The Psychology of DesignThe Psychology of Design

Colleen SeifertColleen Seifert

Department of PsychologyDepartment of Psychology

Seifert@umich.eduSeifert@umich.edu

Challenges for Psychology:Challenges for Psychology:

What are the cognitive processes in design?What are the cognitive processes in design?

What strategies lead to creative design?What strategies lead to creative design?

What do we wish we could know, and how What do we wish we could know, and how can we find answers?can we find answers?

Common Ground?Common Ground? Psychologist: Why don’t you employ psychologists?Psychologist: Why don’t you employ psychologists? Nuclear Power Plant Manager: What do you mean? Should Nuclear Power Plant Manager: What do you mean? Should

we set up couches for psychotherapeutic sessions?we set up couches for psychotherapeutic sessions? Who designs, constructs, and maintains your installation?Who designs, constructs, and maintains your installation? Engineers.Engineers. Who runs your installation?Who runs your installation? Engineers.Engineers. Are these engineers human people?Are these engineers human people? Of course, what else?Of course, what else? Do you think that humans can make mistakes?Do you think that humans can make mistakes? Of course every person makes mistakes.Of course every person makes mistakes. Is it possible that engineers make mistakes, too?Is it possible that engineers make mistakes, too? … … extended silence….extended silence….

Psychological SciencePsychological Science

1920-1950, .002% of publications were devoted to 1920-1950, .002% of publications were devoted to creativitycreativity

1980s: .01% of Psychological Abstracts involved 1980s: .01% of Psychological Abstracts involved creativitycreativity

1960-1991: 9000 total works included creativity1960-1991: 9000 total works included creativity 2005: First article with “Psychology and design“2005: First article with “Psychology and design“

““Experience shows that, in its beginnings, Experience shows that, in its beginnings, design is very often exclusively technology design is very often exclusively technology driven. Human-centered perspectives are driven. Human-centered perspectives are usually called upon only at later design usually called upon only at later design stages where many constraints are already stages where many constraints are already set.” (Wilpert, 2005)set.” (Wilpert, 2005)

“Error” Approach“Error” Approach

The Psychology of Everyday ThingsThe Psychology of Everyday Things

Mismatch of designer and user conceptual Mismatch of designer and user conceptual modelsmodels

““affordances” (Gibson, 1977)affordances” (Gibson, 1977)

Working backwards from errorWorking backwards from error

(Norman, 1988)(Norman, 1988)

General ApproachGeneral Approach

(Amabile, 1983)(Amabile, 1983) Three components to creativity:Three components to creativity:

Domain relevant skillsDomain relevant skillsCreativity relevant skills (heuristics)Creativity relevant skills (heuristics)MotivationMotivation

FreedomFreedom AutonomyAutonomy Good role modelsGood role models Resources (Time)Resources (Time) Encouragement of originalityEncouragement of originality Freedom from criticismFreedom from criticism Innovation norms and no fatal failuresInnovation norms and no fatal failures(Witt & Beorkrem, 1989, pp. 31-32).(Witt & Beorkrem, 1989, pp. 31-32).

“Situated” Approach“Situated” Approach

(Sternberg & Lubart, 1995). need a confluence of six resources:

intelligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality, motivation, and environment.

all six resources are related to judged creativity of products (e.g., very short stories, art works, advertisements, novel scientific solutions)

Correlational ApproachCorrelational Approach

Perspectives on Design SystemsPerspectives on Design Systems

Cognitive ApproachCognitive Approach

““The most fundamental issue for any design The most fundamental issue for any design is to pursue a strategy that guarantees that is to pursue a strategy that guarantees that the final design product matches user the final design product matches user expectations in terms of the product’s expectations in terms of the product’s usability, functionality, safety, and requisite usability, functionality, safety, and requisite user competencies.” (Wilpert, 2005).user competencies.” (Wilpert, 2005).

Design TasksDesign Tasks

Planning a vacationPlanning a vacation Infrastructure and city planningInfrastructure and city planning Architectural designArchitectural design Design of everyday productsDesign of everyday products Interior designInterior design ??????

Creative DesignCreative Design

What is creativity?What is creativity? overt behaviorovert behavior both “original” and “appropriate”both “original” and “appropriate” based on valuesbased on values

(originality, independence, parsimony, (originality, independence, parsimony, consistency, generality)consistency, generality)

"something that breaks existing patterns”"something that breaks existing patterns”(Runco, 2004)(Runco, 2004)

Measuring “Creative”Measuring “Creative”

Creativity as judged by independent, Creativity as judged by independent, competent evaluators (domain experts) competent evaluators (domain experts) Amabile, 1983)Amabile, 1983)

Cross-cultural similarities (Chen et al., Cross-cultural similarities (Chen et al., 2002).2002).

Consensual judgmentsConsensual judgments

Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design

Problem solving approach (Wertheimer, 1945) Problem solving approach (Wertheimer, 1945)

problem space: problem space: rules, constraintsrules, constraints““affordances” affordances” (Gibson, 1977)(Gibson, 1977)restructuring and restructuring and insightinsight

Using only three straight cuts with a knife, divide a Using only three straight cuts with a knife, divide a round cake into eight equal pieces.round cake into eight equal pieces.

Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in DesignOriginal ideas are remote, Original ideas are remote,

well-removed from the well-removed from the problem or ideaproblem or idea

Creativity involves Creativity involves tendency to tendency to “overinclusive “overinclusive thinking”thinking”

(Eysenck, 1999)(Eysenck, 1999)

Remote Associates Test (Mednick, 1962)Remote Associates Test (Mednick, 1962)

Find a fourth word which is related to all threeCookies Sixteen Heart

Surprise Line Birthday

Base Snow Dance

Blue Sharp Mouse

Flat associative hierarchy is more flexible, makes options accessible that are otherwise not

Divergent thinking tests (Guilford, 1968)Divergent thinking tests (Guilford, 1968) FluencyFluency OriginalityOriginality FlexibilityFlexibility Open-endedOpen-ended

How might the problems of migrant foreign workers be How might the problems of migrant foreign workers be solved?solved?

Unusual Uses Test: Think of as many Unusual Uses Test: Think of as many differendifferent ways as t ways as possible to use a brick.possible to use a brick.

Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design

Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design “Under searching” is related to poor problem

solving (Perkins et al., 1991; Pyszczynski and Perkins et al., 1991; Pyszczynski and Greenberg, 1991)Greenberg, 1991)

Brainstorming (Osborn, 1957)Brainstorming (Osborn, 1957) Postpone judgment: Postpone judgment: ban criticism, defer

closure Focus on quantity, not quality: Focus on quantity, not quality: stress fluent

production Hitchhike or piggyback: Hitchhike or piggyback: encourage add ons

Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design

Productivity Loss (Diehl & Stroebe, 1987)Productivity Loss (Diehl & Stroebe, 1987)

4 people working alone always beat 4 working together!4 people working alone always beat 4 working together!

Free riding Is individual’s work identifiable?Free riding Is individual’s work identifiable?

Evaluation apprehension Is evaluation likely?Evaluation apprehension Is evaluation likely?

Production blocking Is turn-taking interfering?Production blocking Is turn-taking interfering?

Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design

Problem FindingProblem Finding(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1971)(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1971)""discovery-oriented" behaviordiscovery-oriented" behavior spend more time exploring approaches before

settling on one ready to change if new approach suggested not viewing a work as fixed strong correlation between p.f. and professional

success

Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design

Problem solving orientationProblem solving orientation

Over-inclusive thinkingOver-inclusive thinking

Divergent thinkingDivergent thinking

Extensive searchExtensive search

Problem findingProblem finding

Problem orientation: Problem orientation: Adopt set-breaking

Over-inclusive thinking: Over-inclusive thinking: Use analogiesUse analogies

Divergent thinking: Divergent thinking: Downrate precedents

Extensive search: Extensive search: BrainstormBrainstorm

Problem finding: Problem finding: Fend off closureFend off closure

Cognitive Strategies in DesignCognitive Strategies in Design

QuestionsQuestions

Are these theories of cognitive processes Are these theories of cognitive processes viable in real design tasks?viable in real design tasks?

Can the use of “creative design strategies” Can the use of “creative design strategies” result in better designs?result in better designs?

What do designers and engineers think What do designers and engineers think about cognitive processes?about cognitive processes?

??????

Design is a human activity “where the physical Design is a human activity “where the physical artifact or a part of it, which is under design, is not artifact or a part of it, which is under design, is not currently existent, but is believed to be so in the currently existent, but is believed to be so in the future.” (Pohjola, 2003, p. 181)future.” (Pohjola, 2003, p. 181)

DefinitionDefinition