrustmadepublicbythoroughlegislation,competentresourcemanagement,andintelligentandtastefulculturaltourism.Inshort,thereisaperceptionthatCanadaisquiteactiveinrepayingitspublic
trust.Attheriskofseemingsomewhatbiased,IwillcontrastthefederalsituationwiththeAlbertaexperience,sinceIbelieveitinstructivetoillustratewhatcanbedonewitharchaeologywhenasolidpublictrustdoesexist.
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FederalStateofAffairsinCanada
Atpresent,Canada'sarchaeologicalsitesonfederallandsarenot:
Protectedasarchaeologicalsites,unlesstheyareoffiveparticulartypesonIndianReserves1(DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairsDevelopmentAct1967).Thereisnoexplicitprotectionofferedforarchaeologicalsites.PenaltiesforcontraventionoftheIndianActamounttoamaximumfineof$200ornotmorethanthreemonthsinjail.Intheory,onecouldremoveatotempolefromareserve,sellittoanynumberofdealersforasmallfortune,andbefined$200.
Necessarilysubjecttoimpactassessmentormitigationineventofdevelopmentimpacts.
UnderCrowntrusteeshipasaparticularresource.
Registeredormanagedbyacentralsystem.Canadaatthemomenthasnocentralregistryofarchaeologicalsitesonfederallands,nocentrallistofarchaeologicalresearchpermits,andnocentralrepositoryofarchaeologicalreports(seeCAA1986:1)
Itwould,however,bemisleadingtosaythatCanadahasnomeanswhatsoeverofmanagingitsarchaeologicalresources.ManagementofarchaeologicalresearchandresourcesinCanadaoccursatfederal,provincialandmunicipallevels.Sufficeitheretopointoutthattheprovinces,whilenotallequal,haveledthewayinarchaeologicalprotection,andhavegenerallystringentandeffectivearchaeologicallegislationandresourcemanagementagencies.Federalarchaeologyfallsprincipallyundertwoagencies:theCanadianMuseumofCivilization(CMC)andtheCanadianParksService(CPS).Withnoarchaeologicallegislation,theseagenciesoperateundermuseumandparkslaws.TheCPS,however,doeshaveseveralpoliciesconcerningarchaeologicalresources,includingmanagementguidelinesand
ministerialdirectivesapplyingto
1.Theseinclude(a)Indiangravehouses,(b)carvedgravepoles,(c)totempoles,(d)carvedhouseposts,and(e)rocks"embellishedwithpaintingsorcarvings."
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collectionsandhumanremains.ArchaeologicalresourcesintheCPSaretreatedassignificantresourcesintheenvironmentalassessmentandreviewprocess.2
Canadaisnowcompletingalargemuseumcomplex,theCanadianMuseumofCivilization,whichwilllikelycostover$300millionbythetimeitiscomplete.TheCMChousestheArchaeologicalSurveyofCanada(ASC)which,despiteitsname,isnotmandatedtomanageallofthearchaeologicalresourcesonfederallands.Rather,itstaskisoneofresearch,collection,andexhibition;itisprimarilymuseum-andeducation-oriented,althoughitalsoplaysaroleinmanagementthroughitsRescueArchaeologyProgram.Thenorthernterritories,theYukonandtheNorthwestTerritories,whilewithoutarchaeologicallegislation,operateregulatoryandresearchbureausunderregulationspursuanttotheactswhichbroughttheterritoriesintoexistence.Theseterritorieswouldliketoobtainprovincialstatus,andinturndeveloptheirownantiquitiesorheritagelegislations(seeforexample,YukonHeritageBranch1989)butwillnotbeabletodosountiltheyhavetruelegislativebodies.
RoleoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation
TheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation(CAA),themainprofessionalarchaeologicalorganizationinCanada,withamembershipofaboutfourhundredindividuals,suggestedin1986thatthefederalgovernmentinstituteaCanadianAntiquitiesActwiththefollowingrecommendations(CAA1986:7;seealsoByrne1988):
1.IncorporatethespiritandintentoftheUNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization)conventionsof1956,1970,and1972;
2.Since1989,anewCanadianEnvironmentalAssessmentAct(CEAA)hasbeendraftedandcontainsprovisionsforarchaeologicalandtraditional
aboriginalresources.CEAAregulations,aswellasinclusionandexclusionlists,arebeingpreparedinanticipationofproclamationoftheactin1994.
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2.Includeallcategoriesandaspectsofinsituheritageresources;
3.Supersedeallotherfederallegislationandregulationswhichrelatetothedevelopmentoffederallandsandprojects;
4.Clearlyindicatethatarchaeologicalobjectsandthe"archaeologicalsubsoil"arethepropertyoftheCrown;
5.Provideforthemanagementofnationalheritageresources;
6.Setoutguidelinesandproceduresforheritageimpactassessmentandmitigationstudiesandprovidebasicstandardsforarchaeologicalinvestigations;and
7.EstablishanationaladvisoryboardwithrepresentationfromheritagegroupsandthenativepeoplesofCanada.
TheCAA(1985)hasalsobeenactiveincallingforamendmentstotheCulturalPropertyExportandImportAct,theprincipalconcernbeingthattheactcannotactuallypreventtheexportofarchaeologicalitems.TheCAAalsobelievesthatsincetheprocessmandatedbytheactassignsmonetaryvaluetoitemsforwhichexportisbeingsought,itencouragesillicitacquisitionofarchaeologicalartifacts.In1985thefederalgovernmentrepliedthatitdidnotseeanyneedtoamendthatact,butinsteadrecognizedaneedtoinstitutepolicy"toinspireenactmentoflegislation."Intruth,itisnotknowntowhatextentCanada'sarchaeologicalresourcesareendangeredbyU.S.orotherforeignmarkets,buttheU.S.experiencetodateisfrightening.AgeneralfeelingamongCanadianarchaeologistsisthatincreasingpopulationpressurescanonlybringmoreofthehorrorstoourownbackyard.
CurrentPolicyReview
TheCAA'slobbyingeffortsappeartohavebeensuccessful.The
federalarchaeologicalpolicyreview(CanadaDepartmentofCommunications1988)hasengagedtheeffortsoffourfederaldepartments,arareeventindeed:Communications(principalpolicydevelopment;CMC,ASC),Environment(CPS,archaeologyunits),Transport(culturalpropertyexportandimport,harbors,railways)andIndianandNorthernAffairs(YukonandNorthwestTerritories,IndianReserves,treatyconsiderations).
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Thetotalnumberofinterventionssubmittedwas,foranationallydistributeddiscussionpaper,moderate:morethanonehundredwrittenbriefs,mostofwhichwereverysubstantive,withgeneralagreementatpolicylevel.Nativepeopleshaveexpressedgreatinterestintheproject,inparticularShuswap,GrandTreaty3,andDene.Again,thereisgeneralagreement,butNativegroupshavequestionsaboutcomprehensiveclaimsnowinprocess,andaboutownership(McGhee1989c).
Thecommunicationsdepartmentisactingswiftly.MarcelMasse,amemberofParliament,begananarchaeologicalpolicyreviewwhenhewascommunicationsminister(seeMasse1986).Inhisabsence,theprocesslaggedconsiderably.Massereturnedasministerinthelate1980sandbeganworkonthelegislationdraftingprocessimmediately.His1986remarkstotheCAAledmanytobelievethathewillchampionthiscause.OneofMasse'sseniorofficialsatthe1989FrederictonCAAmeetingsassuredtheCAAofMasse'spersonalcommitmentbyexpressingthedesiretodraftlegislationwhichwill(McGee1989):
Resolvethequestionofownershipofarchaeologicalresourcesinareasoffederaljurisdiction;
Assuretheinclusionofarchaeologicalconsiderationsinimpactassessmentproceduresatthefederallevel(seefootnote2);
RecognizethespecialimportanceofmuchofourarchaeologicalheritageforCanada'saboriginalpeoplesandfacilitatetheiractiveinvolvementinitsprotection,management,andinterpretation;
Enhanceourcapabilitytoprotectanarchaeologicallysignificantwreckbyenablingthegovernmenttodealwithitinaheritagecontext;
Introducefurthercontrolsonthepermanentexportofarchaeological
objectsfromCanada;
Developmechanismsforarchaeologists,aswellasaboriginalpeoplesandotherinterestgroups,tohaveinputintofederalarchaeologicalresourcemanagementonanongoingbasis;
Enhancepublicappreciationofandawarenessaboutourarchaeologicalheritage,throughdisseminationofinformationandpubliceducation;and
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Developtheorganizationalstructureforthefederalgovernmenttocarryoutitsresponsibilitiesrespectingarchaeologicalheritage.
TheAlbertaExampleandtheRoleofthePublic
Whilethefederalgovernmentisonlynowpreparingarchaeologicallegislation,severalCanadianprovinceshavehadfirmlegislationinplaceforsometime.Furthermore,theactivityatthefederallevelappearstobeaddressingtheprofessionalviewpoint,butisitactuallyintunewiththewishesofthegeneralpublic?TheAlbertaHistoricalResourcesAct(AHRA;ADCM1987)addressesthosepointswhichMcGee(1989)hadindicatedwerebeingconsideredforthefederalact.TheAlbertaactspecifiesCrownownership,requires''userpays"impactassessments,providesapublicadvisoryboard,explicitlyrecognizesapubliceducationrole,andallowsfortheestablishmentofappropriateagencies.TheAHRAwasmadepossiblebyaseriesofpublichearingsandapublicopinionsurveyorganizedbytheEnvironmentConservationAuthority(ECA)ofAlbertain1972(ECA1972).Some74submissionsbyindividualsandorganizationswereinstrumentalindetailingwhatwasperceivedtobelackingandwhatwereperceivedtoberealneedsforlegislationinAlberta.Thepublicopinionpollshowed,forexample,thatonly4percentofrespondentswerenotconcernedwiththematter.Forty-sevenpercentthoughtthatthegovernmentshouldowntheresourcesratherthanthefinderandfamilyorfinderonlyuntildeath.Theneedtoinstituteformaleducationwashighlightedby85percentofrespondentsindicatingthatsucheducationshouldstartingrades1and2.Thesefindingswouldnodoubtbeevenmorestronglyreflectedinthesentimentsoftoday.
Alberta'slegislationandmanagementstructurewereformedwithforesight.TheAHRAprotectspaleontologicalandnaturalhistoricresourcesaswellasarchaeologicalandhistoricperiodresources.
Albertarecognizedthatthefieldofarchaeologywasemergingintheprovinceinthelate1980s
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whentheAHRAbecamelaw;thustheArchaeologicalSurveyofAlberta(ASA)wascreatedwithbothresearchandresourcemanagementsections.Otherprovincialgovernmentagenciesmaintainaresourcemanagementroleonly,leavinggovernment-basedresearchtomuseums.Ithasbecomecleartousthatpartofdevelopingapublictrustisjustifyingtheneedforarchaeology,andresourcemanagementagenciesalonecannotdothat.Athoroughmasterplanhasallowedforthematicplanning,leadingtotheopeningofHead-Smashed-InBuffaloJumpin1987,withvisitationreaching250,000inayearandahalf.Othermajorthemesarecurrentlyundergoingcapitaldevelopment,forexamplethefurtradeisbeingtreatedatFortDunveganandFortGeorge/BuckinghamHouse.OneaspectofHead-Smashed-InwhichisofparticularnoteistheveryintegralroleofNativesinexhibitdesign,ongoinginterpretation,andfieldarchaeology.TheStrathconaArchaeologicalCentreinEdmonton,alsowithastrongNativecomponent,wasthefirstofitstypeinCanada:acenterwherethegeneralpubliccouldvisitandvolunteerinanarchaeologicalprogram,yearafteryear.ResearchundertakenbytheASAhasapubliccomponentaswell.Forexample,theFirstAlbertansProject,aseriesofinvestigationsintotheinitialpeoplingoftheprovince,ismakinggreatuseofprivateartifactcollectionseverywherefromthesoutheasternpartsoftheprovincetothenorthwest.
EffectsofLegislationonPrivateCitizens
LegislationmandatingCrowncontrolofhistoricalresourcesaffectsprivatecitizens,groups,organizations,companies,andgovernmentdepartments.Inmostprovinces,thisappliestobothprivateandCrownlands.Federallegislationshouldalsorequireprivateintereststoundertakearchaeologicalimpactassessmentsattheirownexpenseinsituationswhereresourcesareknowntobeorevensuspectedof
beingendangered.InAlberta,thereisverylittleresistancetothiscondition,andthereisevidencethatthecostsofarchaeologicalimpactassessmentareamarginalexpense.Forexample,astudyin1980(Donahue
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1987)showedthattheaveragecostofintensivearchaeologicalexcavationsinsubdivisionareasofCalgarywasabout$8perhouse,orabout.01percentofthecostofan$80,000house,atatimewhenbuildingprofitshadreached17percent.Somecompaniesregularlydomoreresearchthantheyarerequiredtodobylegislation,oftenoutofinterestasmuchastoensurethattherewillbenoimpacts.
Inshort,weneedtoconsidertheeffectsofsuchlegislationonthegeneralpublicaswellasontheresourceitself,oronprofessionalinterests.Whatwillanewlawsayaboutownershipofarchaeologicalspecimens?Whatshouldhappentochancediscoveries?Willsurfacecollectionbeexplicitlyforbidden,partiallycontrolled,orignored?Willavocationalistshaveaclearrole?WillNativegroups?TheCanadiangovernmentisundoubtedlythinkingcarefullyabouthowtoinstitutemechanismstodealwithprivateandgovernmentdevelopers,toefficientlyprocessreviews,issueassessmentrequirements,overseefieldwork,receivereports,andallowdevelopment,orrequiremitigation,andclosefiles.Itishopefullyalsoawarethatthesemechanismswillrequiretheirownartifactandrecordscurationsystems.Itmustalsorealizethattheprivatebusinesscommunity,particularlyarchaeologicalconsulantsandthetravelindustry,wouldbenefitfromafirmlegislativebase.
ProspectsfortheCanadianHeritageFuture
ProvincialgovernmentsbyandlargearedoingtheirjobinsupportingarchaeologyinCanada,andthefederalgovernmentismakingmovestoshowthatitistryingtocatchup.IfonelooksaroundatthemajorplayersinCanadianarchaeology,though,theuniversitiescouldsurelybedoingmoretoeducatetheirstudentsaboutresourcemanagement.HowmanyCanadiananthropologyorarchaeologydepartmentsteachtheessentialsofculturalresourcemanagement,eventograduatestudents,thosewhowillneedsuchknowledgethemost?Howmany
studentsareevenawareofthefederalpolicyreviewnowinprocess,orevenhavethefaintestideaofwhyfederallegis-
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lationisnecessary?Itisobviousthatresourcemanagementarchaeologyisstillperceivedwidelyintheuniversitiesasastigmabestignored,orseensolelyasasourceofsummerincomeamongfacultyandstudentsalike.
ThefederalgovernmentofCanadaappearstobeovercominginertiaandgettingthelegislativeballrollingandonecanhopethatCanadahaslearnedmuchfromtheexperiencesofitsownprovincesandothercountries.AppropriatelegislationforCanadawouldcombineelementsoftheU.S.Moss-Bennettbill3,NationalHistoricPreservationAct4,ArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct5andAbandoned
3.TheArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974(PublicLaw[P.L.]93-291,16U.S.Code[U.S.C.]469)amendedtheReservoirSalvageActof1960andrequiresfederalagenciestonotifytheSecretaryoftheInterioriftheythinkanagency-authorizedconstructionprojectwillaffectarchaeologicalresources;toconservethoseresources,eitherthemselvesorwiththeassistanceofthesecretary;andtouseupto1percentperprojectofauthorizedprojectfundstoconductsuchconservationefforts.Subsequently,Sec.208oftheNationalHistoricReservationActAmendmentsof1980(P.L.96-515)authorizedamechanismforexceedingthat1percentlimit.Fundsforsecretarialassistancewereauthorizedinthe1974legislationbuthaveneverbeenappropriatedbytheU.S.Congress.4.TheNationalHistoricPreservationActof1966asamended(16U.S.C.470;seeFowler,thisvolume)authorizedaNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces(Register)andAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation(Council).ItrequiresthatU.S.federalagenciesinventorytheirlandsandnominatealleligiblepropertiestotheRegisterandexercisecautioninmanagingallpropertiesthatmightbeeligiblefortheRegister,andconsultwiththeCouncilaboutproposedagency-authorizedundertakingsthatmightimpactpropertiesontheRegisteroreligibleforinclusion."Historicproperties"aredefinedassignificantarchaeological,architectural,engineered,landscaped,ortraditionalculturalsitesthatareatleastfiftyyearsoldorareofexceptionalsignificance.
5.TheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979asamended(16U.S.C.470aa-mm)requirespermitsforremovalofarchaeologicalresourcesgreaterthanonehundredyearsoldfromU.S.federalortriballands,authorizescriminalandcivilpenaltiesforunpermittedremovalofsuchmaterial,andrequiresU.S.federalland-managingagenciestoestablisharchaeologicalpublicawarenessprograms.
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ShipwreckAct6,withasimilarbutstrongerabsoluteabilitytocompelCanadianfederalandfederallyfundedagenciestoundertakeresourcemanagementstudiesandconservationefforts.Canada'sexperiencewithNativeinterestsandpastcooperationwithNativesinarchaeologyhavebeengood,thoughithasbeenpointedoutrecentlythatPan-NativismmayresultinacallforNativeownershipofallNorthAmericanarchaeologicalartifactsofaboriginalorigin7.Thisperspective,onethatisnotuniversaltoNativepeoples,failstorecognizethatmostarchaeologistsdonotwanttoowntheartifacts,butsimplytohaveaccesstothem.Professionalarchaeologistsvaluenottheobjectsthemselves,buttheknowledgewhichisgainedfromtheirstudy,theircontext,theirmeaning.Archaeologistscertainlydonotwishtopreventtheexistenceofotherpointsofview,butdowantthefreedomtoexpresstheirownperspectives.
IhavebeentoldthattheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAct(NAFTA),whichwasrecentlyenactedinthespiritofgreatcooperationbetweenourtwocountries,didnotoccasionanyamendmentstotheCulturalPropertyExportandImportAct.Thatisperceived,IbelievegenerallyamongCanadianarchaeologists,asanerrorwithpotentialdetrimenttoCanadian,aswellasAmerican,heritage.EchoingRobertMcGhee'srequesttotheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology(McGhee1989a),Isupportafirmpositionagainstarchaeologicalfreetrade.
CanadahassucceededinhavingafairshareofUNESCOWorldHeritageSitesdesignated,threeofwhicharearchaeological:Head-Smashed-InBuffaloJumpinAlberta,NinstintsontheQueenCharlotteIslands,andL'AnseAuxMeadowsinNewfoundland.Alberta'ssuccessfuldevelopmentofHead-
6.TheAbandonedShipwreckActof1987(43U.S.C.2101-2106)definesthelegalstatusofabandonedshipwrecksashistoricpropertiesownedbytheU.S.federalorstatelegalentityonwhosesubmergedlandsthewreck
isembedded.7.IntheUnitedStates,theNativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationActof1990(25U.S.C.3001-3013,18U.S.C.1170)assignsownershipofU.S.Indian,NativeAlaskan,andNativeHawaiianhumanremains,associatedfuneraryobjects,anditemsofculturalpatrimonyfrompublicandIndianlandstorelatedNatives.
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Smashed-InandtheTyrrellMuseumofPalaeontologyandtheQueen'sdedicationofWanuskewinParkinSaskatoon,alongwiththeopeningoftheCanadianMuseumofCivilization,createawideawarenessofhistoric,heritage,andarchaeologicalissues.TheCanadiangovernmentmustsurelyrealizethatitcannotaffordnottoenactpowerfularchaeologicallegislation,forthisistheonlywayitcandeveloptheeconomicpotentialthatculturaltourismisknowntohave.ThefutureofaCanadiannationalarchaeologicalpublictrustisherenow(Brucketal.1986),andthemoodshouldbecapitalizedupon,sinceapubliclogicmaynotbecreatedagainsoeasily,norperhapssowell.
Postscript,March1994
InterventionsbyandconsultationswithCanadianAboriginalpeoplesledtoreexaminationoftheproposedfederalarchaeologylegislation,particularlysectionsdealingwithownership(forexample,seeDunn1991).WiththesupportoftheArchaeologicalResourceManagementBranch,thenoftheCanadianDepartmentofCommunications,nowwiththeDepartmentofCanadianHeritage,theCanadianArchaeologicalAssociationformedtheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociationAboriginalHeritageCommitteewithathree-yearmandate(1992/931994/95)toundertakenationwideconsultationwithFirstNationsPeoples.ThestatusoftheproposedfederalCanadianarchaeologicallegislationasof1992issummarizedinByrne(1992).
Acknowledgments
MythankstoBillByrneandJackIvesforcomments,althoughtheideasexpressedhereinareentirelymyresponsibility.RuthannKnudsongratefullyprovideddetailsconcerningU.S.legislation.
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ReferencesCited
AlbertaDepartmentofCultureandMulticulturalism.(ADCM)
1987HistoricalResourcesAct.Queen'sPrinter,Edmonton.
Bruck,P.A.,I.Taylor,V.Blundell,R.Phillips,andothers.
1986ArchaeologyandtheCanadianPublics.TheCentreforCommunication,CultureandSociety.CarletonUniversity,Ottawa.
Byrne,W.J.
1988LettertoCharlesMcGee,DirectorGeneral,HeritagePolicyandProgrammes,DepartmentofCommunications,Ottawa.CAANewsletter8(2):16-19.
1992StatusofFederalArchaeologyLegislation.CAANewsletter12(1)7-8.
CanadianArchaeologicalAssociation(CAA)
1985TheCulturalPropertyExportandImportActandCanadianArchaeology:ADiscussionPaper.Ms.distributedtoCAAmembership.CAAArchives,ArchaeologicalSurvey,ProvincialMuseumofAlberta,Edmonton.
1986TheNeedforCanadianLegislationtoProtectandManageHeritageResourcesonFederalLands.CAANewsletter6(1):1-8.
DepartmentofCommunications
1988FederalArchaeologicalHeritage.ProtectionandManagement,ADiscussionPaper.GovernmentofCanada,Ottawa.
DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairs
1967DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairsDevelopmentAct.GovernmentofCanada,Ottawa.
Donahue,P.
1987Comments.InRescueArchaeology,editedbyR.L.Wilson,pp.165-166.SouthernMethodistUniversityPress,Dallas.
Dunn,M.
1991ANationalOverviewoftheDepartmentofCommunicationsConsultationwithAboriginalPeoplesonCanadianArchaeologicalHeritage.CanadianDepartmentofCommunications,Ottawa.
EnvironmentConservationAuthority(ECA)
1972TheConservationofHistoricalandArchaeologicalResourcesinAlberta.EnvironmentConservationAuthority,Edmonton,Alberta.
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Masse,M.
1986TheSpeechbytheHonourableMarcelMasse,M.P.forFrontenac,MinisterofCommunications,attheAnnualConferenceoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation,Toronto,April26,1986.CAANewsletter6(2):19-22.
McGee,C.
1989NotesforaSpeechbyCharlesMcGee,DirectorGeneral,MuseumsandHeritage,DepartmentofCommunications,tothe22ndAnnualConferenceoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation(CAA),May13,1989,Fredericton,NewBrunswick.Ms.,InformationServices,CanadianDepartmentofCommunications,Ottawa,distributedtoCAAmembership.
McGhee,R.
1989aLettertoDenaDincauze,President,SocietyforAmericanArchaeology.CanadianArchaeologicalAssociationArchives,ArchaeologicalSurvey,ProvincialMuseumofAlberta,Edmonton.
1989bWhoOwnsBeringia?Paperpresentedtothe22ndAnnualMeetingoftheCanadianArchaeologicalAssociation,Fredericton,NewBrunswick.CanadianJournalofArchaeology.13:13-20.
YukonHeritageBranch
1989ManagingtheYukon'sArchaeologicalResources:TowardsanArchaeologyPolicyfortheNorth.Aresponseto"FederalArchaeologicalHeritageProtectionandManagement:ADiscussionPaper."HeritageBranch,DepartmentofTourism,GovernmentoftheYukon,Whitehorse.
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AnEnvironmentOutofBalanceDennisC.LeMaster
Publicpolicyforarchaeologicalresourcesisconsideredusingamosaicanalogy.Subsequently,fiveprocessesinwhichpublicpolicyisformulatedinthefederalgovernmentareidentifiedanddescribed.UsebytheReaganadministrationoftheappropriationsprocessinformulatingpublicpolicyisfeatured.ApessimisticviewofthepossibleapplicationofthePublicTrustDoctrineinresolvingconflictsoverarchaeologicalresourcesisofferedinclosing.
NaturalresourcemanagementatthefederallevelintheUnitedStatesismainlydeterminedbythepoliciesunderwhichitoperates,andtheyarethesumoftheprinciples,bothimpliedandexpressed,containedinahostofnaturalresourcelaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,presidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsacts.
Naturalresourcepolicyiscontinuallyevolving,usuallyincrementally,throughacomplexinteractionofeconomic,political,andothersocialforces,inthecontextofexistingscientificknowledgeandtechnology.Conflictisafrequentfeatureofchangeinnaturalresourcepolicy,andasaresult,changesinpolicytendtobeacceptedinstagesbythepeopleandgroupstheyaffect.
Afterreviewinglaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,presidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsactsdealingwitharchaeologicalresources,Iamconfidenttheforegoingdescriptivestatementsonnaturalresourcepolicyalsoapplytoarchaeologicalresourcepolicy,andinthesamewaythatnaturalresourcepolicyaffectsnaturalresourcemanagement,archaeological
resourcepolicyaffectsarchaeologicalresourcemanagement.
Soconsiderpublicpolicyforarchaeologicalresourcesasamosaicofpolicystatementscontainedinlaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,recentpresidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsacts,withthedifferenthuesindicatingtherelativeimportanceofthestatements.Oncethat
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isdone,considerthemosaicevolvingsometimesslowly,sometimesrapidly,likeachild'skaleidoscope.Havingcompletedthisexercise,onemayhaveabetterappreciationofthecontextandcomplexity,themetesandbounds,ofpublicpolicyasitconcernsarchaeologicalresources.
PublicPolicyProcesses
Inarepresentativedemocracycharacterizedbyseparationofpowersandfederalism,publicpolicyisformulatedinseveralestablished,formalprocesses.TherearefivesuchprocessesintheUnitedStates,atleastoneineachofthethreebranchesofgovernment.Mostfamiliaristheauthorizingprocesstheprocessbywhichlawsaremadeandfederalprogramsestablishedlocatedinthelegislativebranch,Congress.Thereisnoequivocationhere.ArticleIoftheConstitutionisclear:AlllegislativepowersarevestedintheCongress.Publicpolicyisalsoformulatedinthelegalprocessthroughcourtdecisions.Ofcourse,theorganizationalsitusofthisprocessisthejudicialbranch.Lessfamiliar,however,arethethreeremainingprocessesinwhichpublicpolicyisformulated,namely:therule-makingprocess,theprocessbywhichthepresident'sannualbudgetrequestisdevelopedandprepared,andthecongressionalappropriationsprocess.Thefirsttwoarelocatedintheexecutivebranchandthelatterinthelegislativebranch.Rulescanbedefinedasexecutivebranchagencystatementsdesignedtoimplement,interpret,orprescribelawortodescribetheorganization,procedure,orpracticerequirementsoftheagency.
Allfiveprocesseshavemultipledecisionpoints.Citizenscanparticipateinatleastthreeofthemtheauthorizingprocess,therule-makingprocess,andtheappropriationsprocess.Andtheyoftendo,sometimesalone,moreofteninorthroughgroups.Theywritelettersandstatementsfortherecordandappearaswitnessesduringpublic
hearingsintheauthorizingandappropriationsprocesses.Moreactivelyengagedcitizensmayevenparticipateinsomeofthebargainingandcoalition
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buildingthatoftenaccompaniescongressionalconsiderationoflegislation.Intherule-makingprocess,interestedcitizenscansubmitwrittenviewsonarulewithinastipulatedtimeperiod,andtheymayhavetheopportunitytopresentanoralargument.Citizensalsohaveaccesstothelegalprocess.Theycansue,butusuallytodosotheymusthave''standing,"asufficientstakeinajusticiablecontroversytoobtainjudicialresolution.Forexample,tosuethefederalgovernmentforsomeactiononitspart,onehastoshowinjury,economicorotherwise,forthecourttobewillingtoconsiderthesuit.Theprocessusedindevelopingandpreparingthepresident'sannualbudgetrequesttoCongressistheonlyprocessofthefivewhichisinaccessibletothepublic.Actually,"inaccessible"isprobablytoostrongacharacterization.Afterall,presidentialcandidatesandtheirpoliciesaresubjecttopublicscrutinyandvotingeveryfouryears.
TheenvironmentinwhichpublicpolicyisformulatedintheUnitedStatesisincrediblyopenandaccessible,andIwouldencourageyoutoparticipate.Therearesofewwhofeelstronglyaboutarchaeologicalresources.Thereisalargeandgrowingthreatofhugeenvironmentaldisastersoccurringonourplanet,dueinlargeparttoexcessivehumanpopulationgrowth,andIthinkarchaeologistshavesomeimportantscientificevidencetoofferpolicymakersonwhathappenswhenahumanpopulationgrowsbeyondthatwhichitsenvironmentandtechnologiescansustain.
Havingencouragedparticipation,Ishouldalsocautionthatappearancesandrealityaresometimesverydifferentinpublicpolicy.Forexample,oneofthemosteffectivestrategiesoftheReaganadministrationwastoformulatepolicyinthedevelopmentandpreparationofthepresident'sbudgetrequestandthecongressionalappropriationsprocessandtoavoidtheauthorizingprocess.WhenhewasdirectoroftheOfficeofManagementandBudget,DavidStockmanfrequentlyspokeof"zeroingoutaprogram,"understanding
verywellthataprogramwithoutfundingiseffectivelynoprogramatallandthatthistechniquewasaneasywaybywhichanadministrationcanriditselfofaprogramatoddswithadministrationpolicy.
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PolicyFormulationintheBudgetingProcess
DuringtheU.S.presidentialcampaignof1980,RonaldReaganpromisedtocutbothtaxesandnon-defensespending,increasedefensespending,andbalancethebudget.TaxeswerecutsubstantiallybytheKemp-RothTaxBill(moreaccurately,theEconomicRecoveryTaxActof1981).Sowasnon-defensespending.Butgiventhesizeofthetaxcutandtheincreaseindefensespending,aswellasthemagnitudeofoutlaysassociatedwithentitlementprograms,thefederalbudgetcouldnotbebroughtintobalance,evenwithrepeatedmajorcutsinvariousareasofnon-defensespending.Theresultwasunprecedenteddeficits,ahuge(2.5times)increaseinthefederaldebt,andarelativedoublingofinterestpaymentsbythefederalgovernmenttoserviceitsdebt.
ThesechangesaresummarizedinTable1,whichcontainsdataonthepercentagedistributionofbudgetoutlayswithrespecttothefourlargestbudgetsuperfunctionsofthefederalgovernmentforfiscalyears1977through1988.Twomajortrendsareevidentbeginninginfiscalyear1980.First,bothnationaldefenseandnetinterestpaymentsincreaseasapercentageoftotaloutlays.Second,bothhumanresourcesandphysicalresourcesdecreaseuntilfiscalyear1987,inthecaseoftheformer,andfiscalyear1988inthecaseofthelatter.
Theeffectsofthesepolicieswereadversetofederalnaturalresourceandenvironmentalprograms."Naturalresourcesandenvironment"isoneofthe21functionalcategoriesofthefederalbudget,aswellasoneoffivecomponentsofthe"physicalresources"superfunction.DataonthenaturalresourcesandenvironmentfunctionarecontainedinTable2forfiscalyears1977through1988.Thetrendisobvious.Outlaysfornaturalresourcesandtheenvironmentdeclinedasapercentageofthetotal.Theyevendeclinedinnominaldollarsforfiscalyears1981and1984.Theeffectswereadverseto
archaeologicalresources,formostoftheprogramstoprotectthemareincludedinthenaturalresourcesandenvironmentfunction.
Thesameconclusioncanbereachedbyexaminingbudgetauthoritycongressionalauthoritygivenafederalagencytoenterintocommitmentsthatresultinspendingandoutlays
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Table1.OutlaysbySuperfunctionsasaPercentageofTotalOutlays,FY1977-1988.Year National
DefenseHuman
ResourcesPhysicalResources
NetInterest
1977 23.8 54.2 10.0 7.31978 22.8 52.8 11.5 7.71979 23.1 53.1 10.7 8.51980 22.7 53.0 11.2 8.91981 23.2 53.4 10.5 10.11982 24.9 52.1 8.3 11.41983 26.0 52.7 7.1 11.11984 26.7 50.7 6.8 13.01985 26.7 49.9 6.0 13.71986 27.6 48.6 5.9 13.71987 28.1 50.0 5.5 13.81988 27.3 50.1 6.4 14.3Source:OfficeofManagementandBudget.1986HistoricalTables:BudgetoftheUnitedStatesGovernment.FY1987,Table3.2.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington.
1.Thesuperfunctions"nationaldefense"and"netinterest"arethesameasthefunctionsofthesametitles.Thesuperfunction"humanresources"isthesumofthefollowingfunctions:education,training,employment,andsocialservices;health;socialsecurityandmedicare;incomesecurity;veteransbenefitsandservices.Thesuperfunction"physicalresources"isthesumofthefollowingfunctions:energy,naturalresourcesandenvironment,commerceandhousingcredit,transportation,andcommunityandregionaldevelopment.
fortheDepartmentoftheInteriorforfiscalyears1977through1988,ascontainedinTable3.Bothbudgetauthorityandoutlaysdeclinedasapercentageoftotalbudgetauthorityandoutlays.TheDepartmenthashadrelativelylessmoneythanitdidinthe1970stocarryoutits
responsibilities,anditsconsiderableresponsibilitieswithregardtoarchaeologicalresourcesareamongthem.
Littlechangeislikelyintheforeseeablefutureforaturnaroundoffundingforthenaturalresourcesandenvironmentfunctionuntilthesizeofthedebtisreducedandthereismore"slack"inthebudget,"slack"inthesensethattherelativesizeofinterestpaymentshasdeclinedandhighpriorityprogramshavereceivedsignificantfundingincreases.
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Table2.OutlaysoftheNaturalResourcesandEnvironmentalFunction,FY1977-1988.Year MillionsofDollars PercentofTotalOutlays1977 10,032 2.51978 10,983 2.41979 12,135 2.41980 13,858 2.41981 13,568 2.01982 12,998 1.71983 12,672 1.61984 12,593 1.51985 13,357 1.41986 13,639 1.21987 13,363 1.31988 14,606 1.4
Source:OfficeofManagementandBudget.1986Tables:BudgetoftheUnitedStatesGovernment,FY1987,Table3.1.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington.
Table3.BudgetAuthorityandOutlaysfortheDepartmentoftheInterior,FY1977-1988.FiscalYear
BudgetAuthority1
PercentofTotalBudgetAuthority
TotalOutlays1
PercentofOutlays
1977 3,741 .8 3,216 .81978 4,643 .9 3,878 .81979 4,770 .8 4,174 .81980 4,678 .7 4,477 .81981 4,408 .6 4,461 .71982 3,810 .5 3,948 .51983 4,956 .6 4,552 .61984 4,917 .5 4,947 .61985 5,016 .5 4,825 .51986 4,589 .4 4,789 .5
1987 5,279 .5 5,050 .51988 5,246 .4 5,147 .5Source:OfficeofManagementandBudget.1989HistoricalTables:BudgetoftheUnitedStatesGovernment.FY1990,Tables4.1,4.2,5.2,5.3.GovernmentPrintingOffice,Washington.
1.Millionsofdollars.
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PublicTrustDoctrine
Havingofferedthisrathergloomyprediction,ImightaswellofferanotheroneontheapplicationofthePublicTrustDoctrineasasolutiontoconflictsbetweenpublicandprivateuseofnaturalresourcesandinfederalpubliclandlaw.
ProfessorJosephL.Sax(1970)proposedinaseminallawreviewarticlethatthedoctrinebeappliedtonaturalresources.Hisintentwastoencouragegreateruseofthelegalprocessinformulatingpublicpolicyonnaturalresources,andheenvisionedthePublicTrustDoctrineasameanstodoso.Thisdoctrineisbasedontheideathatpublicaccesstooruseofsomeresourcesissufficientlyfundamentalandimportantthatthecourtsmustusegovernmentalactiontoprotectagainsttheirexpropriationbyaprivateindividualorgroup.Apublictrustproblemtypicallyariseswhentheinterestsofadiffusemajorityaremadesubservienttotheinterestsofaconcertedminorityasaresultofadecisionbyalegislativeoradministrativebodyofgovernment.Threeelementsneedtobepresent:(1)theinterestsofadiffusemajority;(2)theinterestsofaconcertedminority;and(3)someformofgovernmentalaction.Inotherwords,thePublicTrustDoctrineisverymuchamatterofcauseandeffectwiththeagentofthecausebeinggovernmentandtheeffectbeingoneinwhicharecognizedpublicinterestismadesubservienttoaprivateinterest.
Somemembersoftheconservationcommunitybelievethedoctrineiscapableofamuchbroaderapplication,including,attheextreme,addressingtraditionalconflictsbetweenpublicandprivateuseofnaturalresources.Suchabeliefseemstobemisguided.ApplicationofthePublicTrustDoctrinehasbeennarrowhistorically.Grantedthatithasbeenmorebroadlyusedinrecentyears,itstillremainsaverymeasuredandcarefullydelineateddoctrine.Thedoctrinedoesnot,asProfessorCharlesF.Wilkinsonputsit,"allowjudgestoactasroving
ambassadorsonbehalfofa`public'consistingmainlyofenvironmentalists"(Wilkinson1980).Nor,ifthedoctrinewereappliedtoarchaeologicalresources,woulditextendsuchpermissiontoarchaeologists.Iftheprincipalproblemconcerningarchaeologicalresourcesistheirprotectiononprivatelands,
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thePublicTrustDoctrinewouldprovidelittlesuccor.For,if,asWilkinsonwrote,"Thefederalpubliclandsareattheouterreachesofthepublictrustdoctrine,"thenprivatelandshavetobebeyondit.
Conclusion
Nevertheless,theissueoftheapplicabilityofthePublicTrustDoctrineseemsirrelevanttothelargerone,whichistheprotectionandconservationofarchaeologicalresources.Certainly,thereisanoverridingpublicinterestintheseresources;certainly,governmentasanagentofthepublichasanimportantresponsibilityfortheseresources.Giventhelevelofhumandevelopmentactivitiesintheworld,whichwillcontinuetogrowashumanpopulationgrows,theneedsinarchaeologicalresourcemanagementoverwhelmthemeansavailableforimplementingexistingpoliciesiftheydonotoverwhelmtheverypoliciesthemselves.Thisisthelegalenvironment,anditisclearlyoutofbalancewiththeneed.Thechallengeofcorrectingthisisbothimmediateandawesome.
ReferencesCited
Sax,J.L.
1970ThePublicTrustDoctrineinNaturalResourcesLaw:EffectiveJudicialIntervention.MichiganLawReview68:471-566.
Wilkinson,C.F.
1980ThePublicTrustDoctrineinPublicLandLaw.U.C.DavisLawReview14:269-316.
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VPUBLICEDUCATIONThefollowingpapersdealwitheducatingvarioussegmentsofthepublicaboutarchaeology.Thecollectivemessagecontainedinthesearticlesisthatthereareconstituenciesorpotentialconstituenciesthatneedtobewonovertoseethatourcommonhumanheritageisprotectedandusedwiselybythearchaeologicalcommunityforourmutualbenefit.McManamonandKnudsondescribethesourcesofwidelydistributedarchaeologicalinformationavailablefromU.S.governmentsources,andGallantdescribespublicmediainvolvementwitharchaeologicalinformationintheUnitedStates.Devinediscussespublicschoolcurriculathatdealwitharchaeology,andBensediscussespublic-privatepartnershipsdevelopedinFloridatoconserveprehistoricandhistoricarchaeology.
FirstAmericansresourcesaresometimesspectacular,suchasthe9-inch-longClovisbifacesfromtheRicheycacheinWashingtonState,buttheyareoftenundistinguishedpaleoenvironmentalresourcessuchaspollencoresfrompeatbogsandlakebeds,paleosols,orinsects.AveragecitizensinNorthandSouthAmericaandnortheasternAsiahaveamajorpartinprotectingalloftheseresources,throughtheirsupportoflaws,governmentprograms,museums,andfieldandlaboratoryresearch,andtheirinvolvementinlanduseplansandprograms.Theyneedtounderstandwhatarchae-
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ologyandpaleoenvironmentalresourcesare,andtheconservationneedsofthoseresources.ThesepapersdiscusswaysofeducatingthatpublicaboutFirstAmericansandotherarchaeologicalresources.Educationisacriticalelementinwisestewardshipofapublictrust.
BENNIEC.KEELRUTHANNKNUDSON
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PublicArchaeologicalInformationfromU.S.GovernmentSourcesFrancisP.McManamon&RuthannKnudson
InformationaboutpublicarchaeologyintheUnitedStatesisavailablefromvariousgovernmentsources,andmuchofthisisrelevanttoFirstAmericansresearch.Actualfieldsurveyorexcavationreports,laboratoryanalyticaldata,andevenoccasionalsyntheses,whensupportedbyfederalland-managingagencies,areoftenavailableatnocost.Inaddition,thereareseveralnationalarchaeologicalinformationexchangeeffortsinplaceorbeingdeveloped,includingspecialpublications,clearinghouses,technicalinformationseries,trainingprograms,andonlinedatabases.
NationalArchaeologyProgramInformationExchange
IntheUnitedStates,theSecretaryoftheInteriorisresponsibleforprovidingleadershipandcoordinationforallfederalarchaeologicalactivities.Over25federalagenciesparticipateinthefederalarcheologyprogram,butfewproducepublicinformationabouthowtomanagearchaeologicalresourcesandwhatspecificarchaeologicalinformationisavailablefromwhichagencies.Tofulfilltheseservices,theSecretaryoftheInteriorhasdelegatedfederalarchaeologicalleadershipandcoordinationresponsibilitytotheNationalParkService(NPS)throughtheDepartmentalConsultingArchaeologist(DCA).TheNPSArcheologicalAssistanceDivision(AAD),inWashington,D.C.,providesstaffsupportfortheDCAandarchaeologistsinfiveNPSregionalofficesalsotakepartintheseactivities.TogethertheseelementsformtheNPSArcheologi-
Thispaperisadaptedfromapaperentitled"PublicInformationforArcheologyfromGovernmentSources,"presentedbyGeorgeS.Smith,FrancisP.McManamon,andRichardC.WaldbauerattheFirstWorldSummitConferenceonthePeoplingoftheAmericas,1989.
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calAssistanceProgram(AAP).TheAAPprovidesarchaeologicalcoordinationandleadershiponbehalfoftheSecretaryandimplementsnationalarchaeologicalgoalsandobjectiveswithotherinternational,federal,tribal,state,andlocalagenciesandtheprivatesector.Becausetheeffectivesharingofinformationissuchanimportantaspectofefficientarchaeologicalresourceprotection,interpretation,andmanagement,theAAPhasimplementedanumberofinformationexchangeeffortsincludingspecialpublications,clearinghouses,technicalinformationseries,trainingprograms,anddatabases(McManamonetal.1990).
Aspecial36-pageissueoftheNPS'sCRMBulletin(nowsimplytitledCRM)on"ArcheologyandtheFederalGovernment"waspublishedinJuly1988andupdatedin1994(DeCarloetal.1994).Itprovidesthemostcomprehensivesummaryavailableofarchaeologicalprogramsinvariousfederalagencies,alongwithasummaryofthefederalstatutesthataffectarchaeologicalpreservationandthumbnailsketchesofseveralfederalarchaeologicalprojects.ThispublicationdescribesthebasisforanddiversityofU.S.federalarchaeologyandprovidessummariesofpositivehighlights.
TheListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms(LEAP)clearinghouseisacomputerizeddatabaseidentifyingarchaeologicalpubliceducationeffortsaroundtheUnitedStates.InformationissolicitedbyAADfromfederalagencies,butalsofromtribal,state,local,andprivateorganizations.LEAPcontainsinformationaboutprojectsorprogramstoprotectarchaeologicalresourcesandeducatethepublicaboutthoseresources,includingavocationalfieldandlaboratorywork,museumdisplaysandexhibits;andbrochures,posters,radioandtelevisioncoverage,andfilms/video/audiosaboutarchaeology.Reportsonclearinghouseinformationreceivedin1987through1989(Knoll1990),and1990through1992(Knoll1993)havebeenpublished.
Tofostercommunicationamongarchaeologistsinfederalregional,tribal,state,orlocalagencyofficesandwiththeacademicandinternationalcommunities,theFederalArcheologyReport(FAR)wasdevelopedbytheAAPin1988.Thisisaquarterlypublication,andin1994itwasdistributedatno
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chargetonearlyeightthousandindividuals,includinginternationalindividualsandagencies.InformationrelatedtoFirstAmericansresearchisoccasionallymentioned,butprobablyofgreaterimportancetoFirstAmericansscholarsisitsinformationaboutpublicarchaeologicalprogramsthataffectFirstAmericansresources.
In1986,theAADinitiatedtheArchaeologicalAssistanceStudieswithareportonmethodsandresultsofcostanalysisforarchaeologicalinvestigations.Asecondstudy,thisoneonarchaeologicaleducationprograms,waspublishedin1991.Since1988,theAADhasproducedaseriesofArchaeologicalAssistanceTechnicalBriefsonavarietyoftopics:sitestabilizationwithfilterfabricorrevegetation,statearchaeologyweeks,archaeologyintheNationalHistoricLandmarksprogram,siteprotectionbyburial,astatearchaeologicalregistryprograminvolvingprivatelandowners,thefederalcontractingprocess,archaeologicalvolunteers,anationalsurveyofstatearchaeologicalprotectionlaws,theDCApeerreviewprocess,andthecivilprosecutionprocessundertheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct(ARPA).
TheAADalsodistributeswithoutchargefederalU.S.archaeologicallaws,regulations,andguidelines.
In1984,theU.S.CongressprovidedfundstotheNPStoimprovethecoordinationoffederalarchaeologicalactivities.OneofthemaineffortstoaccomplishthisledtothedevelopmentoftheNationalArcheologicalDatabase(NADB)-Network(Canouts1991,1992),inlargemeasureinresponsetoanearlierCongressionalreport(U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice1981)citingthecriticalneedforincreasedefficiencyinfederalarchaeologicalactivities.NADBisa''databaseofdatabases,"aninterrelatedsetofpubliclyavailabledatamodules.In1994NADB-ReportsandNADB-NAGPRAwereonline,andNADB-PermitsandNADB-Mapswereplannedforadditionin1995-96.
NADB-Reportsisexpectedby1995toincludeover250,000citationsofreportsofU.S.archaeologicalwork,mostofthoseinvestigationshavingbeendoneonfederallandsoraspartoffederallyassistedlanddevelopment.Almostallofthesereportsarepartofthe"greyliterature"ofminimallydistributedreportsthatoftenincludesubstantivedataaboutFirstAmeri-
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cansaswellasotherarchaeologicalresources.Occasionallythereferenceisforareportofwhichonlyasinglecopywasfiledwiththeland-managingagency.NADB-Reportscontainsthefollowinginformation:bibliographicreference(author,year,titleofpublication),locationwherethereportisonfile,summaryofthereportcontent(geographicallocationoftheworkreported,typeofworkperformed,federalagencyinvolved,andkeywordsaboutvariousaspectsofthereport).ArchaeologistsinAAPregionaloffices(Philadelphia,Denver,Atlanta,SanFrancisco,andAnchorage)serveascoordinatorstoestablishpartnershipsforcontinueddataentryandrecordsmaintenance.NADB-Reportsbecameanationallyaggregatedreportsdatabaseaccessiblein1992,withonlinesupportfromtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACOE).ThisisacriticalsourceofinformationaboutFirstAmericansresources.Providingaccesstothedatabasethrougharead-onlysubscriptionbyusersisbeingevaluated,andinternationaltechnologytransferopportunitiesarebeinginvestigated.InformationaboutonlineaccesstotheNADB-NetworkisavailablefromAAD,NationalNADBCoordinator.
TheAADmaintainsaclearinghouseoncasesofarchaeologicallootingintheUnitedStates(LOOT:ListingofOutlawTreachery),withsummaryinformationaboutprosecutionsofindividualswhohavelootedorvandalizedarchaeologicalsites.Prosecutionsmaybecarriedoutunderavarietyoffederal,tribal,state,andlocalstatutes.Instancesofongoinginvestigations,trials,orappealsarenotincludedintheLOOTrecorduntilcasesarelegallyresolvedandinformationispubliclyavailable.Approximately75casesarelistedinLOOTatpresent,andunfortunatelynewcasesarecontinuallybeingaddedtothedatabase.AtpresentLOOTrecordscanbeaccessedonlywiththeassistanceofanAADarchaeologist.
FederalArcheology:TheCurrentProgram(Keeletal.1989)isthefirstpublicationtoprovideusefulquantitativesummaryinformation
aboutfederalarchaeologicalactivities.Itusesinformationfrom1985and1986surveysoffederalagenciestodescribethekindsofarchaeologicalactivitiesundertakenaspartofthenationalprogram,thereasonsthoseactivitieshavebeenundertaken,theresultsofthoseactivities(atleastinterms
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ofsitesidentifiedandevaluatedandareasinvestigated),andavarietyofothertopics.Itbegantheefforttosummarizeinformationaboutthearchaeologicalresourcebaseonfederallands.Informationonthe1987federalarchaeologyprogramwaspublishedin1993(McManamonetal.1993),anddataandcomparativeanalysesfrom1988through1990activities(Knudsonetal.forthcoming)areinadraftreportcurrentlyunderreview.The1991-92U.S.federalarchaeologicalprogramisalsounderreviewandexpectedtobepublishedinthenearfuture.EachoftheseisavailablethroughtheAAD.WhilethesereportsdonothavemuchinformationspecifictoFirstAmericansresources,theydoprovideoverviewsoftheU.S.federalprograminwhichmuchFirstAmericansresearchisconducted(seeBonnichsenetal.,thisvolume).
FederalArchaeologyFieldandLaboratoryReports
IntheUnitedStates,millionsofdollarsofarchaeologicalexcavation,analysis,andreportingisdoneonfederallands,oronlandsaffectedbyfederallyfunded,authorized,orlicenseddevelopmentprojects.Reportsofthisworkgenerallyareproducedinrelativelylimitedquantities,butoftenareavailablefromthesponsoringagency,e.g.,USACOE,BureauofLandManagement,BureauofReclamation,NPS,ForestService,FishandWildlifeService,TennesseeValleyAuthority,DepartmentofTransportation.Withsuchalimiteddistribution,thesereportsarepartofthe"greyliterature"forwhichNADB-Reports(describedabove)wasdeveloped.
OtherSourcesofPublicInformation
TheNPSCulturalResourcesManagementBibliography(CRBIB)consistsprimarilyofresearchreportsincludingtechnologyandtechniquesthataddressculturalresourceswithinunitsoftheNationalParkSysteminthefieldsofhistory,historicarchitecture,ethnology,
archaeology,andcuration.Inaddition,it
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includesNPSplanningdocuments(GeneralManagementPlans,DevelopmentConceptPlans,InterpretativeProspectuses,etc.)aswellasjournalarticles,theses,anddissertationswhentheydealspecificallywiththeculturalresourcesofaparticularpark.TheCRBIBdoesnotcontainnewspaperclippings,populararticles,orunpublishedarchivalsources(diaries,fieldnotes,correspondence,etc).Certaininformationmayberestrictedinordertoprotectculturalresources.PlansaretolinkthiswithNADB-Reports.CRBIBprobablyisofusetoFirstAmericansscholars,particularlythoseinterestedinareasencompassedbyNationalParkunits.
TheNPSisdevelopingacomputerizedCulturalSitesInventory(CSI),aninventoryofprehistoricandhistoricarchaeologicalresourcesinNPSunits.Theinventorywillcontainstandardizedresourcesinformationforuseinpark,regional,andWashingtonofficeNPSplanningandmanagement.TheCSIisfirstandforemostamanagementdatabaseforimprovingtheNPS'spreservation,protection,andinterpretationofparkarchaeologicalresources.BecauseinformationcontainedinthedatabaseisgenerallyrestrictedfrompublicdisclosureundertheprovisionsoftheNationalHistoricPreservationActandARPA,itwouldbeavailableonlythroughNPSarchaeologists.ItcouldcontaininformationaboutFirstAmericansresources.
TheUSACOEWaterwaysExperimentStation(WES)hasdevelopedanArchaeologicalSitesProtectionandPreservationNotebook(ASPPN)undertheauspicesoftheCorpsEnvironmentalImpactResearchProgram(EIRP).TechnicalNotesonvariousimpacts,siteburial,structuralstabilization,soilandrockstabilization,vegetativestabilization,camouflageanddiversionarytactics,sitesurveillance,stabilizationofexistingstructures,faunalandfloralcontrol,signs,andinundationhavebeenintermittentlypublishedsince1988forinclusionintheASPPN.Since1987theEIRPhasalsopublishedaseriesof
TechnicalReportsonarchaeologicalsitepreservationtechniques,includingsiteburial,preservationofrockart,sitepreservationplanning,andcontrolofvandalism.Foralistofavailablepublicationsortechnicalassistance,contacttheWESCenterforCulturalSitePreservationTechnology,Vicksburg,Mississippi.
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TheNationalTechnicalInformationService(NTIS)withintheU.S.DepartmentofCommerceisarepositoryforsomeofthe"greyliterature"listedinNADB-Reports,andforafeeitreproducesreportsinitsfiles.Forinstance,almostallofthearchaeologicalprojectsfundedbytheUSACOEarefiledwiththeNTIS,aswellaswiththeDefenseTechnicalInformationService(DTIS).Manyfederalagencyarchaeologyreportscompletedsince1975areavailablethroughNTIS.TheDTISismaintainedbytheDepartmentofDefense(DoD)and,likeNTIS,includesculturalresourceandarcheologicalmanagementreports,specificallyincludingrecordsoftheDoDanditsmemberservices(U.S.Army[includingtheUSACOE],U.S.AirForce,NationalGuardBureau,U.S.Navy,andU.S.MarineCorps).
TheSmithsonianInstitution,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory(NMNH)inWashington,DC,maintainstheNationalAnthropologicalArchives(NAA).ThesearchivescontainanthropologicalandarchaeologicalreportsandotherpapersandgraphicmaterialsrelatedtoSmithsonianendeavors,orthingsdonatedbyorrelatedtoU.S.anthropologicalscientists.InformationaboutSmithsonianinvolvementinFirstAmericansresearchbyno-longer-activeNMNHstaffmembersislocatedthere.
Training
Traininginarchaeologicalpreservationandmanagementtheory,methods,andtechniquesisavailableforpublicoracademicarchaeologistsorfornon-archaeologistswhomanageprogramsorresourcesandthuscanaffectarchaeologicalproperties(includingthoseoftheFirstAmericans).Adirectoryofthetrainingopportunitiesforculturalresourcemanagementthroughfederalandstateagencies,universitiesandcolleges,andotherorganizations,ispublishedannuallybytheNPSinCRM.
TheAADcoordinatestrainingcoursesinarchaeologicalcurationandcollectionsmanagement,archaeologyforman-
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agers,conservationinfieldarchaeology,andanoverviewofarchaeologicalprotectionprograms.Thesearegenerally40-hourcourseswithatuitionfee,andareheldinvariouspartsofthecountry.In1991,NPSregionalofficessponsoredafreeworkshoponsitestabilization,afor-fee3-dayworkshopongeophysicstechniquesinarchaeology,afor-fee2-dayworkshoponissuesinpublicinterpretationofarchaeologicalmaterialsandsites,andafree2-dayclassonissuesintheprotectionandinterpretationofarchaeologicalandculturalmaterials.TheFederalLawEnforcementTrainingCenterregularlyteachesa40-hourfor-feecourseonarchaeologicalresourceprotection.TheMuseumofFloridaHistoryin1992offeredafree20-hourcourseinarchaeologyforpublicschoolteachers,andSouthCarolinaheldaminimal-fee9-dayworkshoponpublicschoolclassroomarchaeology.TheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology'sPublicEducationCommitteenowroutinelyoffersteacherstraininginarcheologyinassociationwithitsannualmeeting.
TheHistoricPreservationprogramintheDepartmentofAnthropologyattheUniversityofNevadahasaseriesoffor-fee5-or10-daycoursesincludingarchaeologyformanagers;anoverviewofcurrentarchaeologymethods,andtechniques;geomorphologyinarchaeologicalanalysis;anintroductiontoarchives;lithics;presentingthepasttothepublic;andtheoryincontemporaryarchaeology.TheNationalPreservationInstituteoftenoffersafor-fee1-daycourseoncharitabledonationofeasementsforlandconservationandhistoricpreservation,includingarchaeology.ManyofthesehavedirectrelevancetoFirstAmericansstudies.
TheArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974requiredthatfederalagenciesreportonarchaeologicalsalvageprojects,andthesearegenerallypublishedinrelativelylimitednumbers(the"greyliterature"listedinNADB).However,severalhundredcopiesofmostreportsareroutinelyprintedanddistributedtothepublicatnocharge
byagenciessuchastheBureauofLandManagement,BureauofReclamation,USACOE,NPS,andU.S.ForestService.
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InformationAccessTheFuture
AnimportantU.S.federalarchaeologygoalispreservationofthearchaeologicalrecordforthefuture.Alinkedgoalispreparationanddisseminationofaccurateinterpretationsofarchaeologicaltopicsunderstandabletothegeneralpublic.Theseshouldbeamongthehighestprioritiesforallarchaeologists,nomatterwheretheyareorwhattheirprincipaljob,subjectmatter,orresearchconcerns.ItisacriticalfactorforfutureconservationofFirstAmericansresources.
ReferencesCited
Canouts,V.
1991ComputerizedInformationExchangeontheLocalandNationalLevels.Sites&Monuments:NationalArchaeologicalRecords,editedbyC.U.Larsen,pp.231-247.TheNationalMuseumofDenmark,Copenhagen.
1992NADB--TheNationalArcheologicalDatabase.FederalArcheologyReport5(3):1,6-9.
DeCarlo,V.,R.Knudson,J.Osborn,andK.Schamel(editors)
1994ArcheologyandtheFederalGovernment.CRM17(6).
Keel,B.C.,F.P.McManamon,andG.S.Smith(compilers)
1989FederalArcheology:TheCurrentProgram.AnnualReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologicalProgramFY1985andFY1986.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.
Knoll,P.C.(editor)
1990ListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms:TheLEAPClearinghouse.1987-1989SummaryReport.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.
1993ListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms:TheLEAPClearinghouse.1990-1992SummaryReport.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.
Knudson,R.,F.P.McManamon,andJ.E.Myers(compilers)
forthcomingTheFederalArcheologyProgram.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.
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McManamon,F.P.,P.C.Knoll,R.Knudson,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer(compilers)
1993FederalArcheologicalProgramsandActivities.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.
McManamon,F.P.,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer
1990ThePresentandFutureArchaeologicalAssistanceProgram.AmericanSocietyforConservationArchaeology,Proceedings1989,editedbyP.S.Miller,D.E.Gelburd,andG.E.Alderton,pp.49-62.AmericanSocietyforConservationArchaeology,Portales,NewMexico.
U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice
1981AreAgenciesDoingEnoughorTooMuchForArcheologicalPreservation?GuidanceNeeded.CED-81-61.U.S.GeneralAccountingOffice,Washington.
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SchoolCurriculumandArchaeologyHeatherDevine
Isthestudyofarchaeologyrelevantinahigh-technologyworld?Althoughmanycurriculumdevelopersmightrespondnegatively,othereducatorshaverecognizedtheusefulnessofarchaeologyasavehicleforcognitivedevelopment.Therolearchaeologicalresearchplaysinthestudyofnativecultureandinenvironmentalprotectionhasalsobeenacknowledged.However,thefutureofarchaeologyintheschoolprogramhingesupontheabilityofarchaeologiststoaddresstheconcernsofbotheducatorsandnativepeoplesvis-à-viseducationalgoals,instructionalplanning,andeducationalmaterialsdevelopment.
Thetopicofarchaeologyineducationisextremelybroadinscope.Thispaperisfocusedonthefollowingaspectsofschoolcurriculumandarchaeology:
Theinfluenceofcurriculumpolicy;
Currenttrendsincurriculumdevelopment;
Theroleofthearchaeologistinarchaeologyeducation;and
Instructionalmediaandarchaeology.
CurriculumPolicy
Curriculumdevelopment,implementation,andrevisionisanongoingprocess,whichisgovernedbyworld-widetrendsgoverningday-to-daylife.Inresponsetothesetrendscurriculumpolicymakersseteducationalgoalsthatreflectwhatsocietydeterminesitschildren
needtobecomeproductivecitizens.Overthelastthirtyyearstheeducationalsystemhasexperiencedmajorshiftsincurriculumphilosophyinresponsetopivotalpolitical,social,andeconomicevents(KantrowitzandWingert1989:51-53).Themostrecentshiftincurriculumdirectionhasoccurredlargelyasaresponsetoworld-wideeconomicfactors.Thethreatofglobalcompetitionandashrink-
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ingjobmarketathomehavehadaprofoundinfluenceoncurriculumpolicyinNorthAmerica.Thelong-termhealthofnationsisdirectlytiedtoawell-educatedworkforceabletoadapttothedemandsofaneconomybasedonhightechnology.Schoolprogramming,therefore,mustproducestudentswhoarescientificallyandtechnologicallyliterate(Keen1988).
Howdoesthisshifttoatechnicalandeconomicorientationaffectarchaeologycurricula?Asonemightexpect,theeffectissomewhatnegative.Despitethehighlytechnicalnatureofmodernarchaeology,itisnotviewedasa"hard"scienceinthesensethatphysicsandchemistryare"hard"sciences,butasasocialscience.Itisconsideredpartofthehumanities,andhencehasalowstatusintheeyesofcurriculumbuilderswithatechnologicalorientation.
CurrentTrendsinCurriculumDevelopment
Therecontinuetobeampleopportunities,however,topromotearchaeologyinthecurriculum.Thefollowingareasofschoolprogrammingwherearchaeologycontentcouldconceivablystageacomebackincludeenvironmentaleducation;curriculathatpromotecognitivedevelopment;andinterculturaleducation,particularlyNativeeducation.
EnvironmentalEducation
Thestewardshipoftheenvironmentisoneareaattractingagreatdealofattentiontoday.Ontheonehand,thedepressedeconomicclimateofthe1980splacedextraordinarypressureonpolicymakerstoloosenenvironmentalrestrictionsonindustryasameansofpromotingeconomicactivity.Ontheotherhand,thereisincreasedpublicpressuretoeliminatethekindsofindustrialpracticeswhichhaveresultedinenvironmentaldisasterssuchastheExxonValdezincident.
Curriculumdevelopmentinenvironmentaleducationwillhavedirectimplicationsforarchaeologycurricula.AlreadysomeNorthAmericanprovincialandstatedepartmentsofeducationareimplementingenvironmentaleducationprograms
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(CalgaryBoardofEducation1989).Environmentaleducationprogramsprovidearchaeologyprofessionalswiththeopportunitytoincorporatecontentonhistoricalresourceslegislationandtheprinciplesofculturalresourcemanagementasitpertainstonaturalresourcedevelopment.
CurriculumandCognitiveDevelopment
Thefieldofarchaeologyhasalwaysheldanattractionforteachersandstudentsbecauseofthetreasure-huntingmystiquesooftenassociatedwithit.Butnoweducatorshavealsocometorecognizethepotentialofarchaeologyasavehicleforteachingresearchmethods,groupproblemsolving,andhypothesisformationandtesting(Abell1985,Dyche1985,Dyer1983,Hartman1985Risinger1973,WittichandSchuller1979:78-82,87,101).
Archaeologyisafascinatingtopicformostpupils,andthemethodsemployedinarchaeologicalresearchrequirethekindsofhigher-levelthinkingskillsthatinstructorswishtoencourageinstudents.Archaeologyisalsoahands-ondisciplinethatincorporatesanumberofdiverseareasandcaninvolvegroupproblemsolving.Thesecharacteristicsofarchaeologymakeitidealforallstudentgroups,thoughthetimeandbudgetconstraintsoftheregularschoolprogramoftenpreventteachersfromintroducingtopicssuchasarchaeology.
Itispossiblethatpromotionofarchaeologyasameanstodevelopthinkingskillsmayprovideyetanotheravenueforarchaeologyprofessionalswhowishtomakeinroadsintomorestandardizedschoolprograms.ThoseeagertoraisetheprofileofarchaeologyattheK-12levelmightconsiderofferingassistancetolocalcurriculumdevelopersintheplanningofprojectsincorporatingarchaeologicalmethods.
Intercultural/NativeEducation
Asourworldgrowssmallerthroughincreasedtravelandmoresophisticatedcommunications,countrieswhichhavehadrelativelyhomogeneouspopulationsarediscoveringthattheyareillequippedtomeettheneedsofraciallydiverseimmigrantpopulationswithdifferentlanguagesandvaluesystems.Asaresultschoolsystems,governments,and,toalesserextent,
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privateindustry,haverespondedbyinstitutingpoliciesandprogramswhichrecognizethisnewmulticulturalreality.
InCanada,thissurgeinmulticulturalawarenesshasbroughtwithitabelatedrecognitionoftheuniqueculturalidentityoftheindigenouspeoplesofthecountry.SincethefirstarrivalofEuropeans,theNativepeoplesofCanada,likeaboriginalgroupselsewhere,havehadtheirculturalheritageseverelyimpactedbytheimpositionofforeignvaluesystemsandsubsistencemethods.Itisonlyinveryrecentyearsthatthelargersocietyhasrecognizedaslegitimatethedesireofindigenouspeoplestoretaintheirancestrallanguagesandtraditions.IndoingsoithasalsorecognizedthatneocolonialapproachestoschoolingandtrainingNativepeopleshavebeenineffectiveatbestanddestructiveatworst.
Asameansofremedyingthesituation,oneimportantsteptakenhasbeentoplacepowerandcontrolovertheeducationofNativechildrenbackintothehandsofNativepeople(AlbertaEducation,NativeEducationProject1985,NativeLearningResourcesProject1985).ThisensuresthatcurriculumcontentnotonlyincludesconcernsrelevanttoNativepeople,butalsoensuresthatNativecultureandhistoryispresentedfromaNativepointofview.
Theinformationderivedfromarchaeologicalresearchcanmakeameaningfulcontributiontoourunderstandingofindigenouscultures,particularlyintherealmofprehistory.Regrettably,manyNativepeopleinNorthAmerica,particularlythoseintheUnitedStates,aregenerallyambivalentabouttheusefulnessofarchaeologicalresearchandindeedcanbequitehostiletotheapproachesusedbyarchaeologists.Unfortunately,archaeologistshavelargelyfailedtosuccessfullycommunicatethebenefitsofarchaeologicalresearchtotheNativecommunity.TheyhavenotonlybeenreluctanttoprovideNativesameaningfulroleinarchaeologicalresearch,buthaveoften
ignoredtheconcernsofNativepeoplesinthecourseofconductingresearchintosensitiveareasofculturallife(Adams1984,CheekandKeel1984,Ford1984,Meighan1984).Furthermore,archaeologistshavefailedtoconvincelegislatorstoamendantiquitieslawsthatplacetherightsofindividual
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collectorsandpropertyownersoverthecollectiverightsofNativepeoplesandothercitizenswhowishtoseetheirarchaeologicalheritageprotectedinasubstantiveway.
TheinfluenceoftheNativelobbyoverarchaeologyineducationshouldnotbeignored.InCanada,manyprovincialschoolsystemsarenowensuringthatNativepeoplehavethefinalsayoveranycurriculumcontentdealingwithNativepeoplesincludingcontentpertainingtoNativeprehistory.Ifarchaeologistswishtohaveanyinfluenceovertheinclusionofprehistoricarchaeologycontentinschoolcurriculaanditstreatment,theywouldbewisetoensurethattheyhavethesupportofNativepolicymakers.UntilNativeconcernsareaddressed,archaeologistscanexpecttoseethearchaeologyofindigenouspeoplesgivenshortshriftinstateorprovincialcurriculawhereNativepeoplecontrolcurriculumcontentdealingwithNativeheritage.Theresultwillbetheexclusionofprehistoryandthecontinuedemphasisonthearchaeologyofancientcivilizations,perpetuatingthedestructive,treasure-huntingstereotypessocommonlyassociatedwiththisarchaeologicalspecialty.
TheRoleoftheArchaeologistinArchaeologyEducation
Despitethevalidityofmanyoftheargumentssupportingarchaeologycontentinthecurriculum,thevastmajorityofeducatorsremainunconvinced.Thereasonsforthislackofsuccesslieintheunwillingnessofarchaeologiststosponsorthekindsofprogramswhichreflectthepedagogicalgoalsandconcernsofteachers,andtheirinabilitytocommunicatearchaeologicalresearchinamanneraccessibletothelaypublic.
Inordertotakeadvantageofcurriculumopeningsthatdoexist,archaeologistsmustbepreparedtomakesignificantchangesinhowtheytraditionallyinteractwiththeschoolsystem,andalsointheway
theyviewthepromotionoftheirdisciplinetothepublic.
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TheNeedsoftheSchoolVersustheNeedsoftheArchaeologist
Forthemostpart,archaeologists'foraysintothefieldofK-12educationareadhocatbestanoccasionalclassroomvisit,sporadicinputintoeducationalbooksandfilms,andinfrequentprovisionofassistancetoteachersplanningarchaeologyprojects.Whilemanyoftheseinitiativesaresuccessfulintheirownlimitedway,theyarelargelyunsuccessfulinamoresubstantive,long-termsense.Theydonotreinforcethenotionofarchaeologyasasubjectthatisimportanttobestudied,nordotheyendeavortousearchaeologyasavehicletoexplorecorecurricula(thoughseeMessengerandSmith1994forSocietyforAmericanArchaeologyPublicEducationCommitteeactivities).
Thissituationexistsbecausemostarchaeologistsdonotsharethesameinstructionalgoalsaseducators.Archaeologiststendtoviewschool-basedarchaeologyeducationsolelyasameansofachievinganarrowlydefined,intrinsicallyself-serving,setofgoals.Thearchaeologists'instructionalagendaisprimarilydesignedtoperpetuateandprotectarchaeologicalresearchbyensuringaminimalamountofoutsideinterferenceandamaximumamountofpublicsupport.Thearchaeologicalcommunityisrarelyinterestedinpromotingthekindsofarchaeologyactivitiesthatsatisfythegoalsofeducationandreflectanunderstandingofeducationaltheoryandmethod.OtherwisewewouldhaveanabundanceoffieldprojectsrequiringstudentparticipationandavastarrayofoutreachmaterialsfromarchaeologicalresourceagenciesdetailingactivitiesandresourcessuitablefortheK-12audience.Insteadeducatorsgetadelugeofpamphletsandtechnicalreportsthatconfuseratherthanenlighten,frustrateratherthanhelp.
StudentFieldworkandArchaeology
Thestrengthofarchaeologyasaschoolsubjectliesintheintellectual,
social,andphysicaldemandsitmakesoftheparticipants.Teachershavelongrecognizedthestrengthsofarchaeologicalexcavation,forexample,asavehicleforteachingresearchskills,butcontinuallyencounterroadblockswhen
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theyattempttofindarchaeologicalexcavationswhichwillaccepttheirstudentsasfieldworkers.
Archaeologiststrundleoutthesametiredargumentsagainststudentparticipationinfieldwork.Theseincludeconcernsabouthealthandsafetyhazards,lackofcareandprecisioninexcavation,andlackoffundingandtime.Manyoftheseargumentsaresimplyasmokescreentoavoidtheinconvenienceofdealingwithstudents.
TheprogramsofferedbyfacilitiessuchastheNorthwesternFieldSchoolatKampsville,Illinois(Holm1985),andtheTorontoBoardofEducationArchaeologyUnit(Smardz1989)aretheexceptionratherthantherule.Ifarchaeologistsweretrulycommittedtoarchaeologyineducationtheywouldmakethepolicychangesnecessarytofosterstudentparticipationinarchaeologicalfieldwork.Anarchaeologicalagencywouldmorethanfulfillitspublicrelationsrequirementsfortheyearifitdevotedonecontractexcavationeachyeartostudentparticipation,andassignedanarchaeologisttosupervisethatdig.Mediasupportandcorporatedonationsfollowhardontheheelsofinnovativeeducationalprojectsofthisnature.Thepubliceducationbenefitsareenormous.
InstructionalMediaandArchaeology
Onemajorroadblockinthepathofprehistoricarchaeologyintheschoolsistheperceived''dryness"ofthetopic.ItisanunfortunatefactthatteachersandstudentsareexcitedbyClassicalandMesoamericanarchaeologyandarelargelydisinterestedinprehistory.Whythissituationexistsisdebatable.Onereasonmustsurelybethe"glitzfactor"thenaturalattractionpeoplehaveforthe"goodies"ofClassicalandMesoamericanarchaeology:theruinedtemples,thegold,silver,andjadeobjects,sacredwells,andskeletalremainsentombedinlava.Asonejuniorhighstudentbluntlyinformedme,"Afewoldbuffalo
bonesaren'ttheArkoftheCovenant."Rightlyorwrongly,teachersandstudentslikehearingaboutmummiesanddoubloonsandhumansacrificesatoppyramids.
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Publishers,inturn,havepanderedtothepublicdesirefor"glitz"byproducingcoffee-tablepublicationsandeducationaltextbookswhichemphasizeancientcivilizations.Thistrend,unfortunately,haspersistedlargelyattheexpenseofprehistory.Curriculumwritersdiscoverthatfewsuitableresourcesarelistedforprehistory,butanabundanceofpublicationsdealingwithancientcivilizationisavailable.Asaconsequencethescopeandsequenceofanyresultingcurriculumwillreflectanemphasisoncivilization.Whenpublisherssubsequentlydiscoverthatancientcivilizationislistedinanewcurriculum,theyrespondbyproducingmorebooksonancientcivilization.
Thisunpleasantrealityisnotlikelytochangeinthenearfuture.Ifthearchaeologycommunitywantstoensurethatprehistoryistaughtinschools,itmustbepreparedtoaccepttheresponsibilityofproducingeducationalmaterialsthemselves.Thistaskisnotasdauntingasitmayappear.Theadvancesincomputertechnologyhavemadedesktoppublishingareality,andhaveconsequentlyputsmall-scalepublishingwithinthereachofagencieswithmodestbudgets.Archaeologicalagenciescanhireeducatorsonapart-timeorfree-lancebasisspecificallytoproducearchaeology/prehistorymaterialsforschools(astheU.S.BureauofLandManagementdidindevelopingthe"IntrigueofthePast"teacher'sguide[Smithetal.1993]).Infact,thisalternativemayprovetobethemostsuitablelong-termsolutiontotheproblemoflackofprehistorymaterials.
In-housepublishing,however,willnotsolvetheimageproblemofprehistory.Thepublic'spreoccupationwith"glitz"willsubsideonlyifarchaeologistsmaketheefforttopresentprehistorydatainamanneraccessibletothegeneralpublic.Thewaytoaccomplishthisistoproducematerialsspecificallyforthelaymarketwhichdeemphasizestatisticaldataandinsteadendeavortorecreateprehistoriclife.
Itisunderstandablethatprofessionalarchaeologistsarereluctanttosensationalizeprehistoryinordertoputitonanequalfootingwithancientcivilization.Archaeologistsarenaturallysqueamishaboutintroducinganyelementtoarchaeologicalinterpretationwhichmightunderminethe
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scientificaspectsofarchaeologicalresearch.Archaeologistsalsoappeartodislikehypothesizingabouthumanbehaviorinthedistantpastbecausehumanemotionandaestheticsensibilitiesdonotoftenmanifestthemselvesinthearchaeologicalrecord.Butitispreciselythehumanelementthatdrawspeopletoarchaeologyandthehumanelementthatismissingfrommostarchaeologicalportrayalsofprehistory,withthepossibleexceptionofmaterialsproducedbytheNationalGeographicSociety.Surelytheremustbeawaytomakearchaeologyandprehistorymoreaccessibletothelayaudience,andinparticulartheschoolaudience.
Dry-as-dusttechnicalreportsaresimplynottheanswer,noraregeneralizedbrochuresthatfailtointerpretanyarchaeologicaltopicinanin-depthway.Whilethesepublicationsmayfulfilthearchaeologist'sscientificobligations,theydonotsatisfytheinformationneedsofthegeneralpublicortheschoolsystems.Youngaudiencesshouldalsobeconsideredwhenarchaeologistsparticipateinthedevelopmentofmuseumgalleriesorinterpretivecentersdealingwitharchaeologyandprehistory,whichareoftenconstructedwithlittlethoughtgiventothekindsofeducationalandinterpretiveprogrammingmostsuitedtoarchaeologyandprehistoryconcepts.Suitableinstructionalapproachesincludenarrativeandroleplayforyoungerstudents,andexperimentalarchaeology,simulatedexcavation,andlaboratoryactivityforolderstudents.Tooofteneducationofficersarehiredforafacilityafterconstructionandequipmentpurchaseiscompleted,onlytodiscoverthatthespacessetasideforeducationalpurposesareinappropriateforthemostusefulkindsofactivities.Itisraretohaveaneducationspecialistactuallyinvolvedinthearchitecturalplanningofafacility,butperhapsthisisanideaworthconsidering.
Itistimeforarchaeologiststocollaboratewitheducators,mediaspecialists,andwriterstoproduceprogramsandmaterialsthatwill
attractthepublic.Iamconvincedthatthiscanbeachievedwithoutcompromisingthearchaeologicaldatabase.
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Conclusion
Archaeologistsmustrecognizethatthesurvivalofarchaeologyasaschooltopicliesinthewillingnessofthearchaeologicalcommunitytorespondtotheneedsofthelaycommunity.Asprofessionalslargelysubsidizedbypublicfunds,archaeologistsareaccountabletothetaxpayer,andarethereforenotonlyresponsibleforinvestigatingandprotectingthearchaeologicalresourcebase,butalsoforcommunicatingeffectivelytothegeneralpublic.Forthemostpart,regulationsandfineswillnotprotectarchaeologicalresources;aneducatedcitizenrywill.Thereisgeneralagreementamongeducatorsandlegislatorsthatacomprehensiveprogramofpubliceducationwilloftensucceedinpromotingpositivesocialbehaviorswherepunitivemeasureshavefailed.Inordertogetarchaeologyintoschools,archaeologistsmustbepreparedtorespecttheagendaofeducators.Todoso,theymustbecomefamiliarwiththecurrenttheoreticalworkbeingdoneintheeducationalspecialtiese.g.,environmentaleducation,socialstudies,history,anthropology,Nativestudies,interculturaleducation,giftededucationwhichhaveasignificantroletoplayinthefutureofarchaeologyeducation.Theymustalsobecomefamiliarwithinstructionaltheoryandmethod,andapplytheprinciplesofinstructionaldesigntothedeliveryofarchaeologycontent.
Archaeologistsshouldalsoencouragepubliceducatorstodevelopwithintheranksofgraduateschoolsofarchaeologyandanthropology.Toaccomplishthisgoal,studentsmustbepermittedtodeveloptheoreticalfoundationsoutsideofanthropology.Theymustbeencouragedtoproducescholarlyworkwhichmaynotalwaysreflectthetechnicalstyleofscholarlywritinginarchaeology(Fagan1984:183).Mostimportantly,professionalarchaeologistsmustseethisorientationasbeingassignificantasaspecialtyinlithics,orfaunalanalysis,oranyotherareaofarchaeologicalwork.
Archaeologydepartmentsproducemanygraduates.Althoughthemajoritypursuecareersinarchaeology,someeventuallyfunctionineducationalcapacitiesasmuseumcurators,historicsitesinterpreters,andclassroomteachers.
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ReferencesCited
Abell,R.P.
1985InferenceMakingandTestinginaHighSchoolArchaeologyCourse.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.45-49.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.
Adams,E.C.
1984ArchaeologyandtheNativeAmerican:ACaseatHopi.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.Green,pp.236-242.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.
AlbertaEducation,NativeEducationProject
1985NativeEducationinAlberta'sSchools.AlbertaEducation,Edmonton.
CalgaryBoardofEducation
1989EnvironmentalandOutdoorEducation-ProgramofStudiesandTeacherResourceManual(draft).PreparedforAlbertaEducationbytheCalgaryBoardofEducation.CopiesavailablefromtheAlbertaDepartmentofEducation,Edmonton.
Cheek,A.L.,andB.C.Keel
1984ValueConflictsinOsteo-Archaeology.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.194-207.TheFreePress,
Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.
Dyche,B.
1985WhyArchaeologyWhenYourCurriculumisThinkingSkills?DevelopingaSequentialArchaeologicalCurriculumforGrades6Through12.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.31-35.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.
Dyer,J.
1983TeachingArchaeologyinSchools.ShirePublicationsLtd,Aylesbury.
Fagan,B.
1984ArchaeologyandtheWiderAudience.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.175-183.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.
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Ford,R.I.
1984EthicsandtheMuseumArchaeologist.InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.133-142.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.
Hartman,D.W.
1985UnderstandingScienceThroughAnthropologicalEnquiry:TwoCases.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.51-66.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,Georgia.
Holm,K.A.
1985PreparingTeacherstoIntroduceArchaeologyIntotheCurriculum.InArchaeologyandEducation:ASuccessfulCombinationforPrecollegiateStudents,editedbyK.A.HolmandP.J.Higgins,pp.51-66.AnthropologyCurriculumProject,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.
Kantrowitz,B.,andP.Wingert
1989HowKidsLearn.Newsweek,April17:50-57.
Keen,M.J.
1988ChildrenShouldLearntoAppreciateScience,Mathematics,andTechnologyinSchool.Shouldn'tScientists,MathematiciansandTechnologistsAllHelp?GeoscienceCanada15:281-282.
Meighan,C.W.
1984Archaeology:ScienceorSacrilege?InEthicsandValuesinArchaeology,editedbyE.L.Green,pp.208-223.TheFreePress,Collier-Macmillan,NewYork.
Messenger,P.,andKCSmith(editors)
1994ArchaeologyandPublicEducationvols.4(3,4)5(1).
NativeLearningResourcesProject
1985GuidelinesfortheDevelopmentofLearningResources.NativeEducationProject,AlbertaDepartmentofEducation,Edmonton.
Risinger,C.F.
1973TheDig:AStudyinArchaeology.SubmittedtoSocialScienceEducationConsortiumInc.,Boulder,CO.CopiesavailablefromERICDocumentReproductionService(No.ED080399).
Smardz,K.E.
1989TorontoStudentsDigIntoTheirPast!TheArchaeologicalResourceCentre.TeachingAnthropologyNewsletter,No.14(Spring):2-8.
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Smith,S.J.,J.M.Moe,K.A.Letts,andD.M.Patterson
1993IntrigueofthePast:ATeacher'sActivityGuideforFourththroughSeventhGrades.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,BureauofLandManagement,AnasaziHeritageCenter,Dolores,Colorado.
Wittich,W.A.,andC.F.Schuller
1979InstructionalTechnology:ItsNatureandUse.6threv.ed.Harper&Row,NewYork.
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PublicEducationthroughPublicMediaRoyA.Gallant
ThePublicTrustDoctrineprovidesaunifyingconceptforthestewardshipofarchaeologicalresources.Sellingtheconcepttothegeneralpubliccanbestbeachievedthroughthemassmedia.PositiveapproachestoworkingwiththemediaarediscussedandthepublicinformationcomponentoftheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericansisbrieflydescribed.
AnIndian,withfistraisedtotheheavens,sprinklesanofferingoftobaccoovertheburialsofhisancestors.HeisnotaPaleoindianbutalivingNativeAmericannamedRobertThomas.And,whilehisfistisraisedinceremonialoffering,itisalsoraisedinoutrageoverthewantonplunderingofAmericanIndianartifactsbycommercialrelichunterswhosystematicallydestroypotentialarchaeologicalsitesandfurtherdepletethestoreoftheseobjects.Anestimated70percentofartifactsrecoveredtodatefromallIndiansitesinNorthAmericaareinthehandsofprivatecollectorsandvirtuallyuselesstoscholarsbecausetheylackdocumentation.
ThescenejustmentionedoccurredatSlackFarminwesternKentucky,wherein1987tenreliccollectors,treasureseekers,looters,graverobberswhateveryouchoosetocallthemleftsome450cratersintheirdesecrationofatleast650gravesitesofa40-acreIndianburialground.Thesitedatesfromabout200B.C.toA.D.1650.Thediggershadpaidthelandowner$10,000fortheprivilegeofexcavatingoverafewmonths.A500-year-oldhumaneffigypipefromthesitebrought$4,500.
Whenlawofficersinvestigatingthedigdiscoveredcountlesshumanjawbones,legbones,fingerbones,andhumanteethstrewnamongthecraters,theystoppedthediggingandchargedthetenwith"desecrationofaveneratedobject,"amisdemeanorpunishablebyamaximumfineof$500anduptooneyearinjail.FourofthetenlooterslivedinIllinoisorIndianaandcouldnotbeextraditedforamisdemeanor.In
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March1988,theKentuckyLegislatureupgradedthecrimetoafelony,whichdoespermitextradition.However,Indianafailedtopasssuchlegislation,sogravelootersinthatstatecontinuetobeprosecutedonlyfortrespassing,amisdemeanorcarryingafineaslowasonedollar.AdetailedreportoftheSlackFarmincidentappearedinNationalGeographicmagazine(Arden1989:376-393).
Thequestionallofthisraisesis"Whoshouldownourpast?"
Atpresent,intheabsenceoffederalregulationofarchaeologicalresourcesnotsubjecttofederallandmanagement,"mostarchaeologicalsitesonprivatelandhavenolegalprotectionfromdestruction,[whichmeansthatabout]two-thirdsoftheUnitedStatesisopentounregulatedcollecting,sitedestruction,orboth,"accordingtoarchaeologistRuthannKnudson(1989:72)writingintheJanuary/FebruaryissueofArchaeologymagazine.
Asotherpresentershavemadeclear,"Archaeologyisnotjustforarchaeologists...archaeologicalresourcesarepartofapublictrust"(Knudson,thisvolume).Thatnotionmaybenewtoatleastsomearchaeologistsandsomemaynotbeentirelycomfortablewithit.Itisvirtuallyunknowntomostoutsidethearchaeologicalcommunity,includingmanyjournalistsandeducators.
WritingintheMichiganLawReview,JosephL.Saxsaidthat"therearecertainintereststhatareintrinsicallysoimportanttoeverycitizenthattheirfreeavailabilitytendstomarkthesocietyasoneofcitizensratherthanserfs;toprotectthese,itisnecessarytobeespeciallywarysonoindividualorgroupacquirespowertocontrolthem"(Sax1970).Knudson(thisvolume)amplifiesthatthoughtwhenshesays,"eachgovernmentorprivateindividualwithlegaljurisdictionoverthephysicalcontextofarchaeologicaldepositshasatrustresponsibilitytoprotectthejointownershiprightsoftheentirehumancommunity."
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ReachingthePublic
Thoseofusinvolvedinprofessionalarchaeology,eitherdirectlyasinvestigatorsorindirectlythroughaffiliationwitharchaeologicalorganizationssuchastheCenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans(CSFA)oraseducatorsintheclassroom,beartheresponsibilitytocommunicatetothepublicthesignificanceofourworkanditsrelevancetotheacquisitionofknowledgeofourcollectiveheritage.Educatingthepublicthroughmuseumsandthemediaisourbesthopeofachievingthatgoal.Howthendowereachthepublicthroughthemassmediaofcommunication,andwhenwedo,whatdowesay?
Inthepaperswewriteandlectureswegive,andininterviewswithjournalistsofprintandelectronicmedia,thereareseveralattitudesandmessageswecanandshouldconveytopresentaunitedfrontforthecommongoodofarchaeology.ThereispublicinterestinarchaeologyandmostjournalistswhosebeatisthescientificcommunityareeagertofindfreshaccountsandviewpointsaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas.ThosewhomaydoubtsuchapublicinterestneedonlyreadtheNaturalHistorymagazineseriesofmorethanadozenarticlespublishedin1986,1987,and1988,writtenbyStanford,Guidon,Haynes,Turner,Adovasio,andothers.Inalargercontext,NationalGeographicmagazine,Newsweek,Omni,Discover,Times,andotherpublicationsroutinelyprintmajorarticlesprobingourhumanoriginsandhominidevolution,nottomentionanumberofpopularbooksbyCoe,Kopper,ReadersDigest,Pfeiffer,andoneofmyown.
Articlesinallsuchpublicationsnearlyalwaysarebasedoninterviewsofexperts,andthereisouropportunitytojoinasonevoiceandbroadcasttheimportanceofallarchaeologicalresearchthatbearsonthepeoplingoftheAmericas.Whenyouareinterviewedbyalocaltelevisionstationorbyasciencejournalistfromtheprintmedia,takethatopportunitytostressthatarchaeologicalresourcesarepartofa
publictrustownedbythemembersofthehumanworldcommunity.Whilesomemayconsiderthatconceptprematureinthecontextofcurrentdomesticandinternationalpolitics,itis,nevertheless,ano-
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tionthatallofusgatheredatthisWorldSummitshareandshouldbeadvocatingateveryopportunity.
Todate,suchviewshavenotalwaysbeencharacterizedbycoherencyamongus.AnimmovablelatearrivalistonewhofavorsthefirstmigrationstotheAmericasasoccurringnotmuchbefore13,000yearsbeforethepresentshouldnotbeexpectedtobeatthedrumofanearlyarrivalistonewhofavorsadateof40,000ormoreyearsbeforethepresent.Butifyouwanttotakeacolleaguetotask,doitinaprofessionaljournalwhereyourreadersareknowledgeableenoughtofollowyourargument.Whenappearingbeforethepublicamorecautiousandgentlerstanceisadvisable,suchasthattakenbylatearrivalistPaulMartininhisNaturalHistorymagazinearticleinwhichhechallengedinthepubliceyethedatesofseveralsites,includingtheKochmastodonsite,pointsfromSandiaCave,theHollyOakpendant,andSmithCreekCave.''Lettheinevitableburstofhypedissipate,"headvised,"whiletheevidenceisreviewedcalmly,preferablyinplaceandideallybyskeptics(Martin1987:13)."
TakeaPositiveApproach
Theimageofanopen-mindedinvestigatorwhoisnotabouttoskinanyonewhodisagreeswithhimisthesurestandquickestwaytowintherespectofthesciencewriterchroniclingyourstory,andtheconfidenceofthosereadingthestoryorwatchingyoubeinginterviewedontelevision.
Thisisnottosaythatthereshouldnotbedisagreementamonginvestigators.Disagreementisinevitable,anditsvaluetoscienceshouldbemadeknowntothepublic.Disagreementoverthepresumedvalidityorinterpretationofdataiswhatprovidessciencewithitsvigorandhelpscharacterizescienceasaviablesearchfortruth.Butmaliceandacrimonyarethesurestmeanstoarousethepublic's
suspicionanddistasteforscienceandscientists.WiththedeplorablestateofscientificliteracyintheUnitedStatestodaywemustdowhateverwe
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cantohelpgeneraterespectandadmirationforourworkratherthansuspicionandhostility.
Perhapsmorethananyotherinstitution,theCSFAhasasoneofitsmajorpurposestobringtotheacademiccommunity,aswellasthepublic,currentfindingsandideasaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas.OneofourgoalsistobetheresourcecenterforeducationalandmassmarketpublisherswhowantinformationaboutthepeoplingoftheAmericas.ThisWorldSummitisboundtoprovideuswithsignificantthrusttowardthatgoal.Forexample,manyofyouhaveagreedtolettheCenterphotographartifactsfromyourcollectionsandtomakethosephotographspartoftheCenter'sphotographiclibrarywhichwillsoonbeinapositiontosupplythetechnicalandpopularpresswiththousandsofphotographsofarchaeologicalsites,investigatorsinthefield,andnumerousartifactsthatotherwisewouldlieinsecretinspecimendrawers.Soweencourageyoutomakeuseofourabilitiesascommunicatorsandeducators,andtomakeitknownduringyourassociationswiththemediathatweexistandareeagertoofferourservices.
ReferencesCited
Arden,H.
1989WhoOwnsthePast?NationalGeographic175:376-392.
Knudson,R.
1989NorthAmerica'sThreatenedHeritage.Archaeology42:71-73,106.
Martin.P.S.
1987
TheFirstAmericans:ClovisiatheBeautiful.NaturalHistory96:10-13.
Sax,J.L.
1970ThePublicTrustDoctrineinNaturalResourcesLaw:EffectiveJudicialIntervention.MichiganLawReview68:471-566.
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Public-PrivatePartnershipsinArchaeologyJudithA.Bense
Ourgenerationfacesthefactthatarchaeologicalresourcesarebeingdestroyedatanalarmingrateandcouldwellbelargelyeliminatedinthespanofourcareers.Weareinthesamepositionastheenvironmentalistsofthirtyyearsagowhorealizedthattheentirecountry'swater,soil,andairwerebeingpollutedatanalarmingrate.Theredflagsareupforarchaeologyandwemustdevelopmethodsthataffecttherootsoftheproblem:economicjustificationofarchaeology,publiceducation,andnewfundingsources.
MarketStrategy
Afewprofessionals,especiallyMcGimseyandDavis(1974),realizedtwentyyearsagothatsitedestructionwasgettingoutofcontrolandwereinstrumentalindevelopinglawstoprotectarchaeologicalsitesonfederalpropertyandareastobeimpactedbyfederallyfundedprojectsintheUnitedStates.Thoselawsandregulationsarestillbeingrefinedand,despiteproblemswithenforcement,hundredofthousandsofsitesarenowbeingprotected.However,wearequicklyrealizingthatthisisonlythebeginningofthesolution.Two-thirdsofthelandintheUnitedStatesisnotfederallybutprivatelyownedandmostoftheprojectswhichimpactarchaeologicalsitesarenotfederallyfunded.ThisisespeciallytrueforthemajorgrowthareasintheUnitedStates,particularlyinthenorthandsoutheast.
Floridaisthefastest-growingstateinthenationwith30,000immigrantsmonthly.Becauseofthisgrowth,allformsofdevelopmenthavebeenimpactingthearchaeologicalsitesinFlorida.
Thevastmajorityofsitesfallthroughthefederalandstatesafetynets,sincemostdevelopmentisfundedprivatelyorwithbondmoneyandmostdevelopmentprojectsareon
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privateproperty.Littlecanbedoneundercurrentlawtoprotectmostarchaeologicalsitesinthewayofdevelopment.NewmethodsofarchaeologicalresourcemanagementarebeingdevelopedinFloridainresponsetothisonslaught.Someoftheseprogramshavebeenverysuccessfulandareservingasmodelsforotherdevelopingareas.
Presently,northwestFloridaisnotasoverdevelopedasaremanyplacesincentralandsouthFlorida.ThearchaeologicalresourceswestofTallahasseearewellpreserved,butarethreatenedasdevelopmentencroachesataever-increasingrate.Inordertodealwiththisdeterioratingsituation,weinnorthwestFloridahavetakenanapproachwhichemphasizesmarketinganddevelopingarchaeologyintheprivatesector.Wehaveapproachedtheprotectionandconservationofarchaeologicalresourceslocatedonprivatepropertyinanewlight,emphasizingtheirvalueforthepeopleandcommunitywhoownthem.Throughmarketinganddevelopingarchaeology,webuildpartnershipstodevelop,save,andsharearchaeologicalsitesinnorthwestFlorida.Thisapproachhasgeneratedsupportforandinterestinarchaeologybytheprivatesector,municipalities,andthestate.Thispaperwillpresentabriefoverviewofsomeofthesepartnerships.
HarnessingPower
ThefirstexampleofsuchapartnershipinvolvedtheelectricutilityfornorthwestFlorida,theGulfPowerCompany.In1984,thiscompanywasplanningtobuilda$25millioncorporateheadquartersonthePensacolabayfront.TheproposedlocationwasarchaeologicallysensitiveasithadbeenaCreoleneighborhoodfor150years,itwasinthevicinityofacolonialgovernor'svilla,andafewprehistoricsherdshadbeenrecoveredthereovertheyears.Acheckwiththestatedeterminedthattherewasnofederalorstatearchaeologicalcompliancerequiredfortheproject.Consequently,asmalldelegation
ofconcernedprofessionalsapproachedtheutilitycompanywithanunsolicitedproposaltotestthe11-acreparceltodetermine
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iftherewereanysignificantarchaeologicaldepositspresent.Testing,whichcostapproximately$17,000,identifiedtwosignificantarchaeologicaldeposits:asealedsinglecomponentEarlyWoodlandvillagewithscoresofrefusepits,andtheundisturbeddepositsoftheentire150yearsoftheCreoleresidentialneighborhood.
ThesearchaeologicalresourceswereevaluatedfirstintermsoftheirpotentialtomeetGulfPower'sneeds.Thevalueofthesitestosciencewasofprimaryimportancetoarchaeologists,butnottotheutilitycompany.butGulfPowerhadbothshort-andlong-termpublicrelationsproblems.Thecompanyhadbeenreceivingnegativepublicityabouttheconstructionofthecorporateheadquartersduetothebuilding'sexcessivecost,customers'perceivedlackofneedforthenewfacility,andthenecessaryrelocationofanentireAfrican-Americanneighborhoodfromthebuildingsite.Thecompanyalsohadchronicpublicrelationsproblemsbecauseofacid-rainpollutionanditsmonopolyonelectricityrates.Consequently,aproposalwasdevelopedthatfocusedonhowthecompanycoulddevelopthearchaeologicalresourcesonitspropertyintoahigh-profilepositivepublicrelationsprojectwhichmadeasignificantcontributiontothecommunityatlarge.Thiscontributionconsistedofseveraleducationalproducts,includingabookforgeneralreadersandanarchaeologyteachingunitforthepublicschoolscomprisingavideotapedocumentary,slide-tapedocumentary,bulletinboard,replicatedartifacts,andacoloringbook.Anaccessiblepublicexhibitofthearchaeologywasproposedforthelobbyofthenewbuilding.Theproposedprojectincludedaground-breakingceremony,ribboncutting,andaVIPtouroftheexhibit.Astylishlogowasproposedfortheprojectwhichcouldbeusedoncoffeecups,shirts,powerbillinserts,andthelike.Theprojectwasgiventhecatchyname"Hawkshaw"aftertheAfrican-Americanneighborhoodwhichwouldbevirtuallyremovedbytheproject.
TheproposalwasimmediatelyapprovedbyGulfPowerCompanyandwassuccessful.ThecompanysubsequentlywasawardedthefirstDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalPublicServiceAwardforarchaeologygiventoaprivateenergycompany,aswellasthetopstatepublicrelations"GoldenImage"
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award.Archaeologywasabletogivethecompanywhatnothingelsecould:reamsofpositivenewspapercoverage,TVspots,andeditorialsallovertheSoutheast.Througharchaeology,GulfPowercoulddosomethinggoodforthecommunityandforscienceandbeproudoftheextentofitscommitment.Today,HawkshawsymbolizesthelivingpastwhichwouldhavebeenforgottenanddestroyedifGulfPowerhadnotpreservedthepastasitbuiltforthefuture.Thissuccessfulprojectsetthestageformarketingarchaeologytotheprivatesector.
CapturingtheCityFathers(andMothers)
ThenextpartnershiptobedevelopedinthePensacolaareawaswiththecity.Pensacolawasoriginallyacolonialtown;itisthesiteoftheoldestEuropeansettlementattemptintheUnitedStates(AD1559)andhasbeencontinuouslyoccupiedsince1690.Manyofthesignificantcolonialarchaeologicaldepositshavebeendestroyedbynonfederallyfundedredevelopmentprojectsaswellasbyavidbottlecollectingandamateurdigging.Inordertocontrolthedestructionofarchaeologicalsitesinthecity,acompliancesystemwasdevelopedthatisalocalversionofthefederalrequirementsforcompliancewithSection106oftheNationalHistoricPreservationAct.Alargeandvocalpoliticalactioncommitteewasformedwhichproposedtothecitycouncilthatitinitiateanarchaeologicalreviewprocedureoncity-ownedproperty.Thiswouldputcouncilmembersinaleadershiproleandassurethatlargecity-sponsoredprojectswouldnolongerdestroythecity'sarchaeologicalresources.(FormoredetailedinformationonthedevelopmentandcontentsofthisarchaeologicalreviewresolutioninPensacolaseeBense[1987].)
Theproposalwaspassedunanimouslyin1985,andsincethenaseriesofarchaeologicalprojectshasbeenconductedincompliancewithit.Themostfrequenttypeofprojectisstreetandutilityrenovationinthehistoricdistrict.Theresolutionwasstrengthenedwithintwoyearsof
passagetoincludeprivatecompaniesthatconductsubsurfaceworkincity
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rights-of-way.Theexpandedcoverageresultedinmonitoringofextensivetrenchingforfiber-opticcableinstallationsthroughoutthearchaeologicallysensitiveareasofthecity.Inaddition,anarchaeologicalsurveyofcity-ownedlandswasperformedthatservedasabasisfordevelopinganarchaeologicalmanagementplanforthecity.
WhilethearchaeologicalreviewresolutionisanimportantelementintheconservationofPensacola'sarchaeologicalresources,wehavediscoveredthatitisnothighonthelistofprioritiesofthecitystafftargetedtoimplementit.However,thepublicisnowmuchmoreawareofthelocationofthearchaeologicallysensitiveareasinthecity,andwehavefoundthatthe"watchdogs"inthelocalarchaeologicalsocietyandaneducatedpublicarethetrueenforcersoftheresolution.
HowthePartnershipWorks:TheFortofPensacolaExample
Amongtheseeminglyconstantstreamofmunicipalconstructionprojectsinthehistoricoldcityarea,alargeutilityandstreetscapeimprovementprojectcoveringseveralblockswasdesignedinthelate1980s.ThisparticularprojectcrossedthroughthecolonialfortareaofPensacola.Planscalledformassivenewutilities,streetsurfaces,streetlights,sidewalks,andtheplantingofscoresoflargetrees.Inaddition,manyoftheexistingburiedutilitiesweretoberemovedandreplacedbynewlinesindeeptrenches.Inlatefall1989,acomplianceplan(Bense1989a)wasdevelopedinaccordancewiththecityarchaeologicalreviewpolicy.Itbeganwithamodestbudgettocovertestingofseveralsidewalkareasandtheevaluationofseveralareasofsignificantdepositstobeimpactedbyconstruction.Subsequentlyamodestbudgetproposalwasdevelopedformitigationoftheproject.Mitigationwastobeaccomplishedprimarilybyrecordingdataandrecoveringmaterialduringarchaeologicalmonitoringofutility-trench
excavationandconstruction.
Ontheseconddayofconstructionin1990,astheasphaltwasbeingremovedinanareathoughttohavebeendisturbed
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byearlierutilitytrenches,aneighteenth-centuryBritishfieldcannonwasdiscovered.Membersofthepresshadbeennotifiedandwerepresentasthecannonwashoistedfromthestreettotheneighboringstatemuseum.Withthecamerasrolling,workersinanadjacentarearemovingmorepavementexposedfoundationsfromacolonialperiodbuilding(1752-1821).Thisdiscoverycreatedasecondstoryforthepress:theFortofPensacola.ThisbecamethelargestarchaeologicaleventinPensacola'shistory.Asmoreandmoreofthefortwasexposedinthestreet,publicinterestgrew.Finally,remnantsofthesentryhouse,aswellasinteriorstructuresbuiltbytheBritishinthelate1760sinthemaingatearea,wereexposedanddocumented.Thisfortgateistheveryonethroughwhich,in1821,AndrewJacksonwalkedtoacceptU.S.possessionofFloridafromSpain.HereOldHickoryraisedthefirstofficialU.S.flagoverFlorida.
ThisprojectwasintheheartofPensacola,inthestreet,rightnexttoacityparkandatthefootofthelargestmuseuminthehistoricdistrict,wherepublicaccessibilitywasexcellent.Hundredsofpeoplecamedailytowatchthis200-year-oldpieceofU.S.historybroughtintothelatetwentiethcentury.Peoplewantedmapsthatwouldshowthemhowtheremnantsoftheoldfortfitintotoday'senvironment.Theywereexcitedandeagertosignpetitionstosavethefortanddevelopitintoafirst-classoutdoorarchaeologicalexhibit.
Themediatooktothestory,givingitextensivelocalcoveragewhichgrewintoanationalstorycoveredonABC'sGoodMorningAmericaandtwiceonCNNtelevision.A"fortwatch"washeldbyalargeregionalnewspaper,includingoneSundayfront-pagestorywithcolordrawingsandpicturesthatcoveredalmosttheentirepage.Inaddition,severaleditorialsappearedinthepaperduringtheproject.Wire-servicearticleswerealsopickedupbypapersthroughoutthestateandmostoftheSoutheastregion.ThismadetheColonialFortofPensacolaverywellknown.Regulartoursoftheareawere
incorporatedintothepublictoursofthehistoricarea.Areaschoolsmadefieldtripstothesitewithincreasingfrequency.Tourists,especiallyfromthenorthernUnitedStates,begantovisitthesiteandthetouristinformationcenterbegantopin-
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pointthesiteas"the"spottovisit.MuseumsandcommercialestablishmentssurroundingthesitehadrecordvisitationandreceiptsinFebruary1990,andtheadjacentcityparkwasapopular"archaeologylunch"spot.
Thepublicandpresswereimmediatelyconcernedthatthecitywoulddestroythefortandthefoundationsofitsbuildingsbyputtingthelargeplannedstorm-watermainrightthroughitandpavingovertherestofit.ApetitionbythePensacolaArchaeologicalSocietycirculatedtoprotectthesite,excavate,anddevelopitintoanupscaleoutdoorarchaeologyexhibit.TheHistoricPensacolaPreservationBoardimmediatelyputthecannonondisplayonthestepsofthemuseumandpressedhardforclosingthestreet.
Thecity'sdilemmaendedwithatypicalnegotiationbetweenthemembersofthearchaeologypartnershipthathadbeendevelopedinPensacolabetweenuniversityarchaeologists,citystaff,avocationalsupportgroups,andthepublic.Eachpartnerhadarangeofprioritieswithinwhichaplancouldbeacceptable;however,forthefirsttimeinPensacola,themostpowerfulpartnerwasnowthepublic.Thecityknewthatifthesitewasdestroyedtherewouldbeapublicoutcry.Itfeltpressuretokeepthestreetopen,buthadtoavoidfurtherimpactingthesitebymovingparkingfacilitiestothefarsideoftheright-of-way.ThePreservationBoardandstaffrequestedadditionalbudgetfundsfromthestatefortheexcavationandexhibitofthesite.Thepresskeptthepressureon.
Thefactthatthefortwasdiscoveredinresponsetothecity'sarchaeologicalreviewpolicyputawhitehatsquarelyonthecitycouncil;however,italsoputtheresponsibilityofstewardshipontheirshoulders.Theinitialmitigationestimatehadjumpedandtheconstructionbudgetforthemunicipalbond-fundedprojecthadnofundsallocatedforarchaeology.Seizingtheopportunitytotakethe
lead,theuniversitypresidentmetwiththecitymanageraschiefexecutiveofficersoforganizationswithamutualinterestintheproblem,andwereabletodevelopaplanofaction.
FundswereallocatedbythecityforsitemitigationwithacommitmentfromtheuniversityandthePensacolaHistoricPreservationBoardtoraisethefundsneededforsiteexcava-
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tionanddevelopment.Thecompromiseplanwasacity-fundedprogramtodocumentandrecoverasampleofthecolonialfeatures.Thestreetdesignwaschangedtoaserpentinepatternaroundtheintactarchaeologicaldeposits,andtheutilitytrenchwasplacedacrossthestreet.Thecityprovidedsturdyfilterclothtocoverthearchaeologicalsite,andtwofeetoffilltobufferthesitefromimpacts.
Thenowwell-organizedandpopularPensacolaArchaeologicalSocietyandexperienceduniversityarchaeologystudentsprovidedfreetrainedlabor;throughthisvolunteereffortthecity'smitigationcostswerereducedbyatleast65percent.Thearchaeologicalsocietyalsoprovidedapopularinformationtableforthepublic,whichgaveouthandoutsabouttheproject,soldcommemorativeT-shirts,andprovidedone-on-oneinformation.Asaresultofthevolunteersupport,theonlypaidstafffortheentirearchaeologicaltestingandmitigationeffortwerethreesupervisorsandapublictourguide.
Everyonecameoutawinneraswellasapayingpartnerinthisproject.Universityarchaeologistsrecoveredpricelessinformationandprotectednationallysignificantdeposits.Thecitylookedgoodbecauseithadtheleadershiptohavearchaeologistsonthejobwhentheconstructiontookplaceandbecauseitpaiditsway.Duringtheinitialdiscoveryphase,theHistoricPreservationBoardtooktheleadininitiatingthelargefundingrequest,providinghistoricalinformation,andexhibitingthemainartifact,thecannon.Thearchaeologicalsocietyprovidedlabor,telephonetrees,andaninformationtable,andgainedscoresofnewmembers.Themediahadafielddayandreportershadbylinesandfeaturestoriesforseveralweeks.ThisishowitworksinPensacola.Wehandleitoneprojectatatime,givingeachpartnerrespectyetdemandingthateachshouldersitsresponsibility.
Afterthedusthadsettled,withthemostsignificantarchaeological
areasinthestreetright-of-wayprotected,wedesignedapublicarchaeologyprojecttoliterally"develop"thecolonialmilitaryfeaturesthathadcaughtpublicattention.TheFortofPensacolaColonialArchaeologicalTrainwasdeveloped,aseriesoffiveoutdoorexhibitsandasignificantareainsidethe
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museumwhichitselftodaysitsinsidetheformercolonialfort.Publicsupportwasgeneratedfortwostategrantsofalmostahalf-milliondollarstoconductintensivearchaeologicalresearchandexhibitdesignandinstallation.ThepublicwillbeabletoviewrealarchaeologicalfeaturesfromcolonialPensacolafromboardwalkselevatedoverbuildingfoundations,outdoorcookingovens,andrefusepits.Thediscoveryofthecannoninthestreetisrecreatedinamuseumroomwheretheactualcannonisembeddedinareconstructedstreetconstructionscene.
TheBottomLine
ArchaeologyisnowaliveandwellinPensacolabecauseconcernedresidentsrealizedthatitwasuptothemtofindawaytostoptheirreversibledestructionofourarchaeologicalresources.Pensacolaisnotanespeciallyrich,poor,big,orsmallcity.TheresidentshererepresentthefullspectrumofU.S.citizens.Apartnershipapproachcanbedevelopedamongthekeyplayersinanytown.Theessentialingredientisacceptanceofresponsibilitybythearchaeologicalcommunity,bothprofessionalandamateur,toensurethatsomethingbedonetostopthedestructionandneglectofnonrenewablearchaeologicalresources.Itispossibletomainstreamarchaeology.Thelongsuitinallthisisthatthepublicalreadyhasanaturalinterestinarchaeologyand,onceeducatedandinvolvedinit,hasthepowertomakechanges.ThisisthekeytothegrowingstrengthofPensacolaarchaeology.Nowalmostallofthe250,000peoplelivinghereknowthatthereisarchaeologyinPensacolaandthatitisavaluablecommunityresource.Itcanbemanagedjustlikeotherresources,suchaswater,runoff,orairquality.Nowisthetimetostartthiskindoflocalinvolvementacrossthenation.Withoutgrassrootssupport,toomanyarchaeologicalsiteswillbegoneandwewillleaveapoorerandneedlesslydepletedlegacyforfuturegenerations.
Theseconceptsofmarketinganddevelopingfunctionalpartnershipsworkbecauseofthepublicinterestandmedia
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appealofarchaeology.Archaeologyhassomethingtosellandithastangibleproductsthatpeoplelike.Theprivatesectorandthebusinesspeoplethatoperatelocalgovernmentareusedtomarketingandrelatewelltothisstrategy.Themarketingapproachtoarchaeologyhascausedtheprogramatthemoderate-sized,regionalUniversityofWestFloridatogrowdramaticallyeversincewebeganemployingit.Archaeologyisgoodfortheuniversitybecausethroughitthemissionofcommunityserviceismetinadirectandhigh-profilemanner.Theuniversityispleasedattheconsistentlyincreasingpublicityarchaeologyhasbroughttotheinstitution,includingregularlocalandmediacoverage,exposureontheinternationalprogram,''CNNScience,"andarticlesinpopularpublicmagazinessuchasSouthernLiving.Sellingarchaeologytotheprivatesectorandlocalgovernmentisnotdifficult.Infact,itiseasierthansellingittothefederalgovernmentortheNationalScienceFoundation,thetraditionalsourceofarchaeologicalresearchfundingintheUnitedStates.
ThelatestadvancementinthePensacolapublic-privatepartnershipsinarchaeologyistheformationofacommitteeofmenandwomenfromthebusinesscommunity,civicleaders,andfundraisersdedicatedtoenhancingPensacolaarchaeology.Theseindividualsrealizetheimportanceoftheuniversity'sacademicarchaeologyprogramtothedevelopmentofcommunityarchaeologyforthelocalandtouringpublic.TheyrealizethatthepubliclikesarchaeologyandthatPensacolahasexcellentresourcesineasilyaccessibleareas.WhilemillionsofpeoplevisitthenorthernGulfCoasteachyear,Pensacola'stourismfiguresarerelativelylow.IncreasingtourismthroughthedevelopmentofPensacola'sarchaeologicalresourcesisanappealingconcepttothiscommittee,anditsmembersunderstandthatenhancingthelocalacademicprogramisoneofthekeystothatdeveloment.Theyalsounderstandthatdevelopmentofarchaeologywilltakemoneyandpoliticalsupport,andtheyareorganizedtoobtainboth.
ThiscommitteeisliterallymainstreamingarchaeologyinPensacola.Itisthroughgroupssuchasthisthatacademic-public-privatepartnershipsarefosteredandthatarchaeologicalsitesareconsideredavaluableresourcestobesavedmuch
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likecleanbeaches,air,andwaterresources.Unrestricteddevelopmentcangetoutofcontrol,butthearchaeologypartnersindevelopmentprojectscananddopreservetheresources.
Althoughthereisalongwaytogo,Pensacola'sarchaeologicalresourcesaremuchbetterprotectedthantheywereadecadeago,andthishasonlybeenmadepossiblethroughthedevelopmentofpartnerships.Archaeologistscannotcontinuetoworkonlywithcolleaguesinquietscholarshipandexpecttheresourcetolast.Becausedestructionisconstant,wemusttakesomeofourtimetobegoodpartnerstotheresourcethatcannotspeakforitself:thesites.
ReferencesCited
Bense,J.A.
1987DevelopmentofaManagementSystemforArchaeologicalResourcesinPensacola,Florida.InLivinginCities:CurrentResearchinUrbanArchaeology.SpecialPublicationSeries,Number5.
1989aThePensacolaArchaeologicalPreservationCompliancePlan.ReportonfilewiththePensacolaCityCouncil.
1989bThePensacolaArchaeologicalSurvey,TechncalReport,VolumesIandII.PensacolaArchaeologicalSocietyPublicationNumber1.Pensacola,Florida.
McGimsey,C.R.,III,andH.A.Davis
1974TheManagementofArchaeologicalResources.AirlieHouse
Report.SpecialPublicationoftheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology,Washington.
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VIFUNDINGFundingarchaeologicalendeavorsisacriticalmatter,perhapsevenmoreimportantthanthelegalconstraintswithwhichwemustabideandtheproceduralrequirementswemustsatisfy.Indeed,adequatefundingisoneofthecriteriatobesatisfiedinobtainingapermittoexcavateasiteforresearchpurposesonU.S.federalandstatelands.ThepaperscontainedinthissectionreviewfinancialsupportforFirstAmericansresearchbythemajorU.S.governmentgrantingagencies(Watson)andprovideguidanceonhowtotaptheprivatesector(Williams)andinformationhelpfulinapproachingthemajorU.S.land-managingagencies(Douglas).AllthreeofthesefundingsourcesarecriticaltostudyingandmanagingFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleo-environmentalresources.
TheamountofmoneyspentbytheU.S.government,andtheexpensesincurredbytheprivatesectorbecauseofU.S.heritageprotectionrequirements,havebeenofgreatinterestoverthepastfewyears.Estimateshaverangedfromthetensofmillionsofdollarstoashighas$200millionormoreannually.Thepreciseamountspentinagivenyearisimpossibletoascertain,andevenanestimatedamountisdifficulttodeterminebecauseofthevariousrecord-keepingpracticesemployedbydifferentfederalagenciesandthelegalimpossibilityofrequiringtheprivatesectortoreporttheactualcostsofarchaeologicalre-
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sourcemanagement.Theseoperationalcostsareproprietaryinformationcloselyguardedfromthecompetition.Consequently,archaeologicalexpendituresmayappeartobesignificant,orinsignificant,dependingonthecircumstances.
ItisevenmoredifficulttoascertaintheamountoffundsspentonFirstAmericansresourceresearchandconservation.Yetunderstandingwhatfundsareavailableforsuchresearchandconservation,andhowtheyareallocatedandreported,isessentialtoimplementFirstAmericans-relatedprograms.
IntheUnitedStates,theMoss-BennettActof1974(ArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationAct)andtheArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionAct(ARPA)of1979requirethattheSecretaryoftheInteriorannuallyreporttoCongressthecostandeffectivenessofbothacts.Untilfiscalyear1985,acomprehensiveandaccurateaccountingoffederalagencyprogramsundertheselawswasimpossiblebecauseofbureaucraticinertiaand/oraccountingpractices.However,aseriesofeventscreatedanawarenessthatitwasinthebestinterestofU.S.federalarchaeologiststoassurethatmoreaccurateinformationwasavailabletotheCongress.AmongtheeventsthatcaughttheattentionoftheCongressandthefederaladministrationwereseveralauditsconductedbytheU.S.GeneralAccountingOfficethatwerecriticalofthefederalarchaeologyprogram.EspeciallyimportantwasthefindingthatagencieswerenotprovidinginformationontheprogramtotheSecretaryoftheInterior.Since1985,adatabasehasbeendevelopingthatquantifiesmostofthefederalarchaeologyprogramactivities,includingtherelatedcosts(Keeletal.1989,McManamonetal.1993).
DespitethecurrentperceptionintheUnitedStatesofashortageoffundsfordesirablearchaeologicalprojects,itisappropriatetolookbackatleastbrieflytotheperiodpriortotheenactmentofthe
NationalHistoricPreservationAct(1966),theMoss-BennettAct,andARPA.Between1956and1986,reportedfederalexpendituresforarchaeologyincreasedexponentially.In1956,allfederalrescuearchaeologywasconductedbytheRiverBasinSurveys(RBS),aunitoftheBureauofAmericanEthnologywithintheSmithsonianInstitution.AlthoughadministrativelyhousedintheSmithsonian,theRBSwasfundedbyannualtransfersoffundsappropriatedbyCon-
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gresstotheNationalParkService.Duringfiscalyear1956,RBScooperativelyassistedcolleges,universities,andmuseumstocarryout25datarecoveryexpeditionsandfivesurveyprojectsforatotalofapproximately$123,000.TheseprojectswerecarriedoutinreservoirareasbytheU.S.CorpsofEngineersandtheBureauofReclamation.In1986,theCorpsreportedthat$21millionhasbeenspentbytheCorpsoritsland-useapplicantsforarchaeology,andtheBureaureportedthatover$7millionhadbeensimilarlyspent(Keeletal.1989).
Again,itisimpossibletoseparateoutFirstAmericans-relatedactivities,butprobablynomorethanfivepercent,andperhapsnotevenasmuchasonepercent,ofthefederalarchaeologyprogramaffectsFirstAmericansresources.However,evenonepercentofthefundsexpendedtosupporttheprogramequalsifnotexceedstheresearchfundsavailableforFirstAmericansresearchthroughthesourcesdescribedbyWatson.
BENNIEC.KEELRUTHANNKNUDSON
ReferencesCited
Keel,B.C.,F.P.McManamon,andG.S.Smith(compilers)
1989FederalArcheology:TheCurrentProgram.AnnualReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologicalProgramFY1985andFY1986.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.
McManamon,F.P.,P.C.Knoll,R.Knudson,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer(compilers)
1993
FederalArcheologicalProgramsandActivities.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistance,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.
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FederalU.S.Funding:FirstAmericansResearchPattyJoWatson
ThemajorityofU.S.federalfundingforFirstAmericansgrantresearchcomesfromtheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF).TheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,theNationalInstitutesofHealth,theU.S.PublicHealthService,andtheSmithsonianInstitutionarealsosourcesofresearchfunds.Inthe1980s,despitemodestappropriationincreasestoNSF,realavailabledollarswereslightlybelowthe1978level.Examplesofgrantsmadeoverthepast20yearsdemonstratethevarietyofresearchundertakenwithfederalfunds.
ThemajorityoffederalU.S.fundingforscientificresearchontopics,sites,andregionsrelevanttothepeoplingoftheAmericashascomefromtheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF).Alargearrayofgeneralenvironmental,paleoenvironmental,andbiologicalresearchpotentiallyrelevanttothattopicisnotaddressedhere;Ifocusonrelativelydirectresearchfunding.TheAnthropologyProgramofNSFawardsthemajorityofsuchfunds,althoughsupportforinterdisciplinaryprojectssometimescomesfromotherNSFprograms,suchasClimateDynamics,Geochemistry,orEnvironmentalGeosciences.TheAnthropologyProgramawards$5to$7millionperyearforbasicresearchinarchaeology,culturalanthropology,andphysicalanthropology.JohnYellen,programdirectorforarchaeology,kindlymadeavailabletometheannualgrantlistsoftheAnthropologyProgramfor1978to1987(NSF1987)and1990,1991,and1994(NSF1994).Theselistsarethesourceofmuchofthedetailincludedinthefollowingoverview.
TheAnthropologyProgrambudgetin1989was$7.2million,ofwhichapproximately$2.7millionwenttoarchaeology(38percent).Tojudgefromthe1978-87data,thatfigureisfairlyrepresentative;$2to$3millionperyeargodirectlytoarchaeologicalexcavationandanalysis(includingdating)andforcurationofarchaeologicalcollections.NSFarchaeologyexpendituresinthe1990swere$3.2millionin1992,$3.3millionin1993,and$3.5millionin1994.Researchontopicsrelevant
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tothepeoplingoftheAmericasisapproximatelysixpercentofthetotalexpendedonarchaeology.Thesesumsrangefromdoctoraldissertationgrantsofafewthousanddollarstomultiyear,multidisciplinary,multi-tens-of-thousands-of-dollarsgrantstoseniorresearchers.
NSFmoneyforindividualorteam-directedprojectsonthepeoplingoftheAmericaspaysforbasicdatacollectioninthefield,foranalysisofallsorts,includingdating,andsometimesforprepublicationexpensesaswell.BesidesincreasingknowledgeofPleistocene-EarlyHolocenearchaeology,thesefundssubsidizegraduatetrainingandcareerdevelopmentofindividualscholarsdevotedtoPaleoindianandotherrelevantresearch.
Examplesof1980sand1990sU.S.doctoraldissertationprojectsrelevanttothepeoplingoftheAmericasinclude:
InterassemblagevariabilityintheElIngaregion,highlandEcuador;
AminoacidracemizationdatinginnorthernCalifornia;
BisonprocurementinNorthernPlainsprehistory;
Paleo-IndiantechnologicalorganizationandsettlementmobilityintheGreatLakes;
HaystackCave:AmethodologicalcasestudyforevaluatingLatePleistocenecavedeposits;
Paleo-Indianresearchinthealkalibasin,centralOregon;
Stableisotopeanalysisofpaleosols;
Archaeologicalanalysisofbone;
BonedensityandbonebedstructureatMillIron,Montana;and
AdynamicviewofPaleoindianassemblagesattheHellGapsite,
Wyoming:reconstructinglithictechnologicalsystems.
NSFdissertationgrantshadaceilingof$10,000untilthelimitwasraisedto$12,000in1989.Thegrantsjustlistedrangedfrom$5,635to$11,624.
ExamplesofseniorproposalsfundedbyNSFduringthe1980sforresearchrelevanttothepeoplingoftheAmericasare:
CulturaladaptationtoecologicalchangeontheLlanoEstacado($87,000);
AnalysisoftheAgateBasintypesitematerials($8,404);
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ExcavationsatLittleSaltSpring,Florida($33,683);
MunsungunLakearchaeologicalresearchproject($152,275);
ArchaeologyoftheDietzClovissite,centralOregon($49;992);
MonteVerde:anearlysettlementinChile($69,401);
EarlyhumanadaptationtoAndeanSouthAmerica;
SettlementaroundaformerfreshwaterlakeatPuntaNegra($47,208);and
ArchaeologicalexcavationofDangerCave($68,625).
NSFhasothercategoriesofsupportbesidethatforpredoctoralandpostdoctoralarchaeologicalexcavationandanalysis.ThoseofmostconcernhereIhavelumpedundertheheadingofPaleoenvironmentandArchaeometry.Examplesofsuchresearchinclude:
LateQuaternaryGeochronology($20,000,plus$4,761fromtheEnvironmentalGeosciencesprogram);
TheAccuracyofRadiocarbonandAminoAcidRacemizationDatingofPleistoceneAgeBone($140,695);
RadiocarbonDatingofBoneApatiteaNewApproach($35,568);
WorkshoponCalibrationoftheRadiocarbonTimeScale($118,237);
ImprovementsinRadiocarbonDatingattheUCRLaboratory($155,835);
RadiocarbonDatingLaboratoriesCoreSupport($234,245);
SupportofaRadiocarbonDatingFacility($157,706);
RadiocarbonDatingofAminoAcidComponentsofBoneUsingAcceleratorMassSpectrometry($119,976);
AlaskaTephrochronologyProject($39,770);
SeasonalMortalityandLifeHistoryofPleistoceneMastodontsandMammoths($50,000fromAnthropologyand$49,000fromSystematicBiology);
NSFAcceleratorFacilityforRadioisotopeAnalysis($147,000fromAnthropology,$25,000eachfromChemicalOceanography,MarineGeologyandGeophysics,andOceanographicTechnology);
RadiocarbonDatingofIndividualAminoAcidsinFossilBonebyAcceleratorMassSpectrometry($27,820);
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Phytolithanalysisinarchaeology($155,238);
Dietaryreconstructionwithstableisotopes($202,119);
Isotopiccompositionofpaleosolcarbonatesandorganicmatter($78,400);
HumaninteractionwithNorthAmericanPleistoceneProboscideans(>$28,126);
Clovis-Folsom-Plainviewgeochronology,climatechange,andthePleistocene-Holocenetransition(>$25,761);and
Bariuminboneasapaleodietaryindicator(>$97,353).
TheNSFsupportsArcticscience,engineering,andeducation,primarilythroughitsOfficeofPolarPrograms.Fiscalyear1993grantssupportingPaleoindianorPaleoindian-relatedstudiesinclude:
LateCenozoichistoryoftheBeringSea($142,263);
LateQuaternaryenvironmentsandclimatechangeintheeasternCanadianArcticreconstructedfromlakesedimentcores($15,088);
PaleoclimaticsignificanceofmajorhighlatitudepostglacialtephraeruptionsinAlaskaandSiberia($45,167);
ChronostratigraphyofPleistocenehigh-sea-levelandglacialdeposits,northeasternBristolBay,Alaska($44,644);
WorkshopontheroleoftheLaurentideicesheetintheclimatesystem($20,208);
PaleoenvironmentsoftheBeringlandbridgeattheendofthelastglaciation($63,846);
Humanperformanceandadaptationinpolarenvironments($45,069);
TheArcticLTERproject:Terrestrialandfreshwaterresearchon
ecologicalcontrols($1,204,098);
ThechronologyandecologyofpostglacialcolonizationoftheAmericas($24,964);
LateQuaternaryclimatechangeintheeasterninteriorofAlaska:Amultidisciplinarypilotstudy($113,509);and
AheirarchicGISforstudiesofprocess,pattern,andscaleinArcticecosystems($67,542).
TheNSFAnthropologyProgramalsoprovidesfundsforcuratinglargeand/orimportantcollectionsthroughitsSystematicResearchCollectionsAwards.Moreover,atleastonceinthepasttwentyyears,NSFAnthropologypaidthe
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travelexpensesofU.S.scientiststoamajorconference,the11thCongressoftheInternationalAssociationforQuaternaryResearchthatmetinMoscowin1982.In1994,NSFsupportedcomputerizationoftheMesoAmericanandSouthAmericanArchaeologicalcollectionsofthePeabodyMuseumofNaturalHistory,Yale.
AlthoughNSFprovidesthelion'sshareofbasicfederalfundingforarchaeologicalfieldandlaboratoryresearchonpeoplingoftheAmericastopics,afewotherfederalagenciesorinstitutionsalsocontributesupport.AfewarchaeologicalsurveysthatidentifiedFirstAmericansresourceswerefundedbytheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitiesfrom1966tothepresenttime(NEH1994),aswellaspublicationofdatafromtheAyacuchositeofPeru.Andnowthatsomekindsofgeneticstudiescanbecarriedoutonprehistoricmaterials,NationalInstitutesofHealth(NIH)andtheU.S.PublicHealthService(PHS)provideoccasionalsupportaswell.
TheSmithsonianInstitution'slargeandfortheUnitedStatesvenerableanthropologicalandbiologicalcollectionsare,ofcourse,averyvaluablescholarlyresourceforpeoplingoftheAmericasandawidevarietyofotherresearchtopics.Furthermore,untilrecentlytheSmithsonianInstitution'sRadiationBiologyLaboratorysometimesprovidedradiocarbondatestoexcavatorsofsitescontainingearlymaterials.Forexample,mostofthedatesforMeadowcroft,andsomeofthoseforLautaroNunez'sPaleoindiansitesinnorthernChilecamefromtheSmithsonianlaboratory.ThemoveofthatlaboratoryafewyearsagofromtheSmithsoniantotheUniversityofPittsburghwaspartiallyfundedbya1987NSFgrant.
Summary
Thebulkoffederalfundingforarchaeological,archaeometric,andpaleoenvironmentalresearchspecificallydirectedtowardthepeopling
oftheAmericashascomefromtheAnthropologyProgramoftheNSF,andtotalsseveraltensofthousandstoafewhundredthousanddollarsperyear.Directfinancial
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aidisalsoavailable,forsomeprojects,fromtwoothermajorfundingagencies:theNationalEndowmentfortheHumanitiesandtheNIH.TheSmithsonianInstitution,althoughnotafundingagencyliketheotherthree,playedavitalroleinlatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyresearchonthepeoplingoftheAmericas(Meltzer1994),andisanexcellentscholarlyresourceatpresentforallmannerofresearchonthepeoplesoftheAmericas.
Althoughtheimplicationispresentthroughoutthisaccount,IconcludebystatingexplicitlythatifyoupaytaxesintheUnitedStatesyouhaveapalpablefinancialstakeinthisresearch;youarequiteliterallyapatronofit.Ihopeandbelieveyoushouldderiveconsiderablesatisfactionandpridefromthatfact.
Astofederalfundinginthenearfuture,thatquestioncanbebestaddressedbysimplynotingthattheNSFAnthropologybudgethasincreasedrelativelylittlebetween1978,whenitwasabout$5.4million,to1989whenitwas$7.2million.Consideringnationalandinternationalratesofinflationduringthatperiod,a$1.8millionraiseintenyearsrepresentsanactuallossinresearchmoneybuyingpower.Hence,substantialincreasesintheNSFAnthropologybudgetarenecessaryifcutting-edgeresearchonpeoplingoftheAmericasistobeinitiatedandmaintainedatadequatelevelsoverthenextdecade.Therefore,wetaxpayerswhovaluemoderninterdisciplinaryarchaeologicalresearchingeneralandresearchonpeoplingoftheAmericasinparticularshouldtakesomeresponsibilityforincreasingfederalfundingforthatresearchbyengagingtheinterestofothertaxpayers,andbyadvocatingittoourlegislators.
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ReferencesCited
Meltzer,D.J.
1994TheDiscoveryofDeepTime:AHistoryofViewsonthePeoplingoftheAmericas.InMethodandTheoryforInvestigatingthePeoplingoftheAmericas,editedbyR.BonnichsenandD.G.Steele.CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.
NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities
1994CompositeListofAwards,1966-1991,1992,1993,1994.InterpretiveResearch.NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,Washington.
NationalScienceFoundation(NSF)
1987GrantLists,FiscalYears1978to1987.NationalScienceFoundation,Washington.
1993ArcticScience,Engineering,andEducation.DirectoryofAwards,FiscalYear--1993.NationalScienceFoundation,Arlington,Virginia.
1994GrantLists,FiscalYears1990,1991,and1994.NationalScienceFoundation,Arlington,Virginia.
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SeekingPrivateFundingforAmericanOriginsStephenWilliams
Thesuccessofraisingfundsfromprivatesectorsourcesdependsonacarefullyconsideredapproach.Keyelementsoftheprocessconsistofpreparingawellstructuredrequest,personalcontacts,knowingtheinterestsandlimitationsofpotentialsources,andstewardshipofgrantsources.Hintsforthesuccessfulquestforprivatefundingandcautionarytalesareprovidedfrompersonalexperiences.
ThesearchfortheoriginsofhumansettlementoftheNewWorldissurelynotaninconsequentialtopic.Ithasgreatage,deepmystery,andsomeveryexcitinganswers.Andwe,asNewWorldarchaeologists,haveapublictrusttoseethatthisexcitingenterpriseiscarriedoutdiligentlyandwiththebesteffortthattime,money,andrationalplanningcanprovide.PublicexcitementcertainlyisaverybigplusforthePaleoindianresearchprojectsthatneedtobecarriedoutinthenextdecade.Ofcoursethereismoretoraisingmoneythanjusthavinganappealingtopic,althoughthatisagoodstart.
IwilldiscussthetopicofseekingprivatefundingforFirstAmericansresearchtheinfourparts:(1)awell-structuredrequest;(2)theneedforpersonalcontact;(3)knownlimits;and(4)stewardship.
TheRequestforFinancialSupport
Westartwiththewell-structuredrequest.Thisisinmanywaysnotunlikeabasicacademicgrantproposal,buthoneddownanddejargonized.Itshouldcontainadetailedbudgetandsomeinterestinghighlightsofboththeresearchandthehoped-forresults.Awell-
wrappedproductsells.Youcan'tnormallywalkintoaprivatefoundationorapotentialdonor'sofficeandaskfor$10,000forPaleoindianresearchandexpecttowalkoutwiththefunds.Ifyoucan,thenyou'realreadyatsteptwo.
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Moreover,evenifyoudoknowthedonorthatwell,itwillbemorecomfortableforbothofyouifyouhaveinhandaprogrammaticdocument,howevershort,andafairlydetailedbudget.TheI.R.S.(U.S.InternalRevenueService)likesitbetterthatwaytoo.
PersonalContacts
Thesecondstepistoknowyoursourcepersonally.Ofcoursethisisquiteobviousifyouareapproachinganindividualdonor.However,itisjustastruewhenyouaredealingwithaprivatefoundationoranonfederalgrantingagency;onewayoranotheryou'vegottohavea''hook."
I'msuresomeofyoucouldrepeatverbatimthestoryofmyownfailuretogetanyhelpatallfromsomefiftyprivatefoundationsthatIimportunednearlytwentyyearsago.Iresearchedthefoundationsverycarefully,sentoutheavyandwell-documentedprojectstatements,spellingoutchapterandverseofIanGraham'sexcitingMayahieroglyphicinscriptionproject,andgotzeroresponse.Manyneverevenacknowledgedreceiptofmyrequest.Wealreadyhadsomeverygoodsupportfromseveralfoundationsforthisproject,whichgaveusthehopethatotherswouldbesimilarlyinterested.Butthedifference,ofcourse,wasthatwherewehadbeensuccessfulwehadknownsomeone,atleastinthefrontoffice,ifnotthemajordonor.Oursampleoffiftynewfoundationswasderivedfromseveralfoundationdirectories;weknewnooneatanyofthemor,ifwedid,wedidn'tknowhowtotapthem.Soyouwillbewastingyourtimeshootingblind,evenifyouarequitewellinformedastothefoundation'sprogram;thepackagemayneverbelookedatseriouslyunlessyoucanwriteatrulypersonalcoveringletteror,betteryet,precedeitwithafriendlyphonecall.
Nowthiscanseemlikearatherdauntingtask:howtofindthathook.
However,ifyourowninstitutionhasanadvisoryboardofonesortorother,youshouldbeabletoquerythemembersforpossiblefoundationcontacts."Networking"they
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callittodaytheOldBoynetworkofnotsolongago.Itisessential.Italsomeansgoingtoannualmeetingsandconferences,andshowingtheflag,andthensittinginsmoke-filledroomstoolateatnight,findingoutwhoknowswho,andwherespecialsourcesexist.
Personalcontactistheessentialingredient.Sittinginadonor'soffice,orevenbetterinhisorherhome,youcanachievealevelofunderstandingandcommunicationthatyouwouldabsolutelyneverattainanyotherway,evenwithafaxmachine.
IwellrememberahotFourthofJulyBar-B-QueonAveryIsland,Louisiana,justoutsideoneoftheoldTabascowarehouses,whereWalterMacIlhennygotmebackedintoacornerandtoldmeinnouncertaintermsthatitwashightimetodosomearchaeologyontheisland.Nowwehaddonenoarchaeologyontheislandatall,butIsaid,"Yes,sir,Mr.Walter,thatcertainlydoessoundreasonable."Afterallhewasanex-MarineCorpsgeneralandarealHemingwayesquecharacter.I'llalsohavetoadmitthatitwasn'tmyprojectstatementthatgotmestartedonathree-year,$75,000programonAveryIsland,buttheyallaren'tlikethat.
Nowprivatefundraisingisnotsomethingtaughtatanygraduateschool.Ihavetwomorepreceptstofollowafter(1)thesimplerequeststatementand(2)knowingsomeonepersonallywhohandlesthepursestrings,eithertheirownorthefoundation's.
WhatCantheSourceAfford?
Thethirdprecepthasastrongjudgmentalaspectandagainisimportantinallfundraisingrequests:knowhowmuchtoaskfor.Lookoverpreviouslistsofgrants,ormakeaballparkbutthoughtfulestimateofwhatsortofrequestsseemsfeasiblefromthisparticulardonor.Ifyoudon't,youruntheriskofgettingthestandardrefusal:"Wearetrulyinterestedinyourproject,butwehavealreadyallotted
alltheavailablefundsforthisyear."
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Few,especiallyprivate,donorswillevertellyoudirectlythattheycan'taffordsuchalargegift.Don'tbefooledbyappearancesorevengeneroussouthernhospitality,forexample.Knowwhethertoaskfor$500,$5,000,or$50,000.Itisacrimetoaskfortoomuchandgetturneddown,butit'sjustasbadtoaskfor$500,andgetitquickly,whenyoucouldhavegot$5,000.Foundationsaswellasindividualshavein-houseguidelinesthatyoumustscopeout,andstickwith.Ifyouunderestimateandgetthegrant,remembertocheckthemoutmorecarefullybeforeyouaskagain;foryouwillbeaskingagain,won'tyou?
StewardshipofSources
Thatbringsmetomyfinalpieceofobviouswisdomonfundraising:say"thankyou."Domorethanjustsendofftherequiredletterofacknowledgementasyoubankthecheck.Later,writethedonortoletthemknowhowtheprojectisgoingandsendthemreports("deliverables"inbureaucratese).Givethemwell-constructedlettersofthanksthat'sjustasimportantasyourstartingrequest.Anddokeepintouchwiththemonaregularbasiswecallthistreatmentofdonorsstewardship.
Remember,youwillbeaskingagainmaybenotthisyear,orevenfiveyearsdowntheroad.Thereforedon'tlettheonlylettertheygetfromyou,ayearortwolater,bea"pleasesendmorecash"document;thatstrategymayhaveworkedwiththefolksbackhomewhenyouwereincollege,butnowyouhavetocultivatethisfieldcontinuallyandcarefullyhereIamthinkingprimarilyofprivatedonors,butfoundationpersonnelliketobetreatedassentientbeingstoo.Givethemaslideshow,aspecialtourofthelab,oranicelydonereplicaofamajorfind,agiftinreturnforagift.
Althoughyoumaythinkofyourcontactwiththedonoraseither
intellectual("theyareimpressedwiththequalityofmywork"),orbasedonyourobviouspersonalcharisma,itis,infact,amixtureofboth.Anddon'tasktoooften.AstheoldMaineminkfarmerrespondedwhenavisitorqueriedhimabouthowoftenhetookthepeltsofthecunninglittlebeasts:
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"Well,"hedrawled,"theydogetmightynervousifyouskin'emmorethanonceayear."He'sright,andnervousdonorsareneveranyfun.
Butcautionarytalesabound,andsomeofthemareeventrue.Therereallyarelittleoldladiesandmenintennisshoesoutthere,andtheyarelookingforpeopleandtopicstosupport.Indeed,youmayevenfind,toyourobviousrelief,thattheyreallyenjoygiving;allyouneedtodoisgivethemthechance.Butdon'tthinkyoucanturnthattrickrightawayonfirstcontact;patienceisavirtueheretoo.Theymustgettoknowandtrustyouandyourprogrambeforethey'llwriteacheck.
ThefactisthatlotsofdonorsaredeeplyinterestedinthehistoryoftheAmericanIndians;youcanmakethatinterestworkforyou.Lookatyourlistoflocalamateurs.Reallygettoknowsomeofthemwell;iftheycan'thelpyououtwithacheck,maybetheyknowsomeoneelsewhocan.Alsolookforsomereallylocalfoundationsthathaveaspecialinterestinthearea.Finally,trywhatseemstobethattoughestnuttocrack,thecorporategift.Here'swhereahookisdownrightessential.Manylargebusinessorganizationshavefoundationsorspecialofficersresponsibleforgiving.Gettoknowthemdon'tbeshy,you'resurelynotthefirstnorthelasttoattempttoimportunethemandyou'vegotnothingtolosebyconfessingyourprojectover-runandconsequentfundingneed.
Conclusions
OnefinalpieceofadvicethatIknowyou'llneed.Don'tgetdiscouraged;noonebatsathousand.Sobecontentwithamodest.300average.AfterallWadeBoggsdoesn'tdomuchbetterthanthat,ontheplayingfieldthatis.Seriously,privatefundraisingisanonstopenterpriseateveryinstitution.Youcometotheendofthefiscalyear,proudofwhatyouraised,anddiscouragedovertheonesthatgotaway;thentheverynextdayyou'reoffandrunningagain.Willit
neverend?Iknowtheanswerbutyoudon'twanttohearit.
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Sotakeheartandrememberthatthemostimportantstepistogetthatfirstgiftfromadonororafoundation,evenifitisn'tatthelevelyoumighthavehopedfor.Oncethey'vewrittenthatfirstcheckitsuptoyoutoprovetothemthatthey'vepickedawinner.
NowIcan'tstresstoomuchthatgivingisaverypersonalactthefundsmaysupportyourproject,buttheyaretrulygiventoyou.Thereforeyou'reonthefiringline.Don'teverbetrayyourdonor'strust.Don'tpromisemorethanyoucandeliver.Hooplaandglitzmaysellsnakeoil,secondhandcars,orevenbrandnewIsuzus,butrememberyou'llbebacknextyear,skinningknifeinhand.Goodluck.
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U.S.FederalFunding:ResourceandLandManagementSupportJohnG.Douglas
Archaeologicalsurvey,excavation,andprotectionprojects,costingmanymillionsofdollars,areconductedeachyearonthevastfederallandreservesoftheUnitedStates,arguablywithimperfectresearchfocus.Tohelpimprovethisfocusandtoturntheseactivitiestowardparticularresearchends,nonfederalarchaeologistsmustbecomefamiliarwithandactivelyinvolvedinfederalagencyplanning.
BeforeIcometothetopicofU.S.federalagencyfundingforlandandresourcemanagementandimplicationsforresearchsupport,IwanttotalkgenerallyabouttheadministrativeandgeographicaldistributionofU.S.federallandsandthenatureofmanagingagencies'missions,theultimatepointbeingtoputthetopicintowhatIhopemightbeausefulperspectiveforthosewhowishtoinfluenceresearchsupport.Myremarks,whiletheyunavoidablyreflecttheviewpointIenjoyfromtheagencyIworkfor(BureauofLandManagement[BLM]),representonlymypersonalviews.
First,therearereallyveryfewfederalland-managingagencies.Nearlyseventyunitsofthegovernmentadministersomeland,rangingfromtheone-tenthofanacrechargedtothefederalGrainInspectionServicetothemorethan270millionacresoftheBLM.Wecandisregardmostofthelowendoftherange.Onemillionacres(404,700hectares)makesaconvenientdividinglinetoseparatelargefromsmallland-holdingagencies.Thisgenerallycorrespondswithagencies'self-identificationaslandmanagers,anditdoesn'tarbitrarily
excludeanythatjustmissesthecutoff(thenearestrunner-uphasmanyfeweracres).Tohelpyouvisualize,1millionacreswouldbecontainedbyasquarejustunder40miles(63.6kilometers)onaside.
Almostone-thirdofthelandsurfaceoftheUnitedStates,morethanseven-tenthsofabillionacres,isfederallyowned
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(BureauofLandManagement1989:Table4).Onlyfourcabinetdepartmentsandonegovernment-ownedcorporationhaveresponsibilityforasmuchasonemillionacres.TheTennesseeValleyAuthority(TVA),thecorporation,isjustabovethemillion-acrecutoff.ThentherearetheDepartmentofEnergy(DOE)withabout2.2millionacres,theDepartmentofDefense(DoD)withabout25millionacres,theDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)witharound190millionacres,andtheDepartmentoftheInterior(USDI)withmorethan500millionacres.Ifyouseparateoutfromthesethreedepartmentsthesubdivisionsthatthemselvesadministeronemillionacresormore,thenumberofunitsthatdosogoesuptotwelve.Thesedozenunitsareresponsibleformorethan99percentofallfederallyownedland.FivearebureausinUSDI(BLM,FishandWildlifeService,NationalParkService(NPS),BureauofIndianAffairs,andBureauofReclamation)andfouraresubdivisionsofDoD(DepartmentoftheArmy,DepartmentoftheAirForce,DepartmentoftheNavy,andArmyCorpsofEngineers).TheremainingthreearetheUSDA'sU.S.ForestService(USFS),DOEOperations,andtheTVA.Afterthesetwelve,morethanfiftyadditionalunitsaccountfortherestofthefederallands,afractionofonepercent,spreadunevenlyamongthem.
ThesefewagenciesthatmanagemostofthefederallandsandresourceshavemostoftheirholdingsinthewesternUnitedStates,includingAlaska;theTVAisthesingleexception.Aboutfive-sixthsofthelandsheldbytheUSFSareinwesternstates,andvirtuallyallofthoseheldbytheBLMare.So,too,aremostoftheunitsoftheNationalWildlifeRefugeandNationalParksystems,andmostoftheDoDlands(GeneralServicesAdministration1989).Federallandandresourcemanagementissues,then,moreoftenthannot,arewesternissueswithinU.S.sociopolitics.
WithinnonfederalcirclesinthewesternUnitedStates,closeattentionispaidtohowfederalmanagementisdone,whatfederalpoliciesand
precedentsareestablished,andhowtheuseoffederallandsandresourcesisconstrained.ThisreflectsthefactthatAlaskais87percentfederallyowned,Nevada85percent,UtahandIdahoeach63percent,Wyoming50per-
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cent,Oregon49percent,California46percent,andsoon.Incontrast,alloftheUnitedStatescutbyorfallingeastofthe100thmeridian,exceptforFloridaandNewHampshire,countfederallandpercentagesinsingledigits(BureauofLandManagement1989:Table4).AverysubstantialportionoftheeconomyofthewesternUnitedStatesdependsonfederallandandresourcemanagement.
Thepointofthisrecitationistoemphasizethatnearlyanydiscussionaboutmanagingfederallandsandresources,includingnaturalandculturalresourcesimportanttounderstandingthepeoplingoftheAmericas,willinvolvejustahandfulofagenciesthattendtohaveawesternframeofreference.Theytendalsotobenewcomersatdealingwitharchaeology.
Management
Mostfederalagencieshavebecomefamiliarwitharchaeologicalmattersonlysincetheearly1970s,inresponsetoTitle36CodeofFederalRegulations(CFR)Part800,theregulationsthatimplementSection106oftheNationalHistoricPreservationAct(NHPA;Title16U.S.Code[U.S.C.]Section470).Whetherlandmanagersornot,agencieswhoseactionsorauthorizationsforotherstoactmighthaveaneffectonsignificantarchaeologicalorhistoricalpropertiesmustgothroughacloselydefinedaccountabilityprocessbeforemakingafinaldecisiontoproceed(seeFowler,thisvolume).Whentheconsultingparticipantsdeterminethataproposedactionwouldhaveanadverseeffectonasignificantproperty,the"Section106reviewprocess"usuallyconcludeswithanagreementensuringthattheadverseeffectswillbemitigatedinanadequatemanner,suchasthroughpartialdatarecoveryinthecaseofanarchaeologicalsitethatcannotbeorneednotbepreservedinplace.Theproponentoftheaction,eitherthefederalagencyitselfortheholderofafederalauthorization,isthenobligatedtoconducttheagreed-uponmitigationbeforeproceeding
withtheactionthatpromptedthereview.
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TheSection106complianceprocessis,withoutquestion,thelargestcauseoffederalandprivateexpendituresforarchaeologyintheUnitedStatestoday(seeWatson,Bonnichsenetal.,thisvolume).Unfortunately,fewpeoplewhoarecloselyinvolvedwithitlikeitverymuch.Agencymanagersareoftenfrustratedbyitbecauseitslowsandaddsunpredictabilitytothedecision-makingprocess;landuseapplicantswhoarerequiredtopayconsultantsforsurveysandmitigationprojectsarealmostalwaysannoyedbyitbecauseofthetimeandmoneythatitrequires;evenarchaeologistswhocarryitoutarenumbedbyitsroutinenature.Andarchaeologistsobservingfromoutside,whentheydo,arelikelytobedisappointedwithitsorientation,outcome,orboth.Asthecustomarylabelof"compliance"wouldsuggest,Section106reviewissomethingtobestoicallylivedthrough;andmuchofthetimeitisnotverygoodscience.Itiscertainlyexpensiveintermsoffinitearchaeologicalresourcesaswellastimeanddollars,perhapsevenintermsofgoodwilltowardarchaeologyandarchaeologists.InpartsoftheWestwherethereissubstantialeconomicdependenceongovernmentlandsandresourcesandwhereattitudestendtofavorminimalgovernmentregulation,archaeologyissometimesnotagoodtopicforlightdiscussion.
WhileSection106hascreatedonekindofarchaeologicalinvolvementinfederalagencies,theArchaeologicalResourcesProtectionActof1979asamended(ARPA;16U.S.C.470aamm)hascreatedquiteadifferentkind.In1979,ARPAreinstatedtheabilityoffederalagenciestoprosecuteviolatorswhodiginand/orremoveartifactsfromfederalarchaeologicalsiteswithoutapermit,anabilitythathadbeenhamperedinmuchoftheWestbyanearlierappealscourtdecisionaffectingtheAntiquitiesActof1906.Likeitsprecursor,ARPAisprincipallyacriminalstatuteratherthanoneconcernedwithresourcemanagement.However,anamendmenttoARPAnowrequiresagenciestoplanandschedulesurveystolocate
thescientificallymostimportantarchaeologicalresourcesthatis,thosepresumedtodeservethemostcarefulprotectionfromillegaldisturbanceorremovalthusaddingabitmoremanagementtothemix.Theamendmentissilentaboutauthorizingfundsforconductingsuchsurveysasmaybeplannedand
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scheduled.Incidentally,ARPAenforcementcanbeanothersourceofstrainedpublicattitudestowardarchaeology.InsomewesternU.S.localities,huntinganddiggingforartifactsisviewedasaharmlesstraditionalpastime,andarrestsbygovernmentagentsmaystirdeeplocaloutrage.
TheNHPAandARPA,plussomerelatedstatutesofgeneralscopeandeffect,canbeseentogiveacertainuniformityofpurposetoland-managingagencies,applyinginmoreorlessthesamewaystoall.However,thisveneerofuniformitymaymasksomemajorinteragencydifferences.Inadditiontostatuteswithnationalapplication,mostagenciesfollowtheirownagency-specificlegislation,lawsthatgivethemparticularmissionsanddistinguishthemfromsimilaragencies.Muchmorethanthenationalstatutes,theselawsarekeytounderstandingaparticularagency'sviewpointandculture.
Untilthelastdecadeorso,fewofthesemission-defininglawsexplicitlyincludedarchaeologicalandhistoricalmatterstheNPSorganicactof1916beinganotableexceptionbutnowthesemattersarebeingincorporatedamongagencyresponsibilitiesasnewlawsarewrittenandoldonesareupdated.ThemessagesinthisarethattheCongressisawareandsensitive,atleastataproblem-recognitionlevel,andthatland-managingagenciesareperforcebecomingmoreso.Itappearssafetosaythatarchaeologyissecuringapermanentplaceonthepublicagendaforfederallands.Itisprobablyjustassafetosaythatmostland-managingagenciesarenotyetcompletelycomfortablewiththeirnewresponsibilities.
MultipleUseManagement
Thetwolargestland-managingagencies,theBLMandUSFS,aresimilarinmissionaswellasinimmensesize.Thesearetheagencies
whosespecificlegislationtellsthemtomanageafullrangeofrenewableandnonrenewableresourcesallthethingsthataregenerallyrecognizedasbeingresourcesonthebasisofmultipleuseandsustainedyield.Sustainedyield,whenconsideredintermsofrenewableresourcessuchastimberand
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livestockforage,isfairlyselfexplanatory.Theconceptofmultipleusehingesonbalanceandinformedchoice,thecombinationoflandandresourceusesthatwillbestaccommodatebothpresentdemandandfutureneeds.Itisaconservationconceptintendedtopromoteforward-lookingandthoughtfuluseofthenation'sassetsownedincommon.
TwofederalacresoutofthreearemanagedbytheBLMorUSFS.Twofederalacresoutofthreearemanagedformultipleuse.Partoftheimportanceofthisliesinthefactthatthesetwoagenciesarepainstakingplannersinordertofindthatpropercombinationoflandandresourceusesandplanningisverymuchopentopublicparticipation,needsit,dependsonit.Thefurtherimplicationisthatarchaeologistshaveagenuineopportunitytomaketheirspecialknowledgeandresearchinterestspartofthebasisonwhichparticularfederallandsaremanaged,anopportunitythatisalmostalwaysoverlooked.
ResearchFunding
Now,afterallthatpreamble,thereisnotmuchtosayaboutarchaeologicalorarcheologicallyrelatedresearchfundingbyland-managingagencies.Intheseyearsofcontinuingbudgetdeficitsandrelativeausterityindomesticprograms,itisgratifying,Isuppose,thatthesmallamountoffederalspendingforculturalresourcesarchaeologyandhistoryseemstostayfairlyconstant,keepingpacewithinflation.ThePresident'sbudgetsubmissionstotheCongressmaycallfordecreases,buttheCongressusuallyrestorestheprioryear'slevelwithalittleextra,tohelpkeepupwithincreasedcostsofdoingbusinessandtorespondinmodestwaystonew,congressionallydirectedemphases.Forexample,theCongresshasemphasizedARPAprotectioninthelate1980sandearly1990s,particularlywithregardtoagencies'lawenforcementcapabilities.
Ican'ttellyouexactlyhowmuchmoneyisinvolved.Justasfederalagenciesoperateundertheirownagency-specificlaws,fulfillingtheirindividualmissions,theyhaveevolvedtheirownwaysofcategorizing,requesting,andaccountingforap-
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propriatedfunds.Differentagenciescountmoneydifferently.Consequently,itisdifficultorimpossibletocomparebudgetfiguresacrossagencylinesandhavereasonableassurancethatlikeitemsarebeingcompared.
MoreusefulthanrawappropriationorbudgetfiguresarethenumbersagenciescompileandsubmitfortheSecretaryoftheInterior'sannualreporttotheCongressonfederalarchaeologicalactivities(KnudsonandMcManamon1992;seealsoKeeletal.1989,McManamonetal.1993).Forthe43agenciesrespondingtothequestionnairesforfiscalyears1985and1986,itappearsthatabout$75-$80million(inappropriatedfunds)isbeingspenteachyear,roughly95percentgoingtoNHPAcomplianceandmostoftheremaindertoARPAenforcement.ThereisnowaytodeterminehowmuchprivatemoneygoestoNHPAcompliance.
Cananyofthisfundingbemadeavailabletosupportacademicallysignificantarchaeologicalresearchinthenonfederalsector(seeBonnichsenandothers,thisvolume)?Perhaps,iftheresearchquestionsweredefinedintermsofanagency'smanagementneeds,andcommunicatedtotheagencyinusableways.Fewland-managingagencieswouldidentifybasicresearchasanagencypriority.Whiletheywillalmostalwaystrytobringresearchrelevancetobearondecisionsaffectingarchaeologicalresources,agenciesgenerallyhavetoscrambletoaccomplishthethingstheyarelegallyrequiredtodo;thistendstogivethemanarrow,pragmatic,somewhatstingyoutlook.Evenifarequiredtaskconsistsmainlyofgatheringandunderstandingnewarchaeologicaldata,itmaynotbespokenofas''research";infederalland-managingagencyjargon,"research"maywellcarryconnotationsoffrivolityorivory-towerimpracticality.Ifonelooksclosely,though,manypractical,mission-orientedoperationsreallyareresearch,lackinglittleinpreparation,execution,analysis,orinterpretationbutphrasedinpractical,bureaucraticterms.Anddueto
atightfocus,amanagementstudyconductedundercontractresearchofatask-adapted,appliedsortmayinadvertentlyneglecttoexploresomeofatopic'sorastudyarea'sresearchpotential.Itbearsmentionthatacademicallybasedresearchersseldomcompeteforcontractstodomanagementstudies.
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Planning
Ispokebrieflyofplanning.Forthesakeofdiscussion,federallandmanagementplanningcanbeseenasbeingoftwokinds.Thefirstisamoreleisurelykind,conductedovermanymonths,thatexaminesquantitative,qualitative,andspatialdataforacomprehensiverangeofnaturalandculturalresources,supplyanddemandissues,potentialconflicts,competingpublicinterests,andnumerousotherfactors.Thiskindofplanningproducesrelativelycomplete,long-term,resourceallocationandlanduseprescriptions,abasisforfuturemanagement.Thesecondisamuchmoreimmediatekindofcompliance-drivenplanningthatinvolvesarelativelymorehurriedreviewofidentifiableenvironmentalconflicts,aweighingofapparentconsequences,acomparisonofoptions,someselectedpublicparticipation,andadecision.Asshouldbeintuitivelyevident,planningofthelatterkindismorelikelytoyieldgooddecisionsifplanningoftheformerkindhasalreadybeendoneanddonethoroughly.
AsIpreviouslynoted,thearchaeologicalprofessionislargelyuninvolvedinplanningbyfederalland-managingagencies,whetherlong-termmanagementplanningorshort-term,compliance-drivenplanning(seeBonnichsenetal.,thisvolume).Thisissurelyoneofthemainreasonswhyfederalculturalresourcemanagementissubjecttocriticismasso-soscience.Fewarchaeologistsseemtohaverealizedthatfederalagenciesareaccountabletothepublicfortheirpolicies,procedures,plans,andperformance,andthattheyaretrulyopentohelpfulinformation,ideas,andsuggestions.
AllowmetoquoteseveralparagraphsfromanotherpaperIpresentedinearly1989:
Ifyouweretoaskagoodsampleofpeoplewhodealregularlywithculturalresourceswhatculturalresourcemanagementmeans,they'dsurelyalmostallsaysomethingaboutSection106compliance.Manywould
equatethetwo,consideringthemtobeexactsynonyms.Don'tgetmewrong,Section106isagoodtoolforhistoricpreservation,aprovenmeansfor
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makingfederalagenciesaccountable,andIandmanylikemeoweourjobstoit.ButSection106complianceisnotculturalresourcemanagement,it'sundertakingmanagement,projectmanagement,administrativeprocessmanagement.
Wetypicallygointoitwithtoolittletimeandadearthofknowledge,discoverthingswescarcelyanticipated,applyawoefullyinadequatesetofscreeningcriteria,makesomehalf-informedmitigationdecisions,collectthestandarddata,andneverlookback.Wecan'tlookback,we'retoobusydoingitalloveragainsomewhereelse.Withrepetitionwegetprettygoodatit,butourproficiencyisgearedtoapplyingtheprocess,nottomanagingtheresources.Maybeit'snotquitethatbleakandmindless;weactuallydosavesomethingsthatshouldbesaved(andmaybesomeweneedn'tbotherover),andweimproveourfeelforwhat'simportantaswegoalong.Butwe'renotmanagingculturalresources.
Ican'timagineaconstructionunderwhichhistoricpreservationincludingreactiveSection106compliance(andarchaeologicalresourceprotectionincludingreactivelawenforcement,forthatmatter)wouldnotbepartofculturalresourcemanagement.Buttherehastobemoretomanagementthanreaction....
Ifthearchaeologicalprofessioncollectivelywants...goodmanagementforarchaeologicalresources,thenindividualarchaeologistsmuchbeactiveinsharingwhattheyknow,andthink,andcanfigureout....
[F]indoutwhich[federalagency]officeadministersthelandsandthearchaeologyyou'reinterestedin,askwheretheyareintheplanningcycle,getontheirmailinglist,dosomeresearch,andparticipate.Thinkofitasprobonoworkweshouldbeatleastasnobleaslawyers(Douglas1989).
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Participation
Manyconcernedindividuals,industryrepresentatives,specialinterestgroups,andotherswithaneconomicorpolicystakeinthemanagementoffederallandsandresourcesactivelyinvolvethemselvesintheworkofgovernment,visitingfieldoffices,talkingwithstaffandmanagers,attendingpublicmeetings,readingandcommentingondraftdecisiondocuments,offeringhelpfulsuggestions,influencingtheoutcome.Forarchaeologiststoneglecttodothisistoentrustthecareofarchaeologicalresources,includingtheresearchusesifanytowhichtheyareput,blindlytoothers.Overextendedandpressuredagencystaffwilldothebestjobtheycan.However,iftheydon'thappentoknowthethingsyouknow,ortovaluethethingsyouvalue,youcanbereasonablysurethatyourinterestswillnotbeweighedinagencydecisions.Pleasedonotletthathappen.
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ReferencesCited
BureauofLandmanagement
1989PublicLandStatisticsVol.173(1988).U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington.
Douglas,J.G.
1989WhyNotManageCulturalResources?In"CulturalResourceManagementinthe1990s,"editedbyP.S.Miller,D.E.Gelburd,andG.A.Alderton,pp.63-70.AmericanSocietyforConservationArchaeologyProceedings1989.
Keel,B.C.,F.P.McManamon,andG.S.Smith(compilers)
1989FederalArcheology:TheCurrentProgram.AnnualReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologicalProgramFY1985andFY1986.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.
Knudson,R.,andF.P.McManamon
1992TheSecretary'sReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologyProgram.FederalArcheologyReport5(2):1,4-9.
McManamon,F.P.,P.S.Knoll,R.Knudson,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer(compilers)
1993FederalArcheologicalProgramsandActivities.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.
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VIISUMMARYTheconferencereportedinpartinthisvolumewasorganizedasaninternationalscientificresearchexposition,withthePublicTrustSymposiumaddedasanafterthought.Becauseofthepresentdifferencesbetweentheculturesincludinglanguage,structure,function,andvaluesofpublicarchaeologistsandacademyresearchers,communicationbetweenthetwoworldsisdifficult.Fewpeoplecrossovereffectivelybetweenthetwodomains.EvenattheMay1989SummitConference,theredidnotappeartobemuchcommunication"researchers"wereveryinvolvedinthefirstthreedaysof"scientific"papers,andmostleftbeforethePublicTrustSymposium.Manyofthesymposiumparticipants,mostofwhomare"culturalresourcemanagers,"didnotattendallofthefirstthreedays'presentationsandcametotheconferencealmostexclusivelytoparticipateinthesymposium.
Yet,probablyallconferenceparticipants,ifasked,wouldsaythattheybelievethatFirstAmericansresourcesareofsignificantpublicscientificandhumanisticvalue,andthattheirconservationisamajorpublicpolicyissue.
Thepost-conferenceinteractionamongscientific,educational,andmanagerialinterestshasbeensignificant,andthisvolumewithitsexplicitlinkagesofthesevariouselementsisanexcitingprojecttohavegeneratedandseentofruition.
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ThefinalpaperbyKeelandCalabresereviewsthepubliccontextinwhichFirstAmericansarchaeologicalandpaleo-environmentalresourceswillbeconserved,used,orconsumedapublicmanagementcontext.Togetherwiththeotherpapersinthisvolumetheyprovideguidanceforthefutureofthedistantpast.
RUTHANNKNUDSON
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StewardshipofFirstAmericansResourcesBennieC.Keel&F.A.Calabrese
ThePublicTrustDoctrineisanappropriateconceptunderwhichtodevelopFirstAmericansstewardshippoliciesandprograms,andisembeddedintheU.S.authorizinglegislationestablishingagenciessuchastheSmithsonianInstitution,NationalParkService,andBureauofLandManagement.FirstAmericansresearchsponsoredbynationalland-managingagenciesshouldhavetwogoals:tocollectnewinformationforuseinpublicunderstandingofthepast,andtoassisttheagenciesinmanagingthearcheologicalsites,materials,andinformationforwhichtheyareresponsible.Bothavocationalandprofessionalarchaeologistsneedtobecomemoreinvolvedinthedevelopmentandimplementationofenvironmentallegislation,ensuringthatitincludesprotectionofarchaeologicalorothermaterialscriticaltounderstandingtheFirstAmericans,sothattheseresourcesaremanagedaspartofbroaderair,water,andlandmanagement.PublicawarenessofFirstAmericansarcheologicalprotectionneedsisacriticalfactorinimplementingapublictrustconcept.
ThePublicTrust
Itisappropriatethatthisvolumeshouldbeginwiththeconceptofthepublictrust(Knudson,LeMaster)inarchaeology.ItisthroughthisconceptthatintheUnitedStatestodaywehavethephilosophy,ethic,laws,andmanagement(stewardship)principleswhichallowustoprotectourarchaeologicalresourcesbetheytheremainsoftheFirstAmericansorahistoricalmilitaryorcivilianencampment
representingthewesternexpansionintheterritoriesheldbythedescendantsofthoseFirstAmericansaswellasnaturalresources.
Theconceptofapublictrustisstatedrathersimplyandwithoutequivocationinthe1916actestablishingtheNational
Ifnopublicationdatesarenotedwithabibliographiccitationinthischapter,thereferenceddocumentisincludedwithinthisvolumeandisnotincludedinthecitedreferencesforthischapter.
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ParkService(NPS)asanagencyresponsible"...toconservethesceneryandthenaturalandhistoricobjectsandthewildlifethereinandtoprovidefortheenjoymentofthesameinsuchamannerandbysuchmeansaswillleavethemunimpairedfortheenjoymentoffuturegenerations"(PublicLaw[P.L.]235,39Statutes-at-Large[Stat.]535,16U.S.Code[U.S.C.]1etseq.).Implicitinthisstatementisnotonlytheconstructofpreservationastheobjectiveofpolicyandlaw,butthefactsofhowwearetotreattheresource(itistobeleft"unimpaired")andwhywepreserveit("fortheenjoymentoffuturegenerations").ThesewordsimposethefullforceofapublictrustupontheNPS.
The1916actembodiesconceptswhichdevelopedinthelate1880saboutthepreservationoflandsforfuturegenerations,reflectingthephilosophiesofPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt(inoffice1901-1909)andnaturalistJohnMuir(1838-1914).Whiletheconceptwasfirstembodiedintheestablishmentofournationalparksandsignificanthistoricresources(HotSprings,Arkansas,inthe1860sandYellowstone1872)itisnotuniquetotheUnitedStates.Infact,whiletheUnitedStateswasinitiallysettingasidelandsaspreserves,theCanadiangovernmentwasthefirsttoestablishacentralmanagingagency,ParksCanada,in1895.
Theconceptofapublictrustinpreservationhasitsrootsinthepreservationofnaturalareas,towhichwereaddedhistoricaland,byextension,archaeological,resources.ThesamepreservationethicresultedintheUnitedStatesintheestablishmentoftheSmithsonianInstitution(1849),aswellastheBureauofAmericanEthnology(1879),entitieswithamissiontopreservetheknowledgeofindigenouspeoplesandlifewaysbeforetheirtotaleradicationandloss.And,whilethephilosophyofanethicofpublictrustismanifestintheprotectionoflargelandareas,thelegalbackboneformuchoftheacquisitionofsuchpreservesintheUnitedStatesrestsuponthe
AntiquitiesActof1906,legislationdesignedtoprotectarchaeologicalandhistoricallysignificantremains(P.L.59-209,Stat.335,16U.S.C.431-433).
Theconceptofpublictrustisalsoembeddedinlegislationofothermajorfederalland-managingagenciesintheUnited
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States(Douglas),withtheFederalLandPolicyandManagementActof1976(P.L.94-579)givingsimilarresponsibilitiestotheBureauofLandManagement.AlthoughwithintheU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior(USDI)thevariousland-managingagenciesmayhavedifferentmanagementdirectives,e.g.,multipleuseandconservationvs.preservation,thepublictrustethicisexplicitandshouldpervadethemanagementdecision-makingprocess.ItdoesnotalwayshappenintheidealfashionforthereasonsaddressedbyLeMaster.
TheproblemsresultingfrompressuresuponFirstAmericansresourcesfromcompetingprivate,andsometimespublic,interests(LeMaster)aremostreadilyobservedinexplicitactstoobtainnaturalresourcesheldinprotectedlandpreserves,e.g.,oilinAlaskaandthecoastalareas,coalintheDakotas,wetlandsdevelopmentinsuburbanareas.Thetakingoftheseresourcesbyprivatecompaniesseeminglyimpactsonlythenaturalenvironment,buttheseactionsalmostalwaysinvolveextensivelandmodification,withtheresultingpotentiallossofsubsurfacearchaeologicalresources.Whilearchaeologicalresourcesappeartobeprotectedinconjunctionwithourlandsin"publictrust,"protectionisoftencompromisedbyoutrightshiftsinfederaladministrationpolicyconcerningdrilling,mining,orlanduse,orpurposefulneglectthroughfundingshifts(LeMaster).Areasassumedtobebestpreserved,suchasnationalparks,canbecompromisedbyshiftsinmanagementphilosophiesatnotonlythenationalbuttheregionalandeventhelocallevel.Inshort,whilethereissufficientlegislationtoprotectandpreserve,thatethiciseasilyunderminedbothconsciouslyandunconsciouslyinanumberofways.
TheapplicationofapublictrustphilosophyandethictoprivatelandholdingsseemsaninsurmountableproblemintheUnitedStates,givenourfiercebeliefinprivateownershipofproperty.Buttherearebreaksdevelopinginthatarmor,asnotedbyFowler.Historicalandprehistoricburialremainsandassociatedgravegoodsonprivatelands
arebeingprotected,irrespectiveoftheirantiquity.Andconsensualarrangementsarebeingmadeforprotectionandpreservation(e.g.,privatelyheldsitesontheNationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces).
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AshiftinU.S.philosophyconcerningtheprotectionofantiquitiestoonesimilartothoseinAsianand/orSouthAmericancountriesisnotoutofthequestioneventhoughalongshot.ButasLeMasternotes,inarepresentativedemocracy,thepublic(andarchaeologists)haveanopportunitytodirectthatphilosophyandethic.Itisuptoustoshapethemoratleasttonudgetheminaspecificdirection.ThelegislationthatisinplacetoprotectandpreserveresourcesonU.S.publiclandscameaboutthroughevolutionaryratherthanrevolutionarychangesinmandates;asthatevolutioncontinues,theremayalsobeashiftintheconceptsthatareadaptedtotheprotection,preservation,andmanagement(stewardship)ofthearchaeologicalresources.
ThesumtotalofU.S.publicpolicyforarchaeologycanbeviewed,asLeMasterconsidersit,as''...amosaicofpolicystatementscontainedinthelaws,administrativerules,courtdecisions,recentpresidentialbudgetrequests,andcongressionalappropriationsacts..."(andthesituationisprobablysimilarinmostothercountries).Thatishowourcollectiveattitudeaboutthepublictrustismademanifest.Ifthatisthecase,thenweareindeedintrouble,forwearchaeologistscollectivelyhavenotworkedwellinourownbestinterests.
Assomemustrequirealeapoffaithtoassertthatarchaeologicalresourcesarepartofapublictrust,publicarchaeologistscanonlyaskacademicscholarlyarchaeologiststoextendthat"leapoffaith"tosomeoftheircolleaguestothosewhohaveventuredintotheworldofresourcemanagementwithinthefederalaswellasstategovernment,tothosewhohaveworkedhardtoseetheconceptofpublictrustbecometheoverridingmanagementphilosophy,whileyetretainingtheabilitytointegrateresearchintothemanagementdoctrine.
ForsomewithintheU.S.federal,tribal,andstateculturalresourcemanagement(CRM)systems,ithasbeenfrustratingtowitnessthe
directionthatarchaeologistsandarchaeologicalprogramshavetakeningeneralpreservationprograms.AstatementthatCalabresemadetoaformerprofessorin1974cametobetrue:"Trainyourstudentswell,andrememberthosewhodonotgoontobecomeresearchersmayandwillseekemploymentinthestateandlocalgovernments;andtheywill
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dictatethefuturearchaeologywilltakeinthiscountry."Calabresedidnotrealizeatthattimethefullimpactofwhathewaspredicting.Nowarchaeologicalprotectioncomplianceproceduresarerequiredoffederalagenciesandprivatecompanies,performedbystaffarchaeologiststrainedbytheacademicresearchers,andmostfrequentlyundertheguidanceofstateHistoricPreservationOffice(SHPO)staffs.Thus,toomanyarchaeologicalprogramsmustbecarriedoutbykeystaffmemberswhoare,asDouglascomments,"numbedbytheroutineofit,"pursuingtasksthatmustbe"stoicallylivedthrough"tofacilitatearchaeologicalworkthatendsupas"notgoodscience.''Whosefaultisthat?Itisours,notanyoneelse's.
Tobesure,asBonnichsenetal.pointout,federalarchaeologicalprogramsintheUnitedStateshavetakenaturnwedidnotexpectandtherehasbeenaninterestinbuildingadministrativestructurestocontrolarchaeology.Perhapstheresultofanylegislationisthedevelopmentofabureaucracytoimplementit.Butthatdoesnotmeanthattheinterestsofscienceandresearchcannotbeserved.Ifthoselaws,rules,decisions,policystatements,andbudgetrequestsreflectourcollectivepublicpolicyandserveasunderpinningsforourpublictrustethicandinarepresentativedemocracy,asLeMasternotes,wecontrolthatpolicy,thenwemustcollectivelytakefullresponsibilityforouractionsconcerningthepublictrust.Archaeologistscannothideinivorytowers(basementanthropologylabs)orgovernmentcitadels(smallwindowlessoffices)andplaceresponsibilityforourcurrentstateofaffairsonanyoneelse.
Calabrese(1976)pointedoutthat,aboutthetimetheMoss-BennettbillpassedtheU.S.Congressin1974,archaeologistscreatedanenvironmentthatencouragedtheriseofcontractarchaeology(cf.Bonnichsenetal.).Atthattimetherewasanopportunitytodevelopaninstitutionalframeworktoguidethemanagementofarchaeologicalprogramswitharesearch-orientedphilosophy.Buttherewerefew
advocatesofsuchapolicy,andevenfewerscholarswereawarethat,whilethelegislationmightprotectresources,itwouldnotprovidebetterscholarshipandresearch.Thoseresponsibleforoverseeingfederalarchaeologicalprogramsatthattimewerenotpromot-
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ingaresearchapproach,butratheralternativepolicieswhichledtoourcurrentfederalmanagementprograms.
Research
Itisclearfromthepapersinthisvolumethatphilosophiesonthedirectionarchaeologyshouldtakedifferbetweenresearcherswithinandoutsideoffederalorstateagencies.Ontheonehand,Bonnichsenetal.lamentprogramsstressingsurveyandinventoryfor"placeoriented"federalagenciesandarchaeologicalprogramstopromoteavoidance,whileontheotherhandCalabresehasrecentlytoldtheNPSAssociateDirectorforCulturalResourcesthatthebiggestcontributiontheNPScanmakeisto"inventory...inventory...inventory."Withoutdoubttheneedsoftheland-managingagenciesandresearchersdonotalwayscoincide,butthesedisparateapproachesneedtobemutuallyunderstoodandvalued.TheydonotnecessarilyprohibitandcansupportdesirableresearchinFirstAmericansstudies.
ThosewhopromoteCRMastheultimateobjectiveofpublictrustarchaeologyoftencontrolthedollarsthatareusedandneededtoaccomplisharchaeologicalprojectsandprograms.Somepeoplehaveworkedhardtointegratetheconceptsofconservationandpreservation(LipeandLindsey1974)withresearchinfederalarchaeologicalprograms;however,notallfederalarcheologyprogramsaretiedtocompliance-ordevelopment-relatedarchaeology.TherearealargenumberofprogramsintheUnitedStatesintegratingpublicandacademicarchaeologywithinthefederalsystem,inbothcompliance-relatedprogramsandprogramsdesignedforlong-termdevelopmentofinformationforscholarlyandpublicconsumption.Anumberofsuchinformation-developmentprogramshavebeencarriedoutbyresearcherswithintheNPSMidwestArcheologicalCenter,andthroughcooperativeagreementswithmajoruniversities.The
examplesbelowareonlyasampling.
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TheKnifeRiverArchaeologicalPrograminNorthDakotabeganasacooperativeprogrambetweentheNPSandtheUniversityofNorthDakota,designedtoprovidedataforanewlyestablishedparkarea.Aresearchdesignwasdevelopedwhichbroughttogetherresearchersingeomorphology,geography,anthropology,ethnohistory,physics,mathematics,andcomputersciencetoevaluatearchaeologicalremainsattheKnifeRiverIndianVillagesNationalHistoricSiteareafromthePaleoindiantothepresent.Whiletheemphasiswasuponthelastonethousandyears,fundswerealsoexpendedtoworkoutsidetheparkareatoevaluatethelocalgeomorphologyandtestanumberofsitesinconjunctionwithprivatelyfundedresearchinthearea.ThisresultedinthelocationofoneoftheearliestPaleoindiansitesinNorthDakotaaswellasanumberofArchaicarchaeologicalsites.Theresultsofthisprojectincludedmorethanthirtymonographs,severalmastersthesesandtwodissertations,afour-volumesummaryseriesofscientificinformation,abookdesignedasasynthesisforthelaymanandforpubliceducation(Ahleretal.1991),andasecondbookforchildren(Wardetal.1989).
AnotherprojectconductedasrescuearchaeologyevolvedintheGrandTetonNationalParkinWyoming,astheBureauofReclamation(BoR)drewdownthewatersoftheartificiallyraisedJacksonLakeinpreparationfortherebuildingoftheJacksonLakeDam.Withthewaterlevelslowered,anumberofimportantarchaeologicalsiteswereexposed.Asurveyoftheareawasinitiatedtolocateothersitesthatmighthavebeeninundatedsincethe1906constructionoftheoriginaldam.Overonehundredpreviouslydrownedsiteswererecorded.Aspartoftheproject,aresearchdesignwasdevelopedtoguidethesurveyandsucceedingmitigationprogram.Partofthisdesignwasasystematicprogram,employingtheworkofPleistocene-HoloceneresearchgeologistKenPierce,todiscoverpaleosoilswherePaleoindiansitesmightbelocatedand
evaluated.Therewerefundingconstraintsandtimeconstraints,butthenwhenaretherenotingovernmentprograms?Givenallofthelimitations,asincereeffortwasmadetolocateandevaluate(excavate)Paleoindiansitesaswellasrepresentative
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samplesofallothersites.Unfortunately,foravarietyofreasons,althoughsurfacemanifestationssuggestedthepresenceofPaleoindianremains,theywerenotfoundinthesubsurfaceformations,thoughtheyarewellrepresentedinsurfacecollectionsmadearoundthelakefordecades.
HarneyFlatsinFlorida(DanielandWisenbaker1987)wasalarge(3.36acres,1.35hectare)LatePaleoindian-EarlyArchaicsite.ThearchaeologicalrecoveryprojectconductedtherewasfundedbytheU.S.DepartmentofTransportationandtheFloridaDepartmentofTransportation,andwascarriedoutbytheFloridaBureauofArchaeologicalResearch.Some967m2oftheearliestcomponentswereexcavated.Throughcarefulexcavationsandpieceplotting,theinvestigatorswereabletoconstructdistributionswhichledtotheidentificationofactivityareasandunderstandingofthesitefunctionandplan.ThefinalreportprovidesanexcellentrecordofthematerialanddatarecoveredthatcanbeusedtofurthertheunderstandingofFirstAmericanscomplexes.
ExpliciteffortsweremadeinthedevelopmentoftheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers(COE)RichardB.RussellReservoirinGeorgiaandSouthCarolinatoidentifyandexaminePaleoindiansiteswithintheprojectarea,withintheoverallpreconstructionculturalresourceinventoryandevaluationeffort.ThiseffortwasplannedasajointresearchprogrambytheCOE,NPS,GeorgiaandSouthCarolinastatearchaeologists,SHPOstaffs,andelementsoftheprofessionalcommunity.Someeighttotenprofessionalarchaeologistswereinvolvedindevelopingtheresearchparametersforthisproject.AsynthesisaswellasacriticalcritiqueoftheRussellresearchprogramarepresentedinAndersonandJoseph(1988).TheresultsofFirstAmericansresearchtherewerequiteinformative,althoughnomajorinsituPaleoindiancomponentswerefoundandinvestigated.Nonetheless,smallburiedPaleoindiancomponentswereexcavatedat
severalsitesandthemethodsusedandreportsoftheseeffortsprovideexceptionallygooddata.
Atthesametime,afewmilessoutheastoftheRussellReservoirarea,PaleoindianresearchwasbeingconductedbytheUniversityofGeorgiaintheWallaceReservoirontheOconeeRiver.Thiswaspartofaprogramtomitigatetheeffectsofthe
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proposedWallaceReservoirconstruction,andwassupportedbytheGeorgiaPowerCompany.TheWallaceReservoirinvestigationshavebeenpublishedbytheUniversityofGeorgia(Brook1991,FishandHally1983,Ledbetteretal.1981,O'Steenetal.1986).InformationacquiredfromtheseaswellasotherPaleoindianinvestigationsinGeorgiaandthesurroundingstateshasbeensynthesizedinAndersonetal.(1990).
AdditionalCRMprojectsintheUnitedStatesinwhichFirstAmericansresearchconcernswereimbeddedintheimplementingstagesofmitigationeffortsorgrewoutofinitialCRMinvestigationsarelistedbelow,withtheirsponsoringagenciesandresultingpublications:
Tennessee-Tombigbee,AlabamaandTennessee(COEandNPS;Brose1991)
SouthwestJeffersonCounty,KentuckyFloodControlProject(COEandNPS;Collins1979)
1-270Project,Illinois(IllinoisDepartmentofTransportation,NPS,andIllinoisArchaeologicalSurvey;BareisandPorter1984)
NewMelonesDamandReservoir,California(COE,NPS,andBoR;Morattoetal.1988)
CentralArizonaProject,Arizona(BoR)
DoloresProject,Colorado(BoR;Breternitzetal.1986)
DanielBooneNationalForest,Kentucky(U.S.ForestService;BushandThomas1986a,1986b,Ison1988)
DelawareWaterGap,PennsylvaniaandNewJersey(COEandNPS;OrrandCampana1991)
TellicoReservoir,Tennessee(NPSandTennesseeValleyAuthority
[TVA];Chapman1985)
NormandyReservoirProject,Tennessee(TVA;FaulknerandMcCollough1973)
Theresultsoftheseinvestigationsandtheinsightstheyhaveproducedhavenotbeenrelegatedtothegreyliterature,buthavebeenpublishedinmonographsdistributedtothepublicwithoutcharge.
FederalandstatearchaeologicalprogramsintheUnitedStatesarecompatiblewithFirstAmericansresearchobjectives,iftheprincipalrepresentativesofthefederalandstateagenciesinvolvedhavearesearchorientation.Thedivorceof
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researchfromCRMisnotareflectionoflegislation,butoftheattitudeofthearchaeologistsservingasadvisorstothemanagersoftheresource.
Publicarchaeologyhasproducedahugevolumeofmonograph-sizepublicationsoutliningtheresultsofsurveys,datarecovery,andevaluationstatements.Theseareoftenavailableonlyinmanuscriptform(thegovernmentcertainlycannotaffordtopublishthemall)senttointerestedscholarsanddistributedasgreyliterature(thoughseediscussionoftheNationalArchaeologicalDataBaseinMcManamonandKnudson,thisvolume).Buttosaythatanyonewishingtodoresearchwiththisliteraturemustspendinnumerablehoursseparatingoutvaluabledatafromlegallyrequireddocumentationisanoverstatement,andsuggeststhattheseresearchersarebecomingabitlazy.Whosaidthatresearchiseasyornottimeconsuming?Withsomefamiliarity,thesedocumentscanbescannedanddigestedquiteeasily.IfoneistocontributetothesearchfortheFirstAmericans,onemustbecomefamiliarwiththeavailabledataallofit.Whoeverpromisedthatitwouldbeneatlysynthesizedandpre-digestedandregurgitatedfirst?
InfactanumberofbenefitshavederivedfromtheCRMprogramsinU.S.federal,tribal,state,andlocalagencies.
ThroughouttheUnitedStates,inSHPOsandothergovernmentagencyoffices,arecomputerizedlistingsofknownarcheologicalsitesandculturalaffiliationsaswellaselectronicbibliographiesoftheavailablegreyliteraturereportingthesesites(McManamonandKnudson,thisvolume).Onecanpredictthatasweforgefurtherintothecomputerage,additionaldatawillbecomeavailabletoresearchersintheofficeandathomewithouttheneedtotraveltotheareaofinterest.Itisfarbetternowthanitwasinthepast.Archaeologicalinformationgatheringinthelate1960sandthroughthe1980sinthe
UnitedStatesrequiressearchingthroughunorganizedsiterecordsinmustybasementsandpersonallibrariesofprofessorsforobscurepapersandlittle-knownandoftenunpublisheddata.Theproblemcontinues,thevolumeofdataisgreater,andfederalagenciesareattemptingtousethebestavailablemethodsformanagingandcontrollingthisinformation.
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LegalAspects
Severalchaptersinthisvolume(Fowler,LeMaster,Magne,McGimsey)coveringthelegalenvironmentprovideabasicframeworkforunderstandingopportunitiesandconstraintsinconductingarchaeologicalresearchingeneral.ItisnotsurprisingthatsomeCentralandSouthAmericancountrieshavestrongerlegislationthantheUnitedStatestoprotectthenation'sinterestincontrollingsites,objects,andmonumentsofthecivilizationsrepresentedintheirhistory.Unlikesitescontainingevidenceofearliercultures,theremainsofthehighculturesareimpressive,eventothecommoncitizen,andthereisgeneticcontinuitybetweenalargeproportionofpastandpresentpeoplesthere.
Lawsandtheiremphasisreflecttheparticularhistoryoftheindividualnationalgovernment.Thecoverageorprotectivedepththatthelawsreachreflectthepoliticalphilosophiesofcurrentgovernments.Irrespectiveoftheamountofcoverageofferedbytheselaws,acommonbasicunderpinningisconservationofeachnation'sarchaeologicalrecordforthebenefitofitscitizens.Howthosebenefitsaretoaccrueisnotspelledoutinthelaws.
Thereseemstobeacommonviewacrossmuchoftheworldthatarchaeologicalorhistoricpreservationlawsaresomehowanti-researchbecausetheydonotstipulate"research"intheirlanguage.SomemanagersanddecisionmakersintheUnitedStatesmakethisinterpretation,butmostofthemhavebeenswayedfromthispositionbycraftyagencyarchaeologistswhohavebeenabletodevelopresearch-likeprogramsthoughthethoughtfulmanipulationofcomplianceprojectplanningandcontractinglanguage.InstancescanbecitedtoshowthatresearchershaveusedpoliticalconnectionstoexpandandaugmentCRMprojectstoparalleltheirresearchinterests.Elsewhereinthischapterwehavedescribedresearcheffortsrelatedto
FirstAmericansstudieswhichhavebeencarriedoutwithintheexistingbodyofpreservationrulesandregulations.Ineachcasetheseeffortsweredevelopedthroughtheclosecooperationof"researchers"andgovernmentarchaeologists.
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WebelievethatmostpublicagenciesinNorthAmericawelcomewell-designedresearchprojectswithintheirdomains.ThenormalrequirementstoconductresearchonUSDIlands,forexample,areprettysimple:apracticalexplicitresearchdesign;competentresearchers;thewherewithaltoconducttheprogram,includingfunds,equipment,institutionalbacking,andarecordofsuccessfulresearch;andaprogramthatdoesnotinterferewithotheragencymissions,particularlythemissionofthelandunitwhereinvestigationsaretotakeplace.Frequently,flexibilityinschedulingfieldworkwillovercomeconflictwithothermissionobjectives.Contrarytosentimentsexpressedbysomeofourcolleagues,weseethepurposeofconservationarchaeologyasnottolockoutresearch,butrathertoassurethatresourcesarewiselyconsumed.
Archaeologistsincountriesthatarejustbeginningtoformulateorredefineenvironmentallegislationneedtobecomedeeplyinvolvedinsuchefforts.Participationatthebeginningofthelegislativeprocessmayallowforthelegalauthorizationofspecificarchaeologicalvaluesupfront,ratherthantheneedtocontinuallystruggletosneaksuchvaluesunderthetentatalatertime.
PublicEducationandAwareness
Wefindourselvessinginginthesamechoirasdomanyotherauthorsinthisvolumewhenitcomestotheneedforgreaterpubliceducationofthelaity,politicians,NativeAmericans,anddecisionmakers.Clearlythereisgreatneedforarchaeologytogainasmuchpublicsupportaspossible.TheexperiencesreportedbyDevineandBenseshowthatseveralsegmentsofthepublicareinterestedinplayingaroleinarchaeology.Therolesthattheywishtoplaymaybeactiveonesrangingfromfieldorlaboratoryvolunteeractivitiestoservingassitestewardsorclientsofarchaeologicalentertainment.Weencourageresearcherstodeviseasmanyopportunitiesaspossibleforpublic
participation.Ourexperiencehasbeenthatmembersofthepublicarewillingtoputupwiththesamedifficulties
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andfrustrationsaspaidcrewmembersinfieldwork.Theyarefrequentlywillingtogobeyondtheeffortsofpaidpersonnelinthelaboratory.
IntheUnitedStatesoverthelastdecade,asignificantefforthasbeenmadebytheUSDI,SocietyforAmericanArchaeology(SAA),severalSHPOs,andotherpartiestohaltvandalismandthedestructionofarchaeologicalresources.Theattackonthisproblemhasseveralfacets.In1985,theUSDI'sDepartmentalConsultingArchaeologistinstitutedthecollectionanddisseminationofdataconcerningillegalarchaeologicalactivitiesandbeganreportingthemtoCongress(KnudsonandMcManamon1992;seeKeeletal.1989,McManamonetal.1993).Simultaneously,adatabaseforthecollectionanddisseminationofinformationaboutarchaeologyeducationprograms(Knoll1990,1993)wasinstituted.In1998,ARPAwasamendedtoreducethefelonythresholdforoffensesundertheAct,makeintenttoviolatetheActanoffense,andrequireagenciestopursueinventoryofarchaeologicalresourcesonthepubliclandsinamoresystematicandtimelymanner.
Alsoin1988,theSAAinitiatedapublicarcheologicalresourceprotectionprojectwiththehelpoffederalfunding.ThisinitiativeresultedinmeetingsofconcernedprofessionalsinTaos,NewMexico(SAA1991),andinLasVegas,Nevada(SmithandEhrenhardt1991),devotedtoidentifyingproblemsanddefiningpracticalsolutions.TheresultsoftheseconferencesaresimilartotheideasexpressedbyBonnichsenetal.inthisvolume.
Atthenationallevel,theUSDIrecognizesexemplaryeffortsofpublicandprivatesectorgroupstoconservethenation'sresourcesthroughitsPublicServiceAwardsprogram.RecentrecipientsincludeGulfPowerCompany(Florida)foritsHawkshawProject(Bense1985),GeorgeGummerman,SouthernIllinoisUniversity-Carbondaleforthe
BlackMesa,Arizonaproject,andFredWendorf,SouthernMethodistUniversity,forhiscareer-longeffortsinpublicarchaeology.Alsoatthenationallevel,thePresident'sAdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservationoperatesanawardsprograminwhicharchaeologicalpreservationprojectshavebeenrecognized(ACHP1993:8).Anumberofstatesandstate-levelarchaeo-
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logicalsocietiesaswellastheSAA(CrabtreeAward)andCanadianArchaeologicalAssociationpresentannualrecognitionawardstodeservingindividualsorgroups.Themediaattentiongiventotherecipientsoftheseawardsfurtherseducationofthegeneralpublicregardingthedesirabilityofthewiseuseofthenation'sarchaeologicalresources.
TheNPSiscurrentlyconductinganEarliestAmericansNationalHistoricLandmark(NHL)ThemeStudy(Grumetetal.1995)torecognizeandprotectsignificantFirstAmericanssites.DesignationofFirstAmericansNHLsonpublicandprivatelands,anddistributionofinformationaboutthem,willsupportresearchandenhanceawarenessofLatePleistocene-Holoceneclimatesandenvironments,andhumanadaptationtoanduseofthoseenvironments.
Ourimpressionisthatoverthelastfewyearstherehasbeenanincreaseinthenumberofsocietiesorfoundationsthatpromotearchaeologicalresearchandconservation.Therealsoseemstobeaslightgrowthinthemembershipsofstate-levelavocationalsocieties,whichmaybegeneratedbytheopportunityformoreactiveparticipationatthelocallevel.Inatleastonestate,NorthCarolina,twostatewidearchaeologicalorganizationstheArchaeologicalSocietyofNorthCarolina,whoseoperationhasbeenguidedbytheUniversityofNorthCarolina-ChapelHill,andtheFriendsofNorthCarolinaArcheology,operatedoutoftheDepartmentofCulturalResourcesinRaleighhavemergedintoasinglestrongorganization.Bothbodiesbelievedthatasasinglevoicetheywouldhaveastrongerimpactonthestatehouseinmattersrelatedtothestate'sarchaeologicalprograms.WebelievethattheseexamplesofincreasedpublicparticipationinarcheologicalactivitiescanbeattributedtoagreaterlevelofawarenessofthestatusofandthreatstoU.S.archaeologicalresources.
Funding
FirstAmericansresearchersneedtobecomemoreawareofthemultitudeofpotentialsourcesforfundingtheirstudies.
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Weexpectthatscholarsinvolvedinactiveresearcharefullyawareofthetraditionalfundingbodieswithintheirownnations.IntheUnitedStates,academiciansmostcommonlynametheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)andtheNationalGeographicSociety(NGS)asarchaeologicalresearchsupportagencies.Wealthyindividualsortaxshelterfoundationscreatedbyindustryareothersourcesofsupport.Supportfromthegeneralpublicthroughfund-raisingactivitieshasbecomemorecommonintheUnitedStatesinrecentyears;inEngland,archaeologythroughpublicsubscriptionhasbeenaroundforsometime.ThelargestsourceoffundingforFirstAmericansresearchintheUnitedStatesprobablyistobefoundinstateandfederalagenciesastheymeettheirculturalresourcemanagementresponsibilities.
Williamshasprovidedexcellentguidanceonthecareandfeedingofprivatefundingsources.Itshouldnotbesurprisingthattherecommendationsheprovidesarealsodirectlyapplicabletodevelopingandmaintainingapositiverelationshipwithgovernmentagencies.DouglasgivesaparticularlyclearpictureoftheintricaciesofCRMplanningandfundinginamajorU.S.land-managingagency.HisdiscussionoftheinteractionbetweenresearchersandhisagencyparallelscommentsmadebyWilliams.Thekeyseemstobecommunicationbetweenagencymanagersandresearchers.AsWatsonnotes,fundingfordirectorrelatedFirstAmericansresearchintherecentpasthascomprisedaboutsixpercentofthe$2-$3millionawardedannuallybyNSFtoarchaeologicalactivities.Duringthe1978-87decade,NSFthusspentabout$1.5milliononPaleoindianresearch.ReferringbacktoWatson'spartiallistoffederalCRMprojectsinvolvingFirstAmericansresearch,wesuggestthatsubstantiallymorewasspentbythefederalgovernmentthroughitshistoricpreservationactivitiesthanthroughdirectresearchfunding.
InvestigatorspursuingfundsforFirstAmericansresearchinthe
UnitedStatesshouldconsiderbroadeningtheirhorizons.GiventhattheCongresshasdirectedfederalland-managingagenciestodevelopspecificplanstoidentifytheimportantfederallyownedarchaeologicalresources,thetimeisripeforFirstAmericaniststoparticipateinguidingthiseffort.
Page202
Recommendations
FirstAmericansresearchisimportantindelineatingtheinitialpeoplingoftheAmericas,butitisonlyasmallpartofeachnation'soverallpublicarchaeologicalprograms.Manifestationsoflaterculturalcomplexesaremoreapparentandmoreeasilylocatedandrecordedthanthoserepresentingthefirstinhabitants.Itisimportanttorecognizethisfact,sothatineachmajorland-developmentprojectsufficienteffortismadetoemployamultidisciplinaryresearchapproachthatwillallowforevaluationofthepotentialforPaleoindianremains,andtotakeeveryopportunitytofillinthatsegmentofthearchaeologicalrecord.Buttheremainderoftherecordshouldnot,ofcourse,beslighted.
ThisapproachisdependentuponFirstAmericansscholarsbecomingfamiliarwithandaccustomedtoworkingwitharchaeologistsandlandmanagersinvolvedinoverseeingpublicarchaeologicalprograms.ItisalsodependentuponpublicarchaeologistsinsuringthatthoseinvolvedinFirstAmericansresearcharenotifiedabout,andtheirtalentsandknowledgeintegratedinto,researchplansandprogramswherethepotentialexistsforunravelingFirstAmericansquestions.
Thepublictrustphilosophyandethicmustbestressedandpromotedateveryopportunity.Therehasbeenarecenttrendtofosterthatawarenessthrough''archaeologyweeks"(Greengrass1993)andthroughcommunicationofbasicinformationtothepublicbypublicagencies.Additionalemphasisisneeded.Inlargepublicprojectsinvolvingarchaeology,sufficientfundsmustbeprogrammedtodevelopbooksforalayaudience,includingchildren,inseverallanguages.Videos,brochures,booklets,andposterscanconveytothepublicconsiderableinformationanddevelopanarchaeologicalawarenessnototherwisefound.FirstAmericansscholarsmusttakethetimetodevelopthesemedia,towriteinaformatthatis
conceptuallydifferentfromthatinwhichtheyaretrained.Theymustacceptandevensupportthefactthatfundstheymightbelievebetterspentonresearcharebeingusedtopromotearchaeologicalpubliceducationandawareness.
Page203
Theconceptofapublictrust,alreadynotedinU.S.landmanagingpolicies,mustbestressedforourculturalpropertiesaswellasnaturalresources.Thephilosophyandethicisthere,buttherelationshiptoarchaeologicalresourcesmustbestatedexplicitly.Furtherdevelopmentofthepublictrustconceptasitrelatestoprivatepropertyrightsmustawaitashiftinthecollectivepublicphilosophy.Toforceorattempttodirectthatshiftmayalienatethepublicmorethanitwouldpersuadethemofthenotionthatarcheologicalresourcesareapublictrust.
FundingofFirstAmericansresearch,oranyotherarchaeologyforthatmatter,isnotgoingtoincreaseinthenearfuture.Slightincreasesinfundingmayoccur,butitislikelythatarchaeologicalfundinglevelswillremainstagnantordecreaserelativetospendinginothersegmentsoftheeconomy.FundingforarchaeologyintheUnitedStatesisinlargeparttiedtofundingofpublictrustlandmanagingagencies.Thatinturnistiedtoadministrativeandcongressionalactions.Therealityinmostnationsisthatfundingforarchaeologyistiedtoeconomicprosperity,andwillincreaseonlywhenthecollectivenationaldisposableincomechanges.Givenothersocialprogramneeds,archaeologydoesnotstandmuchofachanceforbudgetaryincreases.Archaeologistsmustseekprivate(foundationandindividual)fundingforourspecialFirstAmericansprojects,andinsurethatFirstAmericansresearchisconsideredandincludedinexistingandfuturepublicprograms.
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1993ReporttothePresidentandCongressoftheUnitedStates1993.AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,Washington.
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1988PrehistoryandHistoryAlongtheUpperSavannahRiver:TechnicalSynthesisofCulturalResourceInvestigations,RichardB.RussellMultipleResourceArea,VolsIandII.RussellPapers,InteragencyArcheologicalServicesDivision.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Atlanta,Georgia.
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1990PaleoindianPeriodArchaeologyofGeorgia,UniversityofGeorgiaLaboratoryofArchaeologySeriesReportNo.28;GeorgiaArchaeologicalResearchDesignPaperNo.6.
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1986DoloresArchaeologicalProgram:FinalSyntheticReport.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,BureauofReclamation,EngineeringandResearchCenter,Denver.
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1991GeoarchaeologyoftheOconeeReservoir.WallaceReservoirProjectContribution15.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens.
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1991Yesterday'sRiver;TheArcheologyof10,000YearsalongtheTennessee-TombigbeeWaterway.ClevelandMuseumofNaturalHistory,Cleveland.
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1986aACulturalResourceInvestigationofselectedareaswithintheRedbirdRangerDistrict,DanielBooneNationalForest,Kentucky.DavidBush,Inc.,Cleveland.
1986bPhaseIIAssessmentTestingodEnochForkShelter(15Pe50),RedbirdRangerDistrict,DanielBooneNationalForest,Kentucky.DavidBush,Inc.,Cleveland.
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1979ExcavationsatFourArchaicSitesintheLowerOhioValley,JeffersonCounty,Kentucky.OccasionalPapersinAnthropology,No.1.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington.
Daniel,I.R.,Jr.,andM.Weisenbaker
1987HarneyFlats:AFloridaPaleo-IndianSite.BaywoodPublishingCo.,Inc.,Farmingdale,NewYork.
Faulkner,C.H.,andM.C.R.McCollough
1973IntroductoryReportoftheNormandyReservoirSalvageProject:EnvironmentalSetting,Typology,andSurvey.ReportsofInvestigations,No.11.DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofTennessee,Knoxville.
Fish,P.R.,andD.J.Hally
1983TheWallaceReservoirArchaeologicalProject:AnOverview.EarlyGeorgia11(1-2):1-19.
Greengrass,M.R.
1993StateArcheologyWeeks.ArcheologicalAssistanceProgram
TechnicalBrief15.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,Washington.
Grumet,R.S.(projectcoordinator)andM.R.Barnes,S.L.DeVore,H.R.Dunbar,R.S.Grumet,andS.D.Morton(compilers)
1995EarliestAmericansNationalHistoricLandmarkThemeStudy.Draft1:ProjectDescription,StatusReport,andStatePaleo-IndianArcheologicalDataSummaries.Ms.onfile,NPS,Mid-AtlanticRegionalOffice,Philadelphia.
Ison,C.R.
1988TheColdOakShelter:ProvidingaBetterUnderstandingoftheTerminalArchaic.InPaleoindianandArchaicResearchinKentucky,editedbyC.C.Hockensmith,D.Pollack,andT.N.Sanders,pp.205-219.KentuckyHeritageCouncil,Frankfort.
Keel,B.C.,F.P.McManamon,andG.S.Smith(compilers)
1989FederalArcheology:TheCurrentProgram.AnnualReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologicalProgramFY1985andFY1986.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.
Knoll,P.C.(editor)
1990ListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms:TheLEAPClearinghouse.1987-1989SummaryReport.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,Washington.
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Knudson,R.,andF.P.McManamon
1992TheSecretary'sReporttoCongressontheFederalArcheologyProgram.FederalArcheologyReport5(2):1,4-10.
Ledbetter,R.J.,L.D.O'Steen,andS.A.Kowalewski
1981ChertofSouthernOconeeCounty,Georgia.EarlyGeorgia9:1-13.
Lipe,W.D.,andA.J.Lindsey
1974Proceedingsofthe1974CulturalResourceManagementConference,Denver,Colorado.TechnicalSeriesNo.14.MuseumofNorthernArizona,Flagstaff.
McManamon,F.P.,P.C.Knoll,R.Knudson,G.S.Smith,andR.C.Waldbauer(compilers)
1993FederalArcheologicalProgramsandActivities.U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,NationalParkService,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,Washington.
Moratto,M.J.,J.D.Tordoff,andL.H.Sharp,withcontributionsbyothers
1988CultureChangeintheCentralSierraNevada,8,000B.C.-A.D.1950.FinalReportoftheNewMelonesArcheologicalProjectVol.
9.ReporttotheNationalParkService,Washington,D.C.INFOTECDevelopment,Inc.,Sonora,California.
Orr,D.G.,andD.V.Campara(editors)
1991ThePeoplingofMinisink.Papersfromthe1989DelawareWaterGapSymposium.NationalParkService,Mid-AtlanticRegion,Philadelphia.
O'Steen,L.D.,R.J.Ledbetter,D.T.Elliott,andW.W.Barker
1986PaleoindianSitesoftheInnerPiedmontofGeorgia:ObservationsofSettlementintheOconeeWatershed.EarlyGeorgia1:13-63.
Smith,G.S.,andJ.E.Ehrenhard(editors)
1991ProtectingthePast.CRCPress,BocaRaton,Florida.
SocietyforAmericanArchaeology(SAA)
1991SavethePastfortheFuture:ActionPlanforthe'90s.SocietyforAmericanArchaeology,Washington.
WardM.,J.Burr,andJ.Ahler
1989TheMouseRaid.UniversityofNorthDakotaPress,GrandForks.
Page207
LISTOFCONTRIBUTORSJudithA.BenseistheDirector,ArchaeologyInstitute,andAssociateProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofWestFlorida,Pensacola.
RobsonBonnichsenistheDirector,CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,andAssociateProfessorofAnthropology,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.
F.A.CalabreseistheChief,MidwestArcheologicalCenter,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Lincoln,Nebraska,andanAdjunctProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofNebraska,Lincoln.
HeatherDevineisanindependentculturalheritageconsultantandformerEducationOfficeroftheArchaeologicalSurveyofAlberta,ProvincialMuseumofAlberta,Edmonton.
TomD.DillehayisaProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofKentucky,Lexington,andtheDepartamentodeAntropologia,UniversidaddeChile,Valdivia.
JohnG.DouglasisaSeniorArcheologist,DivisionofCulturalResources,BureauofLandManagement,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington.
JohnM.FowleristheSeniorCounsel,AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,Washington.
GeorgeC.FrisonisaProfessorofAnthropology,UniversityofWyoming,Laramie.
RoyA.GallantisDirector/LectureroftheSouthworthPlanetariumandAdjunctProfessorofEnglish,UniversityofSouthernMaine,Portland.
LeslieStarrHartisChief,OfficeofProfessionalandEmployeeDevelopment,DenverServiceCenter,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Denver,andatthetimeofthesymposiumwasChief,DivisionofCulturalResources,AlaskaRegionalOffice,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Anchorage.
FumikoIkawa-SmithisaProfessorofAnthropology,McGillUniversity,Montreal.
BennieC.KeelistheSoutheastRegionalArcheologist,SoutheastArcheologicalCenter,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Tallahassee,andAdjunctProfessorofAnthropology,
Page208
FloridaStateUniversity,Tallahassee.AtthetimeofthesymposiumhewasNationalParkServiceAssistantDirector-ArcheologyandtheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorDepartmentalConsultingArcheologist.
RuthannKnudsonisanArcheologist,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivisionandOfficeoftheDepartmentalConsultingArcheologist,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington;ResearchAssociate,CaliforniaAcademyofSciences,SanFrancisco;andprincipalofherownsmallwoman-ownedfirm,KnudsonAssociates,Alexandria,Virginia.
DennisC.LeMasteristheHead,DepartmentofForestryandNaturalResources,PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,Indiana.
FrancisP.McManamonistheU.S.DepartmentoftheInteriorDepartmentalConsultingArcheologistandChief,ArcheologicalAssistanceDivision,NationalParkService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington.
MartinP.R.MagneiscurrentlyChiefofArchaeologicalServices,ParksCanada,AlbertaRegion,Calgary,andatthetimeofthesymposiumwastheHead,ArchaeologicalSurveyofAlberta,AlbertaProvincialMuseum,Edmonton.
CharlesR.McGimseyIII,isnowDirectorEmeritus,ArkansasArcheologicalSurvey,andProfessorEmeritusofAnthropology,UniversityofArkansas,Fayetteville.
DennisStanfordisaCuratorofAnthropology,DirectorofthePaleoindianProgram,andChair,DepartmentofAnthropology,NationalMuseumofNaturalHistory,SmithsonianInstitution,Washington.
D.GentrySteeleisaProfessorofAnthropology,TexasA&M
University,CollegeStation.
AllanR.TaylorisaspecialistinthelinguisticsofNorthAmericanIndiansandisaProfessorofLinguistics,UniversityofColorado,Boulder.
JohnTomenchukisaResearchAssociate,RoyalOntarioMuseum,Toronto.
PattyJoWatsonisaDistinguishedUniversityProfessorofAnthropology,WashingtonUniversity,St.Louis,Missouri.
StephenWilliamsisEmeritusProfessorandtheHonoraryCuratorofNorthAmericanArchaeology,PeabodyMuseumofArchaeologyandEthnology,HarvardUniversity,Cambridge,Massachusetts,andwasPeabodyProfessorandCuratoratthetimeofthesymposium.
Page209
INDEX
A
AbandonedShipwreckActof1987,81,101-102
AdvisoryCouncilonHistoricPreservation,78,79,84,101,199
Alberta,93,102,130;
HistoricalResourcesActof,98;
ArchaeologicalSurveyof,98-99;
Calgary,100,128-129,137;
EnvironmentConservationAuthorityof,98,104
AmericanIndianReligiousFreedomAct,80
AntiquitiesActof1906,13,51,55,58,176,188
ArchaeologicalandShipwreckInformationSystem,39
ArchaeologicalResourceProtectionAct,5,13,51,53,55,79,101,119,122,158,176-179
archaeologicalresources:
insituconservationof,19,31,51,53,54,58,62-63,96;
inventoryof,5-6,54-55,57,79-80,89,120-121,176,192-194;
lootingof,49,51,73,80,89,140-141,199;
managementof,3-6,19,49-50,55-57,99,173-182,185,192,197-198(seealsomanagement)
quantities,5-6,121;
submerged,17,39,81,88,97;
trafficking,49,74,96,97;
valueof,12,18,19,51,185
archaeologists,amateur/avocational,vii,57,59,100,119,177,200,202
ArcheologicalandHistoricPreservationActof1974,13,51,54,78,124,158,191
ArcticResearchandPolicyActof1984,3-4
artifacts,89,100;
classificationof,40;
coreandflaketoolpatterns,34;
curationof,21,100,121,123-124,163-164;
fishtailpointcomplex,34;
projectilepointstyles,33-34;
UpperPaleolithictechnology,36-37
Asia,4,30-32,35,37,39,41,46-48,53,87-90,115,190
Auel,Jean,62,64
Australia,47-48,73
AutomaticManagerofArcheologicalSiteDatainArkansas,39
B
bioanthropology.Seeresearch
BureauofIndianAffairs,174
BureauofLandManagement,52,121,124,134,173-175,177,178,
187,189
BureauofReclamation,121,124,159,174,193,195
C
California,15,175,195
Canada,49,50,52,55,57,74,75,76,84-85,93-105,130-131,163
(seealsoAlberta):
ArchaeologicalSurveyof,RescueArchaeologyProgram,95;
CanadianAntiquitiesAct(suggested),95-96;
CanadianArchaeologicalAssociation,95-98,102,104,200;
DepartmentsofCanadianHeritage,102,
Communications,93,96-98,102-104,
Environment,96;
IndianandNorthernAffairs,96-97,104,Transport,96;
CanadianEnvironmentalAssessmentActof1994,52,95;
CanadianFederalHeritageBuildingReviewOffice,84;
CanadianMuseumofCivilization,94,95,103;
CanadianParksService,94,95,188;
DepartmentofIndianandNorthernAffairsDevelopmentAct(IndianAct),84,94
CenterfortheStudyoftheFirstAmericans,ix-x,2,40,140,142,144
CentralAmerica,4,48,49,87-90,197
Chile,90,164
Chippendale,Christopher,11,22
Cleere,Henry,10,22,50,66
climaticchange.Seepaleoenvironment;research.
Clovis,33,37,48,115,162,163
compliancearchaeology.Seearchaeologicalresources,management
CulturalPropertyExportandImportAct,96,102
culturalresources,10,17,56,88-89,121,178,181
D
DefenseTechnicalInformationService.SeeU.S.DepartmentofDefense.
DepartmentalConsultingArcheologist.SeeU.S.DepartmentoftheInterior.
Page210
E
EconomicRecoveryActof1981,109
economics,1,10,19,34,49,52,54,55,61,106,127-128,147-155;
archeologicalfunding,5-6,54,74,151-152,157-159,160-166,167-172,173-182,199-201,203;
compensation,12,15,16,17,19;
costofarchaeology,99-100,121,151-152,157-159;
marketing,145-146
ecosystems,ecology.Seepaleoenvironment
Ecuador,89,161
education:
college,59,100-101,136,169;
environmental,127-129,136;
kindergarten-grade12,98,127-137,147;
Native,32,127-129,136;
public,1,4,20,30-32,48,53,59,61-63,97,115-116,117-126,140-144,147,187,193,198-200,202;
training,55,123-125
electronicmedia,142,148,150-154,202
England,11,13,201
environmentalassessment.Seemanagement,environmental.
ethics,2,10-12,14,16,18,189,202-203
ExecutiveOrder12630,16,26
F
FaunMap,39
FederalLandPolicyandManagementActof1976,189
FederalLawEnforcementTrainingCenter,124
Florida,15,124,145-155,175,194,199
Folsom,63
G
Georgia,194-195
GulfPowerCompany,146-148,199
H
Hawkshaw,147-148,199
Head-Smashed-InBuffaloJump,99,102-103
I
Importationofpre-ColumbianMonumentalandArchitecturalSculptureorMurals,U.S.lawon,87,90
Indiana,140-141
InternationalCommitteeonMonumentsandSites,87,90,91
InternationalCourtofJustice,91
InternationalRadiocarbonDataBase.Seeresearch.
J
JacksonLakeproject,193
K
Kentucky,140-141,195
Knudson,Ruthann,141
L
landmark,82,119
language(s).Seeresearch,linguistics.
law,60,61,115,197-198
(seealsoindividualcountries,regions):
archaeologicalresourceprotection,4,13,51,53,55,74-86,98,101,124,175-177;
inAsiaandLatinAmerica,87-92;
Canadian,76,84-85,93-105;
cemetery,81-82;
civil/code,88;
common,49,75,85,88;
easements,75,83;
environmental,13,20,52-53,55,77,81,95-98,187,198;
NativeAmerican(seeNativeAmericans,law);
international,87,90-91,95;
local,82-83,148-149;
Marxist/Leninist,88;
naturalresource,11-12,13,16,17,106,112-113;
private,82-83,86;
property,14;
provincial,84-85,98-99;
state,15,80-81,83,119;
UnitedStates,3-5,11-17,20,26,51-55,58,75,77-81,101-102,109,119,122,124,148,158,176-179,188-189,191;
zoning,75,82
Lipe,WilliamD.,12,25
ListingofEducationinArcheologicalPrograms,118,199
ListingofOutlawTreachery,120
Lujan,Manuel,Jr.,19,25,49,69
M
management
(seealsoarchaeologicalresources,management):
ofculturalresource,10-11,100,180-181,190-201;
environmental,21,52-53,58-60,95,100;
ofnaturalresource,19,106-113,177-178,189;
ofpublicresource,1,10-11,21,29,30,48-61,63,94,97,109-111,173-182
Martin,Paul,143
Masse,Marcel,97,105
McGimsey,CharlesR.,III,11,26
Mexico,88,89,90
Mongolia,88
Page211
Morlan,RichardE.,40,69
Muir,John,188
N
NationalAnthropologicalArchives,123
NationalArcheologicalDataBase-Network,119-120,196;
NADB-Reports,39,56-57,60,119-124
NationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,160,164,165
NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct,52,55,77
NationalGeographicSociety,135,141-142,201
NationalHistoricPreservationAct,52,55,75,77-81,101,122,148,158,175-177,179;
Section106process,75,78-79,81,148,175-176,180-181
NationalInstitutesofHealth,160,164-165
NationalParkService,x,2,3-6,52,77-78,117-124,159,174,187,192-195;
NationalParkSystem,121-122;
ArcheologicalAssistancedivision,117-121,123;
CulturalResourcesManagementBibliography,121-122;
CulturalSitesInventory,122;
MidwestArcheologicalCenter,192;
organicactof1916,177,187-188
NationalPreservationInstitute,124
NationalRegisterofHistoricPlaces,75,77-78,81,101,189
NationalScienceFoundation,57,154,160-166,201
NationalStrategyforFederalArcheology,11,19
NationalTechnicalInformationService,123
NationalTrustforHistoricPreservation,50-51
NativeAmericanGravesProtectionandRepatriationActof1990,79-80,102,119
NativeAmericans,vii,3,17,21,30,32,62,79,80,94,97,98,100,102,171,198;
bioanthropologyof,41-44;
culture/valuesystemsof,12,32,127;
educationof,127-131;
humanremainsof,vii,15,41-44,73,76,79-80,84,94,140,189;
law,84,94;
linguisticsof,45-48
Nichols,Johanna,47-48,69
NorthAmerica,30-32,35,39,41-42,49,53,115,198
NorthAmericanFreeTradeAct,102
O
ownership,vii,7,8,9-10,12,16,17,21,100;
common,16,49;
Crown/nation,88-89,96-99;
Indianland,79,94;
jointandseveral,9,14,21;
Native,102;
privateland,16-19,48-50,52,81,83,86,89,99,112-113,119,145146,189,203;
publicland,8,73,74,76-77,79,97,99,113,173-175;
usufruct,14
P
paleoenvironment:
changein,20,30,32,35-36,59,160;
cultural-naturallinkages,32,35-37,52;
databases,38-39;
remains,1,2,11,20,33,49,54,59,60,115-116,157,186,193
paleontologicalresources,98,103
partnership,viii,3-4,30,135;
academic-government,6,58-61,118,192-194,197,201;
federal-state,79-82;
public-private,83,145-155
PennCentralcase,17
Peru,88,89,90,164
physicalanthropology.Seeresearch,bioanthropology
plans/planning,3,89,122;
archaeologicalmanagement,149;
historicpreservation,52,58;
landuse,52,58,60-61,85,115,122,180
Powell,JohnWesley,46,70
property
(seealsoU.S.Constitution):
common,8;
freedoms,15-16;
private,11,15,16;
rights,7,8,12-18,21;
state,8,81;
values,17
publicarchaeology.Seearchaeologicalresources,management
publications,134;
government,56-58,118-119,122-123,134,195-196;
popular,viii,134-135,140-144,193,195,202;
technical,viii,34-35,41,56-57,132,136,140,193,195-196
publicpolicy(U.S.),11,48-61,106-113,185,190-191;
appropriationsprocess,107-108,178-179,203;
budgetprocess,107-111,178-179
publictrust,7-8,9-28,49,53,93,103,116,167,187-191,202-203;
Public