The Psychology of Human Development David F. Bjorklund.

The Psychology of Human Development

The Psychology of Human Development

David F. BjorklundDavid F. Bjorklund

Why Study Development?Why Study Development?

“The child is the father of man (and the mother of woman)” - to understand adults, including ourselves

To understand human nature To foster development and well-being

(optimization)

“The child is the father of man (and the mother of woman)” - to understand adults, including ourselves

To understand human nature To foster development and well-being

(optimization)

Goals of Studying Life-Span DevelopmentGoals of Studying Life-Span Development

Description Normal development, individual differences

Explanation Typical and individually different development

Optimization Positive development, enhancing human capacities Prevention and overcoming difficulties

Description Normal development, individual differences

Explanation Typical and individually different development

Optimization Positive development, enhancing human capacities Prevention and overcoming difficulties

What is Development?What is Development?

Systematic changes and continuities In the individual

Between conception and death “Womb to Tomb”

Three broad domains Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial

Systematic changes and continuities In the individual

Between conception and death “Womb to Tomb”

Three broad domains Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial

Types of “change over time”Types of “change over time”

Ontogeny: changes in the individual over the course of his or her lifetime

Phylogeny: development of the species (i.e., evolution) Maturation: a biological unfolding of the individual

according to a genetic plan. Learning: relatively permanent changes in thoughts,

feelings, or behaviors as a result of experience, that usually occur over brief periods

Growth: Physical changes that occur from birth to maturity

Aging: Positive and negative changes in the mature organism

Ontogeny: changes in the individual over the course of his or her lifetime

Phylogeny: development of the species (i.e., evolution) Maturation: a biological unfolding of the individual

according to a genetic plan. Learning: relatively permanent changes in thoughts,

feelings, or behaviors as a result of experience, that usually occur over brief periods

Growth: Physical changes that occur from birth to maturity

Aging: Positive and negative changes in the mature organism

Development: Changes in structure or function

over time Development: Changes in structure or function

over time Structure refers to some substrate of the organism, such

as nervous tissue, muscle, or limbs, or—in cognitive psychology—the mental knowledge that underlies intelligence.

Function denotes actions related to a structure and can include actions external to the structure being studied, such as neurochemical or hormonal secretions, and other exogenous factors that can best be described as “experience”—that is, external sources of stimulation.

Structure refers to some substrate of the organism, such as nervous tissue, muscle, or limbs, or—in cognitive psychology—the mental knowledge that underlies intelligence.

Function denotes actions related to a structure and can include actions external to the structure being studied, such as neurochemical or hormonal secretions, and other exogenous factors that can best be described as “experience”—that is, external sources of stimulation.

Development is characteristic of the species and has its basis in biology. Its general course, therefore, is relatively predictable. Development progresses as a result of bidirectional, or reciprocal, relationship between structure and function, and can be expressed as:

structure function.

Development is characteristic of the species and has its basis in biology. Its general course, therefore, is relatively predictable. Development progresses as a result of bidirectional, or reciprocal, relationship between structure and function, and can be expressed as:

structure function.

A Brief History of ChildhoodA Brief History of Childhood

Childhood as a sociological concept Infanticide legal in much of ancient world and common in

Europe through middle ages (abandonment outlawed in Europe in 1600s)

Oblation: leaving infants with religious organizations Children incorporated into daily lives of adults 50% of children died before age 5 until 1800s Enlightenment: Jean Jacques Rousseau: children are

important in their own right, and are not merely a means to an end (that is, adulthood).

Childhood as a sociological concept Infanticide legal in much of ancient world and common in

Europe through middle ages (abandonment outlawed in Europe in 1600s)

Oblation: leaving infants with religious organizations Children incorporated into daily lives of adults 50% of children died before age 5 until 1800s Enlightenment: Jean Jacques Rousseau: children are

important in their own right, and are not merely a means to an end (that is, adulthood).

Literacy and EducationLiteracy and Education

Postman: invention of moveable type changed definition of adulthood (being literate); necessitated schooling and “the invention” of childhood

Postman: invention of moveable type changed definition of adulthood (being literate); necessitated schooling and “the invention” of childhood

Increases in Life Expectancy over the 20th

Century in the U.S.Increases in Life Expectancy over the 20th

Century in the U.S.

4951.5

56.559

63.56869

717475.577

0 20 40 60 80 100

19001910192019301940195019601970198019902000

Life Expectancy

4951.5

56.559

63.56869

717475.577

0 20 40 60 80 100

19001910192019301940195019601970198019902000

Life Expectancy

Life Expectancy at Birth for Different Countries: 2000

Life Expectancy at Birth for Different Countries: 2000

Andorra: 83.5 Brazil: 62.9 San Marino: 81.1 Cambodia: 56.5 Japan: 80.7 South Africa: 51.1 Sweden: 79.6 Haiti: 49.2 Italy: 79.0 Somalia: 46.2 United States: 77.1 Afghanistan: 45.9 China: 71.4 Uganda: 42.9 Vietnam: 69.3 Botswana: 39.3 Iraq: 66.5 Angola: 38.3 Egypt: 63.3 Malawi: 37.6 India: 62.5 Zambia: 37.2

Andorra: 83.5 Brazil: 62.9 San Marino: 81.1 Cambodia: 56.5 Japan: 80.7 South Africa: 51.1 Sweden: 79.6 Haiti: 49.2 Italy: 79.0 Somalia: 46.2 United States: 77.1 Afghanistan: 45.9 China: 71.4 Uganda: 42.9 Vietnam: 69.3 Botswana: 39.3 Iraq: 66.5 Angola: 38.3 Egypt: 63.3 Malawi: 37.6 India: 62.5 Zambia: 37.2

Issues in Lifespan DevelopmentIssues in Lifespan Development

The Stability and Plasticity of Human Behavior: The Effects of Early Experiences and the Changeability of Behavior

Continuity vs. Discontinuity: The “Stages Debate,” or Understanding How Development Progresses

Normative vs. Idiographic Approaches: Developmental Function and Individual Differences

Nature vs. Nurture: About the Role of Genetics and Environment in Human Development

The Stability and Plasticity of Human Behavior: The Effects of Early Experiences and the Changeability of Behavior

Continuity vs. Discontinuity: The “Stages Debate,” or Understanding How Development Progresses

Normative vs. Idiographic Approaches: Developmental Function and Individual Differences

Nature vs. Nurture: About the Role of Genetics and Environment in Human Development

The Stability and Plasticity of Human BehaviorThe Stability and Plasticity of Human Behavior

Stability refers to the degree to which people maintain their same rank order in comparison to other children with respect to some characteristic

Plasticity refers to the ability to change as a result of experience.

Stability refers to the degree to which people maintain their same rank order in comparison to other children with respect to some characteristic

Plasticity refers to the ability to change as a result of experience.

Continuity vs. DiscontinuityContinuity vs. Discontinuity

Stages of Development

Qualitative versus Quantitative Differences Continuity versus Discontinuity Homogeneity of Cognitive Function

Stages of Development

Qualitative versus Quantitative Differences Continuity versus Discontinuity Homogeneity of Cognitive Function

Discontinuous (stage-like) versus Continuous changes

Discontinuous (stage-like) versus Continuous changes

Some abilities, such as language, are more easily acquired during a critical, or sensitive, time in

development

Some abilities, such as language, are more easily acquired during a critical, or sensitive, time in

development

Framing the Nature/Nurture IssueFraming the Nature/Nurture Issue

Nature: heredity(nativism) Maturational processes guided by genes Biologically based predispositions Biological unfolding of genes Genetic determinism

Nurture: environment (empiricism) Learning: experiences cause changes is thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors Environmental determinism

Interactionist view: nature & nurture interact

Nature: heredity(nativism) Maturational processes guided by genes Biologically based predispositions Biological unfolding of genes Genetic determinism

Nurture: environment (empiricism) Learning: experiences cause changes is thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors Environmental determinism

Interactionist view: nature & nurture interact

Caspi et al., 2002Caspi et al., 2002

monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) associated with antisocial behavior in rats and humans

Gene on X chromosome controls MAOA (high versus low levels)

Examined antisocial behavior in boys with high and low levels of MAOA as function of childhood maltreatment

monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) associated with antisocial behavior in rats and humans

Gene on X chromosome controls MAOA (high versus low levels)

Examined antisocial behavior in boys with high and low levels of MAOA as function of childhood maltreatment

Relationship between childhood maltreatment (none, probable, severe) and MAOA activity (low versus high) on

antisocial behavior.

Relationship between childhood maltreatment (none, probable, severe) and MAOA activity (low versus high) on

antisocial behavior.

-0.5

-0.25

0

0.25

0.5

0.75

1

1.25

None Probable Severe

Childhood Maltreatment

Composite Index of Antisocial

Behavior

Low MAOAActivityHigh MAOAActivity

-0.5

-0.25

0

0.25

0.5

0.75

1

1.25

None Probable Severe

Childhood Maltreatment

Composite Index of Antisocial

Behavior

Low MAOAActivityHigh MAOAActivity

Methods of Studying Life-Span Development

Methods of Studying Life-Span Development

Historical Baby Biographies: Charles Darwin Questionnaires: G. Stanley Hall

Key Assumptions of Modern Life-Span Perspectives Lifelong, multidirectional process Gain and loss and lifelong plasticity Historical/cultural contexts, multiple influences Multi-disciplinary studies

Historical Baby Biographies: Charles Darwin Questionnaires: G. Stanley Hall

Key Assumptions of Modern Life-Span Perspectives Lifelong, multidirectional process Gain and loss and lifelong plasticity Historical/cultural contexts, multiple influences Multi-disciplinary studies

Conducting Developmental ResearchConducting Developmental Research

Self-reports: interview, questionnaires, tests Behavioral Observations

Naturalistic Advantage: natural setting Disadvantage: conditions not controlled

Structured (Lab) Disadvantage: cannot generalize to natural settings Advantage: conditions controlled

Self-reports: interview, questionnaires, tests Behavioral Observations

Naturalistic Advantage: natural setting Disadvantage: conditions not controlled

Structured (Lab) Disadvantage: cannot generalize to natural settings Advantage: conditions controlled

Figure 1.2Figure 1.2

The Experimental MethodThe Experimental Method

Three Critical Features 1. Manipulation of independent variable

2. Random assignment of individuals to treatment conditions

3. Experimental control

Quasi-Experiment: No random assignment

Three Critical Features 1. Manipulation of independent variable

2. Random assignment of individuals to treatment conditions

3. Experimental control

Quasi-Experiment: No random assignment

The Correlational MethodThe Correlational Method

Determine if 2 or more variables are related

Correlation: A measure of the relationship

Can range from +1.0 to –1.0

Positive: variables move in same direction

Negative: variables move in opposite dir.

No relationship if correlation is 0

Cannot establish a causal relationship

Determine if 2 or more variables are related

Correlation: A measure of the relationship

Can range from +1.0 to –1.0

Positive: variables move in same direction

Negative: variables move in opposite dir.

No relationship if correlation is 0

Cannot establish a causal relationship

Developmental Research DesignsDevelopmental Research Designs

Cross-Sectional Designs +1 cohorts or age-groups studied 1 time of testing Studying age differences at any one time

Longitudinal Designs 1 cohort +1 time of testing Study changes across time in one cohort

Cross-Sectional Designs +1 cohorts or age-groups studied 1 time of testing Studying age differences at any one time

Longitudinal Designs 1 cohort +1 time of testing Study changes across time in one cohort

Age, Cohort, and Time of Measurement EffectsAge, Cohort, and Time of Measurement Effects

Age effects: Changes which occur due to age

Cohort Effects: Born in one historical context

Changes due to differences in society

Disadvantage of cross-sectional design

Time of measurement effects: Historical

Takes place at time of data collection

Disadvantage of longitudinal design

Age effects: Changes which occur due to age

Cohort Effects: Born in one historical context

Changes due to differences in society

Disadvantage of cross-sectional design

Time of measurement effects: Historical

Takes place at time of data collection

Disadvantage of longitudinal design

Sequential DesignsSequential Designs

A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Advantages of both designs Gives information about

Which age-related trends are age effects? Which age-related trends are truly cohort effects? Which age-related trends are a result of historical

events?

A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Advantages of both designs Gives information about

Which age-related trends are age effects? Which age-related trends are truly cohort effects? Which age-related trends are a result of historical

events?

“He should have published”“He should have published”

Protecting the Rights of ParticipantsProtecting the Rights of Participants

Risk to benefit balance of the research

Researcher responsibilities

Informed consent

Debriefing

Protection from harm

Confidentiality

Risk to benefit balance of the research

Researcher responsibilities

Informed consent

Debriefing

Protection from harm

Confidentiality

Ethical Standards for Research with ChildrenEthical Standards for Research with Children

Doing research with children involves all the same ethical considerations when one does research with adults, plus some additional ones. The principles listed below were published in the 1990-91 Directory of the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD), except for Principles 15 and 16, first published in the Fall 1991 Newsletter.

Principle 1. Non-harmful procedures: The investigator should use no research operation that may harm the child either physically or psychologically. The investigator is also obligated at all times to use the least stressful research operation whenever possible. . . When the investigator is in doubt about the possible harmful effects of the research operations, consultation should be sought from others. .

Doing research with children involves all the same ethical considerations when one does research with adults, plus some additional ones. The principles listed below were published in the 1990-91 Directory of the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD), except for Principles 15 and 16, first published in the Fall 1991 Newsletter.

Principle 1. Non-harmful procedures: The investigator should use no research operation that may harm the child either physically or psychologically. The investigator is also obligated at all times to use the least stressful research operation whenever possible. . . When the investigator is in doubt about the possible harmful effects of the research operations, consultation should be sought from others. .

Principle 2. Informed Consent: Before seeking consent or assent from the child, the investigator should inform the child of all features of the research that may affect his or her willingness to participate and should answer the child’s questions in terms appropriate to the child’s comprehension. The investigator should respect the child’s freedom to choose to participate in the research or not by giving the child the opportunity to give or not give assent to participation as well as to choose to discontinue participation at any time. . . Investigators working with infants should take special effort to explain the research procedures to the parents and be especially sensitive to any indicators of discomfort in the infant. . .

Principle 2. Informed Consent: Before seeking consent or assent from the child, the investigator should inform the child of all features of the research that may affect his or her willingness to participate and should answer the child’s questions in terms appropriate to the child’s comprehension. The investigator should respect the child’s freedom to choose to participate in the research or not by giving the child the opportunity to give or not give assent to participation as well as to choose to discontinue participation at any time. . . Investigators working with infants should take special effort to explain the research procedures to the parents and be especially sensitive to any indicators of discomfort in the infant. . .

Principle 3. Parental consent: The informed consent of parents, legal guardians or those who act in loco parentis (e.g., teachers, superintendents of institutions) similarly should be obtained, preferably in writing. Informed consent requires that parents or other responsible adults be informed of all the features of the research that may affect their willingness to allow the child to participate. This information should include the profession and institution affiliation of the investigator. Not only should the right of the responsible adults to refuse consent be respected, but they should be informed that they may refuse to participate without incurring any penalty to them or to the child.

Principle 3. Parental consent: The informed consent of parents, legal guardians or those who act in loco parentis (e.g., teachers, superintendents of institutions) similarly should be obtained, preferably in writing. Informed consent requires that parents or other responsible adults be informed of all the features of the research that may affect their willingness to allow the child to participate. This information should include the profession and institution affiliation of the investigator. Not only should the right of the responsible adults to refuse consent be respected, but they should be informed that they may refuse to participate without incurring any penalty to them or to the child.

Principle 4. Additional consent: The informed consent of any persons, such as school teachers for example, whose interaction with the child is the subject of the study should also be obtained. .

Principle 5. Incentives: Incentives to participate in a research project must be fair and must not unduly exceed the range of incentives that the child normally experiences. . . .

Principle 6. Deception: Although full disclosure of information during the procedure of obtaining consent is the ethical ideal, a particular study may necessitate withholding certain information or deception. Whenever withholding information or deception is judged to be essential to the conduct of the study, the investigator should satisfy research colleagues that such judgment is correct. . .

Principle 7. Anonymity: To gain access to institutional records, the investigator should obtain permission from responsible authorities in charge of records. Anonymity of the information should be preserved and no information used other than that for which permission was obtained.

Principle 4. Additional consent: The informed consent of any persons, such as school teachers for example, whose interaction with the child is the subject of the study should also be obtained. .

Principle 5. Incentives: Incentives to participate in a research project must be fair and must not unduly exceed the range of incentives that the child normally experiences. . . .

Principle 6. Deception: Although full disclosure of information during the procedure of obtaining consent is the ethical ideal, a particular study may necessitate withholding certain information or deception. Whenever withholding information or deception is judged to be essential to the conduct of the study, the investigator should satisfy research colleagues that such judgment is correct. . .

Principle 7. Anonymity: To gain access to institutional records, the investigator should obtain permission from responsible authorities in charge of records. Anonymity of the information should be preserved and no information used other than that for which permission was obtained.

Principle 8. Mutual responsibilities: From the beginning of each research investigation, there should be clear agreement between the investigator and the parents, guardians or those who act in loco parentis, and the child, when appropriate, that defines the responsibilities of each. The investigator has the obligation to honor all promises and commitments of the agreement.

Principle 9. Jeopardy: When, in the course of research, information comes to the investigator’s attention that may jeopardize the child’s well-being, the investigator has a responsibility to discuss the information with the parents or guardians and with those expert in the field in order that they may arrange the necessary assistance for the child.

Principle 10. Unforeseen consequences: When research procedures result in undesirable consequences for the participant that were previously unforeseen, the investigator should immediately employ appropriate measures to correct these consequences, and should redesign the procedures if they are to be included in subsequent studies.

Principle 8. Mutual responsibilities: From the beginning of each research investigation, there should be clear agreement between the investigator and the parents, guardians or those who act in loco parentis, and the child, when appropriate, that defines the responsibilities of each. The investigator has the obligation to honor all promises and commitments of the agreement.

Principle 9. Jeopardy: When, in the course of research, information comes to the investigator’s attention that may jeopardize the child’s well-being, the investigator has a responsibility to discuss the information with the parents or guardians and with those expert in the field in order that they may arrange the necessary assistance for the child.

Principle 10. Unforeseen consequences: When research procedures result in undesirable consequences for the participant that were previously unforeseen, the investigator should immediately employ appropriate measures to correct these consequences, and should redesign the procedures if they are to be included in subsequent studies.

Principle 11. Confidentiality: The investigator should keep in confidence all information obtained about research participants. The participants’ identity should be concealed in written and verbal reports of the results, as well as in informal discussion with students and colleagues. .

Principle 12. Informing participants: Immediately after the data are collected, the investigator should clarify for the research participant any misconceptions that may have arisen. . .

Principle 13. Reporting results: Because the investigator’s words may carry unintended weight with parents and children, caution should be exercised in reporting results, making evaluative statements, or giving advice.

Principle 14. Implications of findings: Investigators should be mindful of the social, political and human implications of their research and should be especially careful in the presentation of findings from the research. This principle, however, in no way denies investigators the right to pursue any area of research or the right to observe proper standards of scientific reporting.

Principle 11. Confidentiality: The investigator should keep in confidence all information obtained about research participants. The participants’ identity should be concealed in written and verbal reports of the results, as well as in informal discussion with students and colleagues. .

Principle 12. Informing participants: Immediately after the data are collected, the investigator should clarify for the research participant any misconceptions that may have arisen. . .

Principle 13. Reporting results: Because the investigator’s words may carry unintended weight with parents and children, caution should be exercised in reporting results, making evaluative statements, or giving advice.

Principle 14. Implications of findings: Investigators should be mindful of the social, political and human implications of their research and should be especially careful in the presentation of findings from the research. This principle, however, in no way denies investigators the right to pursue any area of research or the right to observe proper standards of scientific reporting.

Principle 15. Scientific misconduct: Misconduct is defined as the fabrication or falsification of data, plagiarism, misrepresentation, or other practices that seriously deviate from those that are commonly accepted within the scientific community for proposing, conducting, analyzing, or reporting research. It does not include unintentional errors or honest differences in interpretation of data. The Society . . . will not tolerate the presence of scientific misconduct among its members. It shall be the responsibility of the voting members of Governing Council to reach a decision about the possible expulsion of members found guilty of scientific misconduct.

Principle 16. Personal misconduct: Personal misconduct that results in a criminal conviction of a felony may be sufficient grounds for a member’s expulsion from the Society. . .

Source: As followed by members of the Society for Research in Child Development. Adapted from Winter 1990 SRCD Newsletter. Reprinted by permission.

Principle 15. Scientific misconduct: Misconduct is defined as the fabrication or falsification of data, plagiarism, misrepresentation, or other practices that seriously deviate from those that are commonly accepted within the scientific community for proposing, conducting, analyzing, or reporting research. It does not include unintentional errors or honest differences in interpretation of data. The Society . . . will not tolerate the presence of scientific misconduct among its members. It shall be the responsibility of the voting members of Governing Council to reach a decision about the possible expulsion of members found guilty of scientific misconduct.

Principle 16. Personal misconduct: Personal misconduct that results in a criminal conviction of a felony may be sufficient grounds for a member’s expulsion from the Society. . .

Source: As followed by members of the Society for Research in Child Development. Adapted from Winter 1990 SRCD Newsletter. Reprinted by permission.

Theories of DevelopmentTheories of Development

Mechanistic theories liken people to machines, such as the mind-as-a-computer model of information-processing approaches. Learning theories (operant & classical conditioning;

social learning theory) Information-processing theory

Organismic theories take a more “biologic” (nature) view of development, seeing people as whole beings who cannot be understood by decomposing them into their constituent parts. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson

Mechanistic theories liken people to machines, such as the mind-as-a-computer model of information-processing approaches. Learning theories (operant & classical conditioning;

social learning theory) Information-processing theory

Organismic theories take a more “biologic” (nature) view of development, seeing people as whole beings who cannot be understood by decomposing them into their constituent parts. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Psychoanalytic theories of Freud and Erikson

Learning Theories: Classical ConditioningLearning Theories: Classical Conditioning

Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior

Tabula Rasa: Environmental view Association learning

UCS: built-in, unlearned stimulus UCR: automatic, unlearned response CS: causes learned response CR: learned response

Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior

Tabula Rasa: Environmental view Association learning

UCS: built-in, unlearned stimulus UCR: automatic, unlearned response CS: causes learned response CR: learned response

Learning Theories: Operant ConditioningLearning Theories: Operant Conditioning

Probability of behavior based on environmental consequences Reinforcement

Pleasant consequence Increases probability

Punishment Decreases probability Unpleasant, aversive

Probability of behavior based on environmental consequences Reinforcement

Pleasant consequence Increases probability

Punishment Decreases probability Unpleasant, aversive

Bandura: Social Cognitive TheoryBandura: Social Cognitive Theory

Formerly called social learning theory

Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc.

Cognitive emphasis: observational learning

BoBo doll studies

Model praised or punished

Child learned to imitate rewarded model

Vicarious reinforcement

Reciprocal determinism

Formerly called social learning theory

Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc.

Cognitive emphasis: observational learning

BoBo doll studies

Model praised or punished

Child learned to imitate rewarded model

Vicarious reinforcement

Reciprocal determinism

Learning Theory: Strengths & WeaknessesLearning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses

Strengths

Precise and testable theory

Carefully controlled experiments

Practical applications across lifespan

Weaknesses

Inadequate account of lifespan changes

Ignored genetic and maturational processes

Strengths

Precise and testable theory

Carefully controlled experiments

Practical applications across lifespan

Weaknesses

Inadequate account of lifespan changes

Ignored genetic and maturational processes

Piaget: Cognitive Developmental TheoryPiaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory

Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment

Constructivism: Understanding based on experience

Interactionist

Both biological maturation and experience required for progress

At each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way

Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment

Constructivism: Understanding based on experience

Interactionist

Both biological maturation and experience required for progress

At each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way

Cognitive Developmental TheoryCognitive Developmental Theory

Strengths

Well-accepted by developmentalists

Well-researched, mostly supported

Influenced education and parenting

Weaknesses

Ignores motivation and emotion

Stages not universal – esp. last one

Strengths

Well-accepted by developmentalists

Well-researched, mostly supported

Influenced education and parenting

Weaknesses

Ignores motivation and emotion

Stages not universal – esp. last one

Freud: Psychoanalytic TheoryFreud: Psychoanalytic Theory

Instincts and unconscious motivation Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy

(Libido) Id: Instinctual nature of humans Ego: rational and objective Superego: internalized moral standards

A dynamic personality system Regular conflicts between the three parts

Instincts and unconscious motivation Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy

(Libido) Id: Instinctual nature of humans Ego: rational and objective Superego: internalized moral standards

A dynamic personality system Regular conflicts between the three parts

Freud’s Psychosexual DevelopmentFreud’s Psychosexual Development

Child moves through 5 stages

Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego

Conflict creates anxiety

Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms

Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

Child moves through 5 stages

Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego

Conflict creates anxiety

Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms

Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

Erik EriksonErik Erikson

Most influential neo-Freudian

Some differences with Freud

Less emphasis on sexual urges

More emphasis on rational ego

More positive and adaptive view of human nature

Believed development continues through adulthood

Most influential neo-Freudian

Some differences with Freud

Less emphasis on sexual urges

More emphasis on rational ego

More positive and adaptive view of human nature

Believed development continues through adulthood

Contextual/Systems TheoriesContextual/Systems Theories

Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural perspective

Cognitive development is a social process

Problem solving aided by dialogues

Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems

Genes, neural activity, behavior, and environment mutually influential

Normal genes and normal early experiences most helpful

Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural perspective

Cognitive development is a social process

Problem solving aided by dialogues

Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems

Genes, neural activity, behavior, and environment mutually influential

Normal genes and normal early experiences most helpful

Sociocultural Perspectives on Cognitive Development

Sociocultural Perspectives on Cognitive Development

“Cognitive development is an active constructive process that involves beings who are evolutionarily predisposed to live and learn in social context with other ‘like-minded’ beings. They are like-minded in terms of both the neurological system available and the social requirements that are in place” Mary Gauvain, 2001

“Cognitive development is an active constructive process that involves beings who are evolutionarily predisposed to live and learn in social context with other ‘like-minded’ beings. They are like-minded in terms of both the neurological system available and the social requirements that are in place” Mary Gauvain, 2001

Lev VygotskyLev Vygotsky

Development should be evaluated from the perspective of four inter-related levels:

Phylogenetic Ontogenetic Microgenetic Sociohistorical

Development should be evaluated from the perspective of four inter-related levels:

Phylogenetic Ontogenetic Microgenetic Sociohistorical

Tools of Intellectual adaptationTools of Intellectual adaptation

Methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize from their interactions with more competent members of society that permit them to use basic mental functions more adaptively

Methods of thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize from their interactions with more competent members of society that permit them to use basic mental functions more adaptively

Chinese and English number words from 1 to 20Chinese and English number words from 1 to 20

Number Chinese word English word 1 yee one 2 uhr two 3 sahn three 4 suh four 5 woo five 6 lyo six 7 chee seven 8 bah eight 9 jyo nine 10 shi ten 11 shi yee eleven 12 shi uhr twelve 13 shi shan thirteen 14 shi suh fourteen 15 shi woo fifteen 16 shi lyo sixteen 17 shi chee seventeen 18 shi bah eighteen 19 shi jyo nineteen 20 ershi twenty

Number Chinese word English word 1 yee one 2 uhr two 3 sahn three 4 suh four 5 woo five 6 lyo six 7 chee seven 8 bah eight 9 jyo nine 10 shi ten 11 shi yee eleven 12 shi uhr twelve 13 shi shan thirteen 14 shi suh fourteen 15 shi woo fifteen 16 shi lyo sixteen 17 shi chee seventeen 18 shi bah eighteen 19 shi jyo nineteen 20 ershi twenty

Median level of counting (highest number reached) by age for Chinese and U.S. preschoolers (Miller et

al., 1995

Median level of counting (highest number reached) by age for Chinese and U.S. preschoolers (Miller et

al., 1995

0

20

40

60

80

100

3 4 5

Age in Years

Median Counting Level

ChinaUS

0

20

40

60

80

100

3 4 5

Age in Years

Median Counting Level

ChinaUS

Zone of Proximal DevelopmentZone of Proximal Development

ZPD: the difference between a child’s actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and his or her level of potential development determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.

Scaffolding: When experts are sensitive to abilities of a novice and respond contingently to the novice’s responses in a learnikng situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or her understanding of a problem

ZPD: the difference between a child’s actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and his or her level of potential development determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.

Scaffolding: When experts are sensitive to abilities of a novice and respond contingently to the novice’s responses in a learnikng situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or her understanding of a problem

Apprenticeship in ThinkingApprenticeship in Thinking

Guided participation refers to adult-child interactions, not only during explicit instruction, but also during the more routine activities and communication of everyday life. Guided participation is “the process and system of involvement of individuals with others, as they communicate and engage in shared activities” (Rogoff et al., 1993, p.6)

Guided participation refers to adult-child interactions, not only during explicit instruction, but also during the more routine activities and communication of everyday life. Guided participation is “the process and system of involvement of individuals with others, as they communicate and engage in shared activities” (Rogoff et al., 1993, p.6)

Some functions of shared remembering in children’s memory development from Gauvain, 2001)

Some functions of shared remembering in children’s memory development from Gauvain, 2001)

Children learn about memory process, for example, strategiesChildren learn ways of remembering and communicating

memories with others, for example, narrative structureChildren learn about themselves, which contributes to the

development of the self-conceptChildren learn about their own social and cultural historyChildren learn values important to the family and the

community, that is, what is worth rememberingPromotes social solidarity

Children learn about memory process, for example, strategiesChildren learn ways of remembering and communicating

memories with others, for example, narrative structureChildren learn about themselves, which contributes to the

development of the self-conceptChildren learn about their own social and cultural historyChildren learn values important to the family and the

community, that is, what is worth rememberingPromotes social solidarity

Developmental Systems ApproachDevelopmental Systems Approach

Development proceeds as a result of the bidirectional interaction between structure and function over time at all levels of organization, from the genetic through the cultural.

Epigenesis: “any gene-regulating activity that doesn’t involve changes to the DNA code and that can persist through one or more generations” (Pennisi, 2001)

Genetic activity (DNA <-> RNA <-> proteins) <-> structural maturation <-> function, activity

Development proceeds as a result of the bidirectional interaction between structure and function over time at all levels of organization, from the genetic through the cultural.

Epigenesis: “any gene-regulating activity that doesn’t involve changes to the DNA code and that can persist through one or more generations” (Pennisi, 2001)


Preformationist view of developmentPreformationist view of development

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A simplified schematic of the developmental systems approach, showing a hierarchy of four mutually interacting

components (from Gottlieb)

A simplified schematic of the developmental systems approach, showing a hierarchy of four mutually interacting

components (from Gottlieb)

Newly hatched ducklings approach maternal call. Any role of auditory experience? (Gottlieb)

Newly hatched ducklings approach maternal call. Any role of auditory experience? (Gottlieb)

Prior to hatching:

Remove mother: Approach maternal call

Remove clutch mates: Approach maternal call

Prevent from vocalizing in egg: No preference

Prior to hatching:

Remove mother: Approach maternal call

Remove clutch mates: Approach maternal call

Prevent from vocalizing in egg: No preference

Transactional Model of DevelopmentTransactional Model of Development

Development is seen as the continuous and bidirectional interaction between an active organism and with a unique biological constitution and a changing environment.

Development is seen as the continuous and bidirectional interaction between an active organism and with a unique biological constitution and a changing environment.

Zeskind & Ramey (1981)Zeskind & Ramey (1981)

High-risk rural population Experimental (daycare) group vs. Control group Biologically normal vs. Fetally malnourished

Stanford-Binet IQ scores at 36 months (from Zeskind & Ramey, 1981)

High-risk rural population Experimental (daycare) group vs. Control group Biologically normal vs. Fetally malnourished

Stanford-Binet IQ scores at 36 months (from Zeskind & Ramey, 1981)

IQ Scores at 36 monthsIQ Scores at 36 months

Biologically Fetally

normal malnourished

Exper’tal group 98.1 96.4

Control group 84.7 70.6

Biologically Fetally

normal malnourished

Exper’tal group 98.1 96.4

Control group 84.7 70.6

The Psychology of Human Development David F. Bjorklund.

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