The prosodic relationships between the musical composition ... · Joe Richards Page 1 The prosodic...

Joe Richards

The prosodic relationships

between the

musical composition,

articulation manner and

semantic content

of death metal.

Joe Richards

Joe Richards

Contents

Abstract.....................................................................................................................................3

Introduction..............................................................................................................................4

Hypothesis.................................................................................................................................6

Literature Review......................................................................................................................7

Chapter 1: The Effect of Musical Composition on Vocal Articulation.......................................8

Methodology.................................................................................................................9

Experiment 1.1............................................................................................................11

Experiment 1.2............................................................................................................13

Conclusion...................................................................................................................14

Chapter 2: The Effect of Vocal Articulation on Lyrical Content...............................................15

Methodology...............................................................................................................17

Experiment 2.1............................................................................................................18

Experiment 2.2............................................................................................................19

Conclusion...................................................................................................................21

Chapter 3: The Effect of Lyrical Content on Musical Composition..........................................22

Methodology...............................................................................................................23

Experiment 3.1……………………………………………………………………………………………………….25

Conclusion...................................................................................................................27

Conclusion...............................................................................................................................28

Appendix.................................................................................................................................30

Bibliography............................................................................................................................36

Joe Richards

Abstract

Significant research has been conducted into the related fields of dialectal differentiation

and linguistic prosody in music. However, the instrumental properties of the human voice

are an overlooked issue, with the vocal modification techniques of death metal (an extreme

music genre) remaining particularly underexplored. Based on experience as a lyricist,

vocalist, musician and linguist, the purpose of this dissertation is to study the belief that

there is a cyclical, prosodic relationship between the musical composition of death metal,

the semantic context of its lyrical content, and the phonetic properties across its manners of

articulation. Across three chapters – each bearing its own hypothesis – three linguistic

features shall be quantitatively measured. Firstly, obstruent articulation (particularly plosive

voicing) is analysed in relation to musical punctuation. Secondly, vowel sound realisation is

analysed in terms of its prosodic placement across the idiosyncratic articulation (and

vociferation) approaches of death metal, with particular focus on the use of ingressive

vocalisation. Finally, the semantic context of the lyrical content is contextually analysed

against the accentuation and articulation results. Each chapter deals with its relevant focal

point from both a linguistic and a compositional point-of-view, with their foundations set in

personal experience, interviews and an array of relevant secondary sources.

Joe Richards

Introduction

‘Anyone with an interest in British rock and pop songs will have observed that there are

‘rules’ concerning the way in which the words of these songs are pronounced. The label

‘tendencies’ might be more appropriate than ‘rules’ in some instances, but in any case it is

clear that singers of this form of music employ different accents when singing from when

they are speaking.’

Trudgill (1983)

At their most basic levels, the characteristics shared by language and music are undeniable.

Form, expression and arrangement are paramount factors in creating recognisable and

comprehendible manifestations for both mediums. Practitioners of both fields –

intentionally or otherwise – have experimented with and pushed their respective

boundaries, furthering the evolution and refinement of each. Whilst significant research has

been conducted into the related fields of dialectal differentiation in music, such as the

studies of Trudgill (1983), Beal (2009) and Simpson (1999), the instrumental properties of

the human voice are an overlooked issue; the vocal modification techniques of death metal

(an extreme music genre) remain particularly underexplored.

During an interview, Stamps (2011) suggested that ‘if you write lyrics without

referring to rhythm and tempo, you can end up with vocals that just sound like unstructured

noise over the instruments’. Similarly, Griffin (2011) notes how the tone and tempo of guitar

playing can affect the pitch of a scream: ‘usually, fast-paced riffs played higher on the

guitar’s fret board will be accompanied by high-pitched screams (and vice versa for lower on

the fret board)’. Such a concept is known as prosody; as much a linguistic feature as it is

musically intrinsic, prosody refers to the arrangement of such stress and intonation variation

against the music. Musical features of speech such as pitch, volume and rhythm can be

analysed in linguistic terms, just as linguistic features such as stress and intonation can be

musically measured. The concept is defined by Chen (2004) as ‘melody of speech,

determined primarily by modifications of pitch, quality, strength, and duration – perceived

primarily as stress and intonation patterns’. Based on experience as a lyricist, vocalist,

musician and linguist, the purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the belief that there is

a cyclical, prosodic relationship between the musical composition of death metal, the

semantic context of its lyrical content, and the phonetic properties across its manners of

articulation.

Referring to the opening quotation from Trudgill (1983), I shall explore the existence

of ‘rules concerning the way in which the words of these songs are pronounced’. The

differentiation between the stylistic methods of articulation is remarkably vast regarding a

genre as relatively niche as death metal, and is extremely subjective to the lyrical and vocal

idiosyncrasies of the singer. As such, I believe that the words comprising the lyrics of death

metal are (consciously or otherwise) chosen for their phonetic properties rather than their

Joe Richards

semantic meaning, and that prosodic analysis could lay the foundation for in-depth

research.

Across three chapters (each bearing its own hypothesis) three linguistic features

shall be quantitatively and prosodically measured. Firstly, obstruent articulation (particularly

plosive voicing) shall be analysed in relation to musical punctuation. Secondly, vowel sound

realisation shall be analysed in terms of its prosodic placement across the idiosyncratic vocal

styles of death metal. Finally, the semantic context of the lyrical content shall be

contextually analysed against the accentuation and articulation results. Each chapter deals

with its relevant prosodic focal point from both a linguistic and a compositional point-of-

view. Below are the chapter headings, across which the cyclical notion of my research

becomes apparent:

1. The Effects of Musical Composition on Vocal Articulation,

2. The Effects of Vocal Articulation on Lyrical Content,

3. The Effects of Lyrical Content on Musical Composition.

It should be noted that the term ‘musical composition’ refers to the expression, aesthetics,

form, arrangement, and textural qualities of the death metal in question; from a

compositional perspective, death metal is characterised by its speed, ferocity and generally

heavy musical aesthetic. From a lyrical perspective, I shall analyse how recognised ‘negative’

humanistic topics are explored and articulated, contextualising my results with two

interviews from members of the contemporary Sheffield and London metal scenes

(respectively, ex-Hecate Enthroned vocalist Joseph Stamps, and Hideous Miscreation

vocalist Luke Griffin), as well as two pre-selected lyrical samples. By the conclusion of my

research, I hope to contextually identify either the existence or the absence of a semantic

and prosodic relationship between the musical punctuation of death metal and the phonetic

properties of articulation.

Joe Richards

Hypothesis

Three significant hypothetical scenarios have been outlined – briefly outlined here, each

shall be fully explored in its respective chapter, with qualitative and quantitative research

accounting for conclusions.

1. Plosive sounds are utilised on accented beats for percussive and melodic purposes.

Experience as a musician has led me to suspect that the musical punctuation of a song has a

direct effect on the phonetic structuring of the lyrical content. Sharpe-Young (2008)

highlights how ‘death growls are just as much an aesthetic to death metal as an instrument,

particularly due to the percussive nature of this kind of singing’. Similarly, Konow (2002)

notes how the manipulation of the vestibular vocal folds present in a particular articulation

style of death metal is identical to that of the notably ‘deep, sonorous tones in Tibetan

chant’. I therefore believe that the tonal and percussive properties of articulation

(particularly obstruent, plosive sounds) are prosodically tailored to musical accentuation.

2. Specific vowel sounds are chosen for certain vocal styles.

Experience as a vocalist and has led me to believe that certain vowels sounds are easier to

articulate in specific vocal styles of death metal; primarily, I found that the ingressive nature

of one particular style (the ‘squeal’) renders certain enunciation extremely difficult. Griffin

(2011) stated how, whilst practicing the technique, he ‘wouldn’t be able to use words that

didn't begin with sounds like “r”, “re” or “be” when squealing, which were easier to

pronounce’, which instantly highlights the restrictive nature of the style. Significantly,

Trudgill (1983) highlights the notion of appropriateness – ‘certain registers are appropriate

to certain situations... punctuation may be appropriate for this genre of song’. Although he

then dismisses this notion, I suspect it to be highly relevant in death metal. I therefore

believe a vocalist phonetically constructs his or her lyrics with a manner of articulation in

mind before selecting the actual words, and tailors the accentuation of specific

monophthongs and diphthongs to fit this structure whilst maximising the vocal effect.

3. Lyrical severity and extremity is reflected by the manner of articulation in death

metal.

Compared to older material, Griffin (2011) notes how ‘[newer Hideous Miscreation songs]

are evil sounding and [musically] brutal, that the lyrics just became more gory and sickening

without conscious intention’. Whilst involved in the London death metal scene, it became

apparent that semantically ‘negative’ words are frequently used in death metal. I believe

that such a register is recognised by fans as a particular semantic lexicon attributable to the

‘brutal’ ethos and aesthetic of death metal, whilst representing linguistic features such as

the attached prestige highlighted by Purcell (2003). I believe that this leads to the vocalist

attaching greater focus to the prosodic and pragmatic placement of such ‘death metal

Joe Richards

jargon’, in relation to both the vocal style of choice and the musical punctuation. The basis

of this chapter will be the results of the plosive and vowel sound experiments.

Literature Review

The research of Trudgill (1983), Beal (2009) and Simpson (1999) into dialectal alteration,

accent convergence and regional identity has formed the foundation of my project.

Although focusing more on accent, their work on vocal modification in Britpop and indie

rock has provided a sound insight into the relationship between music and vocalisation. In

particular, I discovered several explanations for vocal modification, including the

‘accommodation theory’ of Giles and Smith (1979), ‘appropriateness’ as outlined and

dismissed Trudgill (1983), and the ‘acts of identity’ noted by Le Page and Tabouret-Keller

(1985). Simpson (1999) notes how the ‘tenor, field and mode of discourse... all play a part in

a performer’s choice of accent’, which shall be explored fully across each chapter.

Morrissey’s (2008) work on ‘adopted styles’, ‘audience design’ and his notion of

performance in comparison to original recordings has provided further insight into possible

outside influences for vocal modification. Finally, Simpson’s (1999) ‘USA-5’ differentiation

features between Received Pronunciation and General American in Britpop has proved

influential to my research design, particularly that of Chapter 2.

Each chapter shall commence with a brief examination of Trudgill’s (1983) explanations for

vocal modification, and how Simpson’s (1999) facets of discourse affect a performer’s style

of articulation; these shall be contextually examined against the generalised persona

surrounding the typical death metal vocalist, as an introduction to ethos of the extreme

musical genre.

Joe Richards

Chapter 1: The Effect of Musical Composition on Vocal Articulation

The first of Simpson’s (1999) facets of discourse is tenor. Often ‘difficult to determine

in the context of performance, since the accents of singers and those of their audience do

not necessarily coincide’, Simpson (1999) suggests that vocal modification is ‘more the

result of a change in what Coupland (1988) calls ‘the projected social role and persona’ of

the speaker’. In contrast, Beal (2009) notes how the use of ‘their own accents’ and

‘emphasis on local places and experiences’ renders a performance (in this case, the Arctic

Monkeys) as authentic. She argues that such artists construct authenticity ‘as a value

opposed to the mainstream and to the commercial music industry’. Death metal falls on

both sides of this argument: whilst extreme vocal modification certainly adds depth to the

persona of a performer, it drastically opposes mainstream trends. This also reflects the third

of Trudgill’s (1983) explanations for vocal modification: ‘acts of identity’, as highlighted by

Le Page and Tabouret-Keller (1985), explains how the vocalist’s ‘linguistic behaviour is

motivated by a wish to resemble as closely as possible that of the group or groups with

which they wish to identity’ – i.e. other death metal bands. The highly unique vocal styles of

death metal have formed a vast array of subcultures around the world, to which both

authenticity and a mass persona can be attached, whilst also rejecting typical mainstream

values.

Experience as a musician has led me to suspect that musical punctuation has a direct

effect on the prosodic construction of lyrical content. Having interviewed two vocalists on

the instrumental properties of their voices, Griffin (2011) notes how ‘the type of music also

affects the range of scream I use... fast-paced riffs played higher on the fret board [of the

guitar] will be accompanied by high-pitched screams (and vice versa for lower on the fret

board)’. Whilst contemplating how ‘this isn't always the case’, he has highlighted how the

timbre and tone of the instrumentation can affect the register of the vocals. Interestingly,

Stamps (2011) compares the relative incomprehensibility of a vocal style to ‘many operas,

even those in English, [which] are difficult to understand with an untrained ear’, which

portrays how the instrumental properties of the human voice often takes precedence over

the lyrical comprehensibility. The analysis of the instrumental properties of the human voice

in death metal commences here, focusing on the qualities of obstruent articulation with

particular attention on the use of plosive sounds. Based on the research of Konow (2002)

and Sharpe-Young (2008), I hypothesised that these plosive sounds are utilised on accented

beats for percussive and melodic purposes; percussive properties can punctuate the meter,

adding weight, impact and further definition to the signature of the song, whilst the tonal

qualities can punctuate chord changes and ultimately enforce melody.

I have selected one death metal track for analysis: ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid

Disgust’ by London-based death metal band Hideous Miscreation. This track was selected

because it displays an extremely rapid vocal delivery, maximising the amount of collectable

tokens across a song of its length. It portrays a practical spread of three popular vocal styles,

Joe Richards

which will prove useful in the second chapter. I am also acquainted with the vocalist, and his

unique standpoint as a lyricist and vocalist coupled with his lyrical awareness as a graduate

student of creative writing will prove helpful in the investigation, particularly in the third

chapter. As a point of comparison in this chapter, I have chosen to analyse ‘Hooch’ by The

Melvins, a sludge metal band from Washington. This track will act as a reference point

rather than a basis of conclusive results, due to its unique lyrical construction (a collection of

organised pseudowords, created and arranged specifically for their phonetic properties).

Methodology

Having determined the manners of articulation across both songs, a table has been

constructed by which each sound can be accounted for (excluding disused manners). The

present obstruent and sonorant manners have been categorised, identifying the parent

groups for each type; for example, the differences between semivowel and lateral

approximants are irrelevant to this experiment, so both types will simply be analysed as

‘approximants’. The experiment shall be split into two sections: Experiment 1.1 will focus on

the quantitative percentile differentiation between total obstruent and sonorant

articulation on accented beats, for which I have formed three predictions:

a) The percentile weighting of accented obstruent articulation will be greater than

unaccented obstruent articulation.

b) The percentile weighting of unaccented sonorant articulation will be greater than

accented sonorant articulation.

c) Plosive articulation will feature more frequently on accented beats than any method

of sonorant articulation.

These predictions were formed from Sharpe-Young’s (2008) portrayal of the ‘percussive

nature’ of the human voice in death metal. Prediction (c) was also formed when Griffin

(2011) noted how he ‘sometimes [aims] to have certain parts of certain words run

throughout note-less parts of the music... other times I make sure the hard hitting sounds

are in conjunction with the musical beats... sometimes I realise a harder sound will be

better’. Although I can quantitatively resolve these predictions with the first experiment, a

rounded conclusion cannot yet be formed. The initial results allow for a further, more

defined analysis; Experiment 1.2 shall attach deeper focus to plosive articulation, analysing

the musical accentuation for voiced and voiceless plosives, for which I have constructed two

further predictions:

d) Voiced plosives will occur more frequently on accented beats than on unaccented

beats.

e) Voiceless plosives will occur more frequently on unaccented beats than on accented

beats.

Joe Richards

Griffin (2011) notes how ‘words beginning with “bre” (pronounced [bri:]) are more likely to

be squealed, [whereas] “see” would be a low scream and likely end with a squeal’, which

clearly highlights how the voicing of word-initial consonantal sounds can affect the manner

of articulation. Interestingly, Konow (2002) notes how the manipulation of the vestibular

vocal folds present in a particular vocal style is identical to that of the notably ‘deep,

sonorous tones in Tibetan chant’. Based on these quotes, and considering how the beat in a

regular signature often signifies a chord change (several of these beats constructing the

melody), I have formed predictions (d) and (e) on the belief that it is easier to prosodically

follow a melody with voiced, sonorant articulation than it is voicelessly. All results will be

collated and analysed in terms of their numerical and weighted percentile figures. Whilst

the predictions can be (dis)proven here, it should be noted that this only forms the basis for

a contextual conclusion – greater research should be conducted outside of two single songs

to finalise a conclusion.

There are two issues I must address having outlined the methodology of the

experiment. Firstly, by ‘accented beat’, I am referring to the emphasis placed on particular

notes to accentuate musical stress. As both selected songs operate largely in a regular 4/4

rhythm, the consistent and repetitive values of the beat allow for straightforward dynamic

recognition. In a less frantic style than death metal, such beats would be easily recognised

with a predictable snare hit, but the occasional polyrhythmic snare/ cymbal passages

demonstrated in ‘Woven in Fragments’ abstract this pattern. Luckily, there is a cyclical 4-

count cymbal consistency by which the signature and necessary accentuation can be

distinguished.

Regarding linguistic prosody; the stream of words shall not be treated as individual,

morphological structures. To elaborate, I shall not focus merely on morphological features

such as word-initial against word-final stresses, as certain words may carry before or after

an accented beat, perhaps transposing the regularity of the stress. Regardless of word-

position, the articulation which takes place on the attack of the beat shall be noted. As a

much slower song, there are noticeably fewer tokens in ‘Hooch’ by The Melvins. To

demonstrate this before addressing my results, I shall analyse the first lyrical passage in

terms of vocal stress. Here, the emboldened letters represent the articulation sound at the

attack stage of each of the four beats of the bar: “Los ticka toe rest”. Each stress in this bar

is word-initial, but there is also an unaccented extra [k] syllable.

Joe Richards

Experiment 1.1

Figure 1.1a

The most noticeable result of Figure 1.1a is that not one single manner of articulation

displays a greater number of unaccented tokens than accented tokens (although nasal and

approximant articulation displays the same amount for each). This shows the obvious

prosodic formatting of the lyrics, in terms of keeping in time with the music: having the

majority of words appearing on unaccented beats would be the result of a purposefully

unconventional and off-beat arrangement. This result also corroborates prediction (a) –

obstruent methods of articulation certainly feature with a higher weighting for accented

beats, and every manner occurs with a greater accented weighting than the sonorant

manners.

Interestingly, prediction (b) is contextually proven by these results – in terms of

percentile weighting, sonorant methods of articulation feature at a greater rate on

unaccented beats than obstruent methods; however, given the similar positively-weighted

nature of the results for other methods of articulation, it is too early to identify these results

as significant, but it does form a basis on which to construct further obstruent/ sonorant

research. Finally, prediction (c) is proven by Figure 1.1a – plosive articulation features more

frequently on accented beats than any method of sonorant articulation. This corroborates

Griffin’s (2011) efforts to prosodically arrange ‘hard hitting sounds... in conjunction with the

musical beats’. Significantly, plosive articulation also occurs at a greater frequency than any

other obstruent manner, and both the accented and unaccented tokens are the most

frequently occurring manners of articulation. I believe this is a result of the percussive

properties of plosive voicing, which add impact to the beat. However, affricate articulation

appears to occur at a greater weighting on accented beats, and a lesser weighting on

unaccented beats – this is a result of the significantly small amount of affricate instances,

which has affected the percentile results.

Hideous Miscreation – ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid Disgust’

Consonantal Type

Method of Articulation

Accented Tokens

Unaccented Tokens

% Accented

% Unaccented

Obstruent

Plosive 81 62 56.6 43.4

Affricate 10 5 66.6 33.3

Fricative 80 42 56.3 43.7

Sonorant

Nasal 29 29 50.0 50.0

Approximant 42 42 50.0 50.0

Vowel 50 48 51.0 48.9

Joe Richards

Figure 1.1b

Figure 1.1b shows a number of immediately noticeable differences from Figure 1.1a. Firstly,

it is no longer the case that accented tokens outweigh unaccented tokens: fricative and

vowel sound realisation now occurs with a greater weighting on unaccented beats. This

counters the obvious prosodic formatting of the lyrics displayed in ‘Woven in Fragments of

Putrid Disgust’; the vocalist has tailored the words in an often purposefully unconventional

and off-beat arrangement. Prediction (a) is disproved here – obstruent methods of

articulation do not feature more frequently on accented beats – in fact, they occur at the

same rate as unaccented beats. Prediction (b) is also disproved – two out of three sonorant

methods of articulation actually feature with a significantly higher percentile weighting on

accented beats, to the extent that approximant accentuation is actually the highest

weighted sound from either song. This also immediately disproves prediction (c) – contrary

to the results of Figure 1.1a, plosive articulation does not feature the most frequently on

accented beats due to the high frequency of approximant articulation. However, the high

percentile weighting of the nasal articulation occurs as a result of the significantly small

frequency of instances, similar to the affricate articulation of ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid

Disgust’.

The off-beat nature of the accentuation of the lyrical content is a result of two

factors: the polyrhythmic nature of the kick drum which serves as an occasional extra accent

against the regular 4/4 rhythm, and the need for stress in the gaps between beats as a result

of the slow tempo of the song. I believe that the plosive articulation occurs as frequently on

accented beats as it does on unaccented beats because of its percussive properties – the

linguistic feature actually serves as a form of musical punctuation to maintain and constant

rhythm at an equal but divergent rhythm to the snare-based accentuation. Indeed, Griffin

(2011) indirectly referenced this technique whilst noting how he ‘sometimes [aims] to have

certain parts of certain words run throughout note-less parts of the music’, in contrast to

the ‘the hard hitting sounds [used] in conjunction with the musical beats’. This is an

interesting revelation which I had not expected to discover upon commencing my research,

and a highly significant deviation from my predictions and hypothesis. This also explains why

The Melvins – ‘Hooch’

Consonantal Type

Method of Articulation

Accented Tokens

Unaccented Tokens

% Accented

% Unaccented

Obstruent

Plosive 53 53 50.0 50.0

Affricate - - - -

Fricative 19 4 21.0 79.0

Sonorant

Nasal 14 5 73.7 26.3

Approximant 55 8 87.3 12.7

Vowel 16 22 42.1 57.9

Joe Richards

the unaccented plosive articulation for ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid Disgust’ was far

greater than any other form of unaccented articulation.

Experiment 1.2

Figure 1.2a

Figure 1.2a has contextually proven prediction (d) – voiced plosives occur more frequently

on accented beats than on unaccented beats. Similarly, prediction (e) is contextually proven

– voiceless plosives occur more frequently on unaccented beats than on accented beats.

Griffin (2011) believed that ‘voiceless sounds are much more likely to be used as long drawn

out screams’ rather than ‘short, fast paced screams’ which he uses more often in Hideous

Miscreation in attempt to ‘make [his] style very speed driven’. Similarly, his beliefs arguing

how the voicing of word-initial consonantal sounds have clearly affected the manner of

articulation. This enforces my belief that it is easier to prosodically follow a melody with

voiced articulation than with voiceless articulation, especially in a regular signature with

defined chord changes.

Figure 1.2b

Interestingly, Figure 1.2b disproves prediction (d) – voiced plosives occur far less frequently

on accented beats than on unaccented beats. Similar results for voiceless plosives

contextually prove prediction (e) for a second time – voiceless plosives occur more

frequently on unaccented beats – but having ascertained an explanation for this prediction,

I am more interested in the disproval of prediction (d). I believe that the slower tempo of

‘Hooch’ (and the far fewer chord changes) has caused the tune-carrying voiced plosives to

occur between the beats as well as on them. The vocals are here used as the lead

instrument, actually creating the tune upon which the slower rhythmic work is centred. This

Hideous Miscreation – ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid Disgust’

Plosive Type Accented

Unaccented

% Accented

Voiced /b/, /d/, /g/

37 25 59.7

Voiceless /k/, /p/, /t/

37 44 45.7

The Melvins – ‘Hooch’

Plosive Type Accented

Unaccented

% Accented

Voiced /b/, /d/, /g/

12 36 25.0

Voiceless /k/, /p/, /t/

19 39 32.8

Joe Richards

can also be tied with Griffin’s (2011) use of ‘certain parts of certain words... throughout

note-less parts of the music’, marking another interesting revelation I had not expected to

determine upon commencing my research, and a highly significant deviation from my

predictions and hypothesis.

Conclusion

Over the two experiments, I have learnt that the relationship between musical accentuation

and articulation depends on how prosodically conventional the vocalist is in constructing his

lyrical content. The work of Beal (2009), Simpson (1999) and Trudgill (1983) helped me to

establish the role, the identity and the persona of the vocalist in social, economic and

musical terms, which introduced me to the notion that the unique qualities of death metal

vocals add both authenticity and a mass persona to a subculture, whilst rejecting typical

mainstream values. ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid Disgust’ portrays how it is natural to

allow articulation on musical stress, whilst the off-beat nature of ‘Hooch’ displays the

purposeful tailoring of linguistic stress and intonation as extra and divergent form of musical

punctuation; this shows how lyrical content can act as both a rhythmic and a leading

percussive instrument. I have also learnt that the relationship between voiced and voiceless

plosive articulation and musical accentuation depends on whether or not the vocals are

intended to follow the musical intonation or too lead it; significantly, one prediction was

contextually proven across both songs: voiceless plosives occur more frequently on

unaccented beats than on accented beats. From these results, I have learnt how lyrical

content can act as both a rhythmic and leading tonal instrument, and along with the

percussive results, I have shown a prosodic relationship between plosive sounds and musical

accentuation: whilst I hypothesised (and proved) that such plosives are utilised on accented

beats for percussive and melodic purposes, this was also proven to be the case for

unaccented beats.

There are many overlooked factors across these experiments which may prove

relevant in other research (for example, there is a greater amount of voiceless plosives than

there are voiced plosives in both songs), but these are not contextually relevant.

Joe Richards

Chapter 2: The Effect of Vocal Articulation on Lyrical Content

The second of Simpson’s (1999) facets of discourse is the mode of the vocals – he

notes that ‘the less a singer ‘sings’... the weaker the influence of the external code and the

stronger the approximation to the singer’s own vernacular’, portraying how mode can affect

a performer’s choice of accent. However, Trudgill’s (1983) second explanation for vocal

modification – appropriateness – outlines how ‘certain registers are appropriate to certain

situations... this pronunciation may be appropriate for this genre of song’. Although he

dismisses this as a relevant explanation, I believe that it is highly relevant in death metal:

this chapter is centred on my hypothesis that specific vowel sounds are chosen for certain

vocal styles, thus rendering the lyrical content directly dependent on the selected vocal

style. Having examined how the qualities of obstruent articulation can have an effect on the

phonetic arrangement of lyrical content, the cyclical research process leads me to the effect

of the vocal articulation of death metal on the lyrical content therein, with focus now on

sonorant articulation.

At a psycholinguistic and prosodic level, I believe a vocalist phonetically constructs

their lyrics with a manner of articulation in mind before selecting the actual words, and

prosodically tailors the accentuation patterns of specific monophthongs and diphthongs to

fit this structure, thereby maximising the vocal effect. Stamps (2011) highlights how

‘sometimes a certain vocal style is the only style that fits the music and therefore lyrics

should be written that match that. However, if it’s vice versa, certain lyrics dictate how the

vocals sound’. Specifically, I believe that the ingressive nature of a newly developed vocal

style (the ‘squeal’) renders certain enunciation extremely difficult, thus affecting the choice

of vowel sounds and ultimately affecting the lyrical content. Griffin (2011) highlighted how

‘when I first learnt to squeal, it must have been like five or six years ago... because I was

younger and less able in the vocals department, I wouldn’t be able to use words that didn't

begin with “r”, “re” or “be” when squealing which were easier to pronounce’. Noting how

he has improved with practice and is now ‘able to squeal any word’, it clearly portrays the

difficult nature of the ingressive style. Focus in this chapter shall centre on the articulation

manner of monophthong and diphthong vowel sounds in ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid

Disgust’ by Hideous Miscreation, with which I bear newfound familiarity. The song bears a

measurable distribution of the three vocal styles: Griffin (2011) notes how he ‘like[s] to push

myself and try and make my vocals the most extreme out there, so I constantly try and keep

a balance between low growls, medium growls, high shrieks and medium high shrieks’.

Researchers have highlighted a number of styles of vociferation across death metal,

which I have assimilated under three definable stylistic titles: the guttural, squealed and

shrieked approaches, each representing a different vocal modification technique. Firstly, the

production of ‘guttural’ vocals refers to the use of the vocal fry technique, which involves

deliberate and egressive vocal modification at the lowest possible human register.

McKinney (1994) describes how the vocal fry sound is ‘produced through a loose glottal

Joe Richards

closure which will permit air to bubble through slowly with a popping or rattling sound of a

very low frequency’, but Large (1972) highlights how it is only with the combination of ‘air

from the diaphragm’ that the ‘aggressive and harsh’ gutturally growled vocalisations occur.

Konow (2002) suggests that the purpose of such a register is ‘to attempt to evoke chaos,

death, and misery by being usually very deep, guttural, and unintelligible’ – but significantly

notes how the manipulation of the vestibular vocal folds present in the technique is

identical to that of the notably ‘deep, sonorous tones in Tibetan chant’. This highlights how

tonality is also an important aspect of the style, alongside the previously discussed

‘percussive nature’. Contrary to this approach, the ‘shrieked’ vocal style – which represents

an egressive manner of high register vociferation – is significantly more subjective to the

idiosyncrasies and vocal register of the vocalist; Stamps (2011) suggests that he has ‘much

more range in the shrieked vocals... [and] can show a lot more off in the way of emotion and

atmosphere’. However, Segalowitz (2003) notes how ‘high pitched speech’ can result in

‘decreased or inappropriate affective prosody’, so this manner of articulation has been

included to measure the prosodic contrast with the low register, similarly egressive guttural

approach.

The third and perhaps most prosodically significant style of articulation is the

‘squealed’ method, which is a newly developed and largely ingressive manner of

vociferation. Its sudden emergence is so recent that there is currently no documentation on

its origins, but having explored much death metal, the earliest examples I have located are

in Canadian bands (such as Cryptopsy), and Scandinavian bands (such as Demilich).

However, considering the nature of Scandinavian death metal (particularly the highly

influential Gothenburg scene which is widely regarded as an important factor regarding the

development of death metal) and the ingressive nature of Scandinavian speech (a select few

words such as the affirmative ‘ja’ or ‘yeah’ are often ingressively articulated by Norwegian,

Swedish and Danish speakers), I believe that I have identified a possible origin for the

‘squealed’ style of articulation. This corroborates Griffin’s (2011) early inability to pronounce

certain word-initial sounds in the ingressively squealed articulation style. Having highlighted

how ‘it’s done in a different way (often by inhaling rather than exhaling) but is more

dependent on lung capacity rather than vocal ability’, Stamps (2011) significantly suggested

that ‘lyrics are redundant using this style as they are impossible to properly enunciate, and

the squealing technique is used more for effect than it is for progression of the song’ – the

semantic facet of squealed articulation shall be analysed in Chapter 3.

Joe Richards

Methodology

As was the case with Chapter 1, this experiment shall be divided into two sections. For

Experiment 2.1, a table has been constructed to account for the percentile spread of the

individualised usage of each of the three vocal styles. Instead of listing every IPA-recognised

vowel sound, the table is constructed to represent only the vowel sounds present across the

song, to avoid any irrelevant null-values. Based on the lyrically ‘redundant’ manner of

articulation, on experience as a vocalist, and on Griffin’s (2011) belief that ‘squeals are... less

frequent, and I tend to some these for moments where it would sound appropriate’, I have

made a quantitatively measurable prediction for squealed vocalisation:

a) ‘Squealed’ articulation will occur less frequently than the other manners.

Experiment 2.1 does not represent a means of proving my hypothesis; instead, it shall

provide a numerical basis for each vowel sound, by which the deviation of usage for each

vocal style can be determined. Having calculated the usage weightings of each vocal style

(deemed the ‘norm’) the deviation from this weighting can be measured for each manner of

articulation – representing Experiment 2.2. This will portray which vowel sounds maintain

regularity across the articulation styles, and which deviate from the ‘norm’. One would

expect each vowel sound to occur in each style at a frequency close to the ‘norm’, but I

suspect that deviation will be great for a select few sounds in a select few styles, which has

led me to three further predictions:

b) Monophthong deviation will be low for each vocal style.

c) Diphthong deviation will be great for each vocal style.

d) Deviation will be greater for the egressive ‘guttural’ and ‘shrieked’ vocals than it will

the ingressive ‘squeal’ vocals.

Contrary to the tonal and melody-based results of ‘Hooch’ in Experiment 1.2, I have formed

predictions (b) and (c) based on the respective ease of vocalisation for both vowel manners:

significantly, Griffin (2011) explains how words containing the monophthong /i:/ ‘set [him]

up perfectly for a squeal’, whilst how the word-initial diphthong /ei/ ‘set [him] up perfectly

for a high scream’ – he notes how the higher register vocals meet much differentiation in

‘pace’ and can be ‘high shrieks [or] medium high shrieks’. Prediction (d) was formed on the

basis that squealed articulation is radically different from the other styles, and as such is

significantly more restrictive in terms of what can be articulated – as shown above by

Griffin’s (2011) early inability to pronounce certain word-initial sounds. As I have learnt by

looking at the ingressive nature of Scandinavian speech, only certain words are used

ingressively – it is not a factor which can be placed upon any word of speech. Using this as a

model for vocal patterns, I believe that only certain vowel sounds will be ingressively

squealed, thus rendering the deviation from the ‘normal’ usage for the style to be minimal.

Joe Richards

Experiment 2.1

Figure 2.1a

From the ‘totals’ at the base of the table, it is immediately clear that the ingressively

squealed articulation indeed occurs much less frequently than the other manners,

contextually proving prediction (a). This corroborates Stamps’ (2011) notion of the lyrically

‘redundant’ manner of the articulation, and Griffin’s (2011) belief that ‘squeals are... less

frequent, and I tend to some these for moments where it would sound appropriate’. The

limited lexical field for ingressive articulation in Scandinavian speech is mirrored in the

Griffin’s articulation patterns; this of course limits the amount of suitable words for the

relevant prosodic placement, demonstrating how vocal articulation can indeed affect lyrical

content. Of course, to completely prove this prediction, a far greater range of research must

be conducted, but this result marks a significant starting location.

Vowel Sound

Lyrical Example

Total Tokens

Guttural

Tokens %

Squeal

Tokens %

Shriek

Tokens %

/æ/ damnation 41 11 26.8 8 19.5 22 53.7

/ɑː/ bloodbath 8 4 50 1 12.5 3 37.5

/ɒ/ consumed 31 15 48.4 6 19.4 10 32.3

/ɔː/ jaw 20 9 45 5 25 6 30

/ə/ awakens 51 18 35.3 9 17.6 24 47.1

/ɪ/ twisted 119 34 28.6 26 21.8 59 49.6

/i/ mentality 11 2 18.2 3 27.3 6 54.5

/iː/ demons 31 10 32.3 6 19.4 15 48.4

/eɪ/ dislocating 34 18 52.9 3 8.8 13 38.2

/ɛ/ flesh 27 10 37 8 29.6 9 33.3

/ər/ dismembered 30 9 30 4 13.3 17 56.7

/ʌ/ fucking 33 15 45.5 3 9.1 15 45.5

/ʊ/ footsteps 1 1 100 0 0 0 0

/uː/ consumed 28 8 28.6 8 28.6 12 42.9

/aɪ/ vile 28 13 46.4 2 7.1 13 46.4

/ɔɪ/ choice 1 1 100 0 0 0 0

/oʊ/ go 17 10 58.8 1 5.9 6 35.3

/aʊ/ drowning 7 4 57.1 0 0 3 42.9

/ɪər/ here 1 1 100 0 0 0 0

/ɛər/ nightmare 6 3 50 0 0 3 50

/jʊər/ pure 2 0 0 0 0 2 100

/əʊ/ soul 1 0 0 1 100 0 0

TOTALS

Total Tokens

Guttural Usage Tokens %

Squeal Usage Tokens %

Shriek Usage Tokens %

528

196

37.1

94

17.8

238

45.1

Joe Richards

Experiment 2.2

In the style of ‘brutal death metal’ that Hideous Miscreation play, it is common to have a

roughly similar spread of the two more common, egressive vocal styles; this is, of course,

dependent on the idiosyncrasies of the vocalist – Stamps (2011) noted how he ‘prefer[s]

shrieks over growls, as I find it’s much easier to properly enunciate the lyrics and make the

lyrics clearer... as it’s more in tune with the register in my normal speaking voice’. However,

the similar distribution is shown in Figure 2.1a, with a slight favour shown towards the high-

register shrieked vocals. The percentile totals under each style represents the ‘normal’

usage for this particular song, by which the deviation of each vowel for each vocal style can

now be calculated. To portray an immediately noticeable result as a demonstrative

example, it is clear that the /əʊ/ diphthong is only squealed, resulting in an extremely large

deviation from the ‘normal’ low distribution of the squealed style in terms of the whole

song. This deviation shall now be portrayed and analysed.

Figure 2.2a

Vowel Sound

Guttural % Deviation from

Total Usage

(+/-) 0-9.9 10-19.9 20+

Squeal % Deviation from

Total Usage

(+/-) 0-9.9 10-19.9 20+

Shriek % Deviation from

Total Usage

(+/-) 0-9.9 10-19.9 20+

/æ/ -10.3 +1.7 +8.6

/ɑː/ +12.9 -5.3 -7.6

/ɒ/ +11.3 +1.6 -12.8

/ɔː/ +7.9 +7.2 -15.1

/ə/ -1.8 -0.2 +2

/ɪ/ -8.5 +4 +4.5

/i/ -18.9 +9.5 +9.4

/iː/ -4.8 +1.6 +3.3

/eɪ/ +15.8 -9 -6.9

/ɛ/ -0.1 +11.8 -11.8

/ər/ -7.1 -4.5 +11.6

/ʌ/ +8.4 -8.7 +0.4

/ʊ/ +62.9 -17.8 -45.1

/uː/ -8.5 +10.8 -2.2

/aɪ/ +9.3 -10.7 +1.3

/ɔɪ/ +62.9 -17.8 -45.1

/oʊ/ +21.7 -11.9 -9.8

/aʊ/ +20 -17.8 -2.2

/ɪər/ +62.9 -17.8 -45.1

/ɛər/ +12.9 -17.8 +4.9

/jʊər/ -37.1 -17.8 +54.9

/əʊ/ -37.1 +82.2 -45.1

Joe Richards

Figure 2.2a contextually proves prediction (b) by portraying the monophthong deviation to

reside largely in the green areas of the graph (areas of low deviation from the ‘norm’). It is

immediately noticeable monophthong deviation occurs largely with low deviation,

especially for squealed articulation. In Chapter 1, Griffin (2011) noted how ‘words beginning

with “bre” (pronounced [bri:]) are more likely to be squealed, [whereas] “see” would be a

low scream and likely end with a squeal’ – these ‘rules’ explain the low deviation for the

squealed manner of articulation. Interestingly, Griffin (2011) commented specifically on the

monophthong /i:/ - his belief that it would ‘set [him] up perfectly for a squeal is

corroborated in the graph, as it is met with very low deviation for the style. Comparatively,

the diphthong deviation for each style appears largely in the yellow and red columns (areas

of high deviation from the ‘norm’).

Guttural diphthong articulation particularly occurs frequently in the red column, whereas

shrieked diphthong articulation occurs with a high deviation from the ‘norm’ for some

diphthongs, but a markedly low deviation for others. I believe the high guttural deviation is

a result of the marked tonality which can be attached to the style, as was highlighted by

Konow (2002) in comparison to the ‘deep, sonorous tones in Tibetan chant’. This can also be

explained by Burquest and Payne’s (1993) diagram of sonorant sounds, with ‘low, open

vowels’ as the most sonorant method of articulation. This has a conversely unrestrictive

affect on the lyrical database available to the vocalist, contrary to that of the squealed vocal

approach, thus demonstrating how vocal articulation can affect lyrical content. Only one

squealed diphthong (/əʊ/) occurs in the high deviation category, the rest appear to be

marginally deviant (falling into the yellow column). These results contextually prove

prediction (c) – diphthong deviation is indeed great for each vocal style (much greater than

monophthong deviation), and prediction (d) – deviation is greater for the egressive styles

than it is for the ingressively squealed vocals.

Joe Richards

Conclusion

I hypothesised that specific vowel sounds are chosen for specific vocal styles, and over the

two experiments, I have established how the relationship between vocal articulation and

lyrical content is highly prevalent. Here, the work of Beal (2009), Simpson (1999) and

Trudgill (1983) introduced me to the notion of ‘appropriate’ vocal styles for appropriate

genres or segments of music. By contextually proving that the ingressive nature of squealed

articulation occurs less frequently than the egressive manners, I ascertained depth to my

belief that its difficult and unnatural delivery has an effect on its amount of usage

determined by the vocalist. I have also learnt that monophthong and diphthong usage –

whilst evenly spread – has met a great deal of deviation across the three vocal styles, which

appears to be dependent on the manner of articulation; the tonal qualities of the low

register guttural vocals clearly has an impact on the prosodic placement of certain lyrical

content. Finally, I have established how the restrictive nature of the squealed vocal style

(which mirrors the nature of Scandinavian ingressive speech) has led to its respective vowel

sound articulation experiencing much less deviation from the ‘norm’ than the egressive

styles, particularly the shrieked style; this can be attributed to the loud and aggressive

nature of high register vociferation, which eschews tone and melody in favour the most

prosodically effective means of articulation.

There are other notable aspects of my results that I have ignored, (for example, the

diphthong /əʊ/ met with extremely high deviation for its usage across each articulation

style), but such results can provide the basis of other research outside of this study. Griffin

(2011) noted how the tone and tempo of the guitar can affect the pitch of the scream:

‘usually, fast-paced riffs played higher on the guitar’s fret board will be accompanied by

high-pitched screams (and vice versa for lower on the fret board)’ – this is a belief which

provides a foundation for continuing the study into the effect of composition on

articulation. The results of my experiments, coupled with research, have led me to the

conclusion that a vocalist who uses all three vocal styles unavoidably contemplates the

vowel sound of the word in relation to the chosen manner of articulation. I therefore

conclude that the style of vocal articulation certainly affects the lyrical content.

Joe Richards

Chapter 3: The Effect of Lyrical Content on Musical Composition

The third of Simpson’s (1999) facets of discourse is the role of the field – ‘the content

and purpose of the song text’. He demonstrates how a specific setting invoked in a song can

evoke a specific persona and resulting accent. He also highlights how ‘cover versions often

require the singer to adopt the accent associated with the original version’. Interestingly,

the purpose of a death metal cover is usually to invoke the original song in a brand new

(extremely contradictory) style and musical setting, attaching a new identity to a song with a

recognised persona. This reflects both aspects of Trudgill’s (1983) first explanation for vocal

modification – the ‘accommodation theory’ highlighted by Giles and Smith (1979) – which

states that ‘speakers modify their accents to either converge to or diverge from those of

their interlocutors, depending on whether they want to identify with or distance themselves

from those interlocutors’. By covering but reinventing a song, a death metal vocalist both

converges to and diverges from the ‘mainstream’.

Across Chapters 1 and 2, I have learnt that the relationship between musical

accentuation and articulation depends on how prosodically conventional the vocalist is in

constructing his lyrical content; the percussive and tonal properties of the lyrical content

can act as both a rhythmic and a leading instrument. I have also established how specific

vowel sounds are chosen for specific vocal styles, and how the relationship between vocal

articulation and lyrical content is highly prevalent; a vocalist who uses all three vocal styles

unavoidably contemplates the vowel sound of the word in relation to the chosen manner of

articulation. To complete the cyclical structure of my research, I shall conclude with an

analysis of the semantic nature of the lyrical content of death metal, with regards to its

effects on musical composition.

Griffin (2011) previously noted how ‘the lyrical content does have an effect on what

vocal style I use: words beginning with “R” set me up perfectly for a squeal, whilst words

beginning with “A” or “Y” set me up perfectly for a high scream... words beginning with “A”

tend to be high screams, whereas words beginning with "D" tend to suit guttural and low

vocals’. It is clear that the lyrical content has an effect on the style of articulation, and if we

consider his belief that the musical composition (‘fast-paced riffs played higher on the

guitar’s fret board will be accompanied by high pitched screams...’), it is clear that the

musical composition also affects the vocal style. Finally, whilst commenting on the shift of

lyrical themes (early material was more occult, centring on mythical creatures such as

‘werewolves’), Griffin (2011) speculates how ‘the change in lyrical theme has had a lot to do

with the overall sound of newer songs... they are so evil-sounding and brutal that the lyrics

just became more gory and sickening without conscious intention. This leads me to the

central theme for this chapter – I hypothesised that lyrical severity and extremity is

reflected by the manner of articulation in death metal.

Joe Richards

Experience as a lyricist has shown me how negativity is rife across the genre, and has

led me to suspect that such ‘negative’ words are more emphatically accentuated than

others. Purcell (2003) highlights the topics of death metal, which I have grouped under

banners such religion and occultism (‘Satanism, anti-religion, occultism, mysticism’), gore

(‘mutilation, dissection, torture’) and taboo (‘rape, necrophilia’). Konow (2002) suggested

that the purpose of the low register guttural vocals is ‘to attempt to evoke chaos, death, and

misery’; similarly, Sharpe-Young (2008) highlights how ‘the harsh nature [of guttural vocals]

is appropriate because of death metal's often dark and disturbing subject matter.’ This

particular semantic register is recognised by fans of the subculture as a lexical database

attributable to the ethos of death metal. Purcell (2003) notes how prestige is often attached

to the technicality of the register – for example, the surgical nature of the ‘goregrind’

subgenre. Significantly, Griffin (2011) notes how ‘the lyrical content can change dramatically

depending on the sound of the song... to a certain extent, I even base the lyrics on the music

of the song... if a part sounds particularly doom-worthy [jargon referring to very slow-paced,

evil-sounding death metal] then the lyrics will follow suit. If it’s a fast paced guitar riff, the

lyrics will be fast paced’. I therefore believe that vocalists attach greater focus to the

prosodic placement of such death metal jargon in relation to two aspects: the vocal style of

choice, and the musical accentuation.

Methodology

The methodology for Experiment 3.1 will be presented differently; a singular table (Figure

3.1a) shall contain two different variables against an alphabetised list of every ‘negative’

token in ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid Disgust’. The first variable requires an answer to a

polar question, to determine whether or not the token contains a plosive sound on an

accented beat. The second variable represents the choice of vocalisation made by Griffin for

the same token. These variables will be plotted against each other in a secondary graph

(Figure 3.1b) which discounts the individualised words (by now, it is clear that the words are

‘negative’ – the individualised semantics of each are no longer relevant). Instead, I shall

group the similar vocalisation techniques and analyse the plosive results within their own

styles of articulation, as well as against the other styles. I have made two predictions which

shall be addressed against the secondary graph:

a) ‘Negative’ words featuring plosives will occur at similar frequencies on both

accented and unaccented beats.

b) ‘Negative’ words will occur more frequently across the egressive manners of

articulation.

Prediction (a) was formed from the results of Experiments 1.2 and 2.1. Firstly, I established

how the percussive and tonal properties of plosive sounds could be either accented or

unaccented, depending on whether the vocalist was defining or following the melody.

Significantly, Griffin (2011) noted how he ‘uses more magical [occult] words during fast-

paced riffs that I scream in a high pitch’, whereas I find myself screaming words describing

Joe Richards

say... ripping someone apart with low growls’. As I learnt in Experiment 2.1, the guttural and

shrieked vocals occurred at roughly the same frequency, so I predict the spread of ‘negative’

words to occur at similar frequencies regarding the beat of the song. Prediction (b) was

formed from the results of Experiments 2.1 and 2.2, from which I established how the

ingressively squealed articulation occurs much less frequently than the egressive manners.

Griffin (2011) noted how that ‘squeals are... less frequent, and I tend to some these for

moments where it would sound appropriate’ – I believe that the words selected for these

‘moments’ will also be carefully considered and, due to the nature of death metal, will likely

bear a semantically ‘negative’ context. The results of this will also prove interesting when

considering Stamps’ (2011) opinion on the lyrically ‘redundant’ nature of the style. By

contextually proving these predictions, I can highlight how the musical composition and

lyrical content directly affect each other, thus completing the cyclical cycle of my research.

There are several factors I must address before analysing the results, beginning with

the criteria by which I am assessing the negativity of the lyrical content. Most of the tokens

clearly fall under previously outlined negative banners such as religion and occultism

(‘damnation’), gore (‘mutilated’, ‘dismembered’) or taboo (‘fucking’) so are easily

identifiable as ‘negative’. However, many words have to be taken in their syntactic context –

for example, whilst the adjective ‘twisted’ is commonly associated with derangement, the

verb ‘twisting’ is not. Contextually, however, ‘twisting the layers of mentality’ attaches a

particularly negative semantic context to the word, demonstrating how I must take each

word syntactically. Secondly, there is the issue of token duplication: several tokens occur

more than once, but shall be treated individually. Across multiple instances, the articulation

style of the word could change, and it is equally possible that one instance could be

accented whilst another will not. Finally, I must address the polar answer for the “plosive on

an accented beat (Y/N)” category. A negative answer could represent one of three things: i)

the token contains a plosive on an unaccented beat, ii) the token contains no plosive, or iii)

the token does not appear on an accented beat. As the focus of this chapter is to compare

the vocalisation manner of a token against accented plosive articulation, these three

possible factors shall be counted as similarly neutral (and contextually unnecessary) values,

although they could be justifiably analysed in future research.

Joe Richards

Experiment 3.1

Figure 3.1a

There is clearly a great variation of accentuation and articulation style across the negative

words – with a noticeably high number of tokens with a negative accentuation result (more

than I suspected would occur). This large number has immediately caused speculation

surrounding the referenced results of Experiment 1.2 – upon which I predicted a largely

similar frequency of semantically negative articulation across both accented and unaccented

beats. Significantly, when asked whether he believed that focus is attached to the

‘Negative’ Word

Plosive on an Accented Beat (Y/N)

Manner of Articulation

‘Negative’ Word

Plosive on an Accented Beat

(Y/N)

Manner of Articulation

abominated Y Shrieked hideously Y Squealed

agonizing N Shrieked ignore N Squealed

bleed Y Squealed ingesting N Guttural

blood Y Guttural innards N Squealed

blood Y Shrieked maddening N Shrieked

bloodbath Y Guttural miscreation N Guttural

bone Y Guttural mutilate N Guttural

burning Y Shrieked mutilate N Guttural

burst N Guttural mutilated N Guttural

choking Y Squealed mutilation N Squealed

consumed Y Guttural mutilation N Guttural

consuming N Shrieked nightmare N Squealed

damnation N Guttural nightmare N Shrieked

darkness N Squealed nightmare N Guttural

deception Y Shrieked nightmare N Guttural

demon Y Squealed ripping N Shrieked

demon Y Guttural scathe Y Shrieked

demon Y Guttural shadowed N Shrieked

disgust N Guttural shreds Y Shrieked

disgust Y Squealed slave N Shrieked

disgusting Y Shrieked stained Y Shrieked

dislocating Y Guttural suffocate Y Guttural

dismembered N Guttural trapped N Shrieked

drowning N Guttural trapping Y Shrieked

fangs N Guttural twisted Y Squealed

flesh N Guttural twisted Y Shrieked

flesh N Shrieked twisting Y Guttural

flesh N Guttural unconscious Y Shrieked

frantic N Shrieked vile N Shrieked

fucking N Guttural vile Y Guttural

fucking N Shrieked vile Y Guttural

hidden N Guttural vulgar N Guttural

hideous N Guttural

Joe Richards

placement of ‘negative’ words, Stamps (2011) speculated that ‘a lot of death metal is violent

and controversial, so such words are so abundant in songs that where they are placed is

rarely an issue’. I believe that the over-abundance of negativity in ‘Woven in Fragments of

Putrid Disgust’ is certainly a factor which has affected my result.

The duplicate issue raised in the methodology proved a worthwhile decision on

several occurrences; for example, ‘disgust’ occurs twice, but one occurrence is guttural and

unaccented, whilst the other is ingressively squealed and accented. Interestingly, for every

duplicate occurring multiple times in a particular vocal style, there was absolutely no

differentiation in terms of prosodic accentuation; for example, ‘demon’ was articulated in

the guttural style twice, but Griffin’s [d] plosive matched the accented beat both times. As

this was the case for all similarly-styled duplicates, I can tentatively conclude that – to an

extent which can be determined by further research – certain words are specifically and

prosodically chosen for their phonetic properties to maximise the vocal effect.

Figure 3.1b

Prediction (b), which was formed from the results of Experiment 2.1 and 2.2, is contextually

proven by Figure 3.1b – it is clear that both egressive manners of articulation feature

‘negative’ words at far greater frequencies (on both accented and unaccented beats) than

the ingressively squealed manner. In Chapter 2, Stamps (2011) significantly suggested that

‘lyrics are redundant using this style as they are impossible to properly enunciate, and the

squealing technique is used more for effect than it is for progression of the song’ – the

semantic comprehensibility of the style is just as significant a factor for usage as the difficult

nature of their articulation. This contextualises the results aforementioned experiments,

and tentatively proves the existence of a relationship between lyrical content and musical

composition; however, regarding prediction (a), which was formed from the results of

0

5

10

15

20

25

Guttural Squealed Shrieked

Accented

Unaccented

Joe Richards

Experiment 1.2, an issue regarding this theory is raised. This prediction is only partially

proven by Figure 3.1b – for both squealed and shrieked vocals, the plosive articulation

within the selected ‘negative’ words features appear at a remarkably similar frequency on

both accented and unaccented beats (with a differentiation of only one word for each) –

corroborating Griffin’s (2011) ‘balance between low growls, medium growls, high shrieks

and medium high shrieks’. Regarding the use of plosive articulation for ‘negative’ words in

the guttural approach, however, the amount of unaccented instances is almost double that

of the accented instances. I believe this to be a result of the sonorant qualities of the

guttural style previously highlighted by Konow (2002), further defining the voice as a leading

instrument between accented melodies.

Conclusion

Having hypothesised that lyrical severity and extremity is reflected by the manner of

articulation in death metal, and that ‘negative’ words are more emphatically accentuated

than others, research has helped me to establish a conclusion. The work of Beal (2009),

Simpson (1999) and Trudgill (1983) reinforced my understanding of an attached identity and

persona to articulation, and significantly, how vocal styles can reinvent an identity of a

recognised song; I then grasped how death metal both converges to and diverges from the

‘mainstream’. I have determined – to an extent which can be determined by further

research – that certain ‘negative’ words (such as ‘demon’) are specifically and prosodically

chosen for their phonetic properties to maximise the vocal effect. The prosodic analysis of

‘negative’ words has also helped to develop my understanding surrounding the nature of

ingressive vocalisation – it is clear that both egressive manners of articulation feature

‘negative’ words at far greater frequencies (on both accented and unaccented beats).

However, not all plosive articulation of the selected ‘negative’ words appears at similar

frequency regarding prosodic accentuation – I have established how the tonal qualities of

the guttural approach can enforce the prosodic positioning of the voice as a leading

instrument. One must also consider the ‘abundant’ use of ‘negative’ words highlighted by

Stamps (2011), which could skew results on an experiment as small as this. Having

previously established a prosodic relationship between musical composition and vocal

articulation, and a similar relationship between articulation lyrical content, I have now

shown how vocalists attach focus to the prosodic placement of such ‘death metal jargon’ in

relation to the vocal style of choice and the musical accentuation. This has contextualised

and highlighted a prosodic relationship between the semantic context of the lyrical content

and the musical composition of death metal, thus completing the cyclical structure of my

research.

Joe Richards

Conclusion

Whilst conducting this study, several features presented themselves as potential research fields to continue this project. Were this study longer, I should have liked to explore:

glottal ingression, particularly on the voicing of implosive consonants,

the use of articulation styles when two (or more) vocalists are present in a band,

the precise relationship the music and the pitch of the scream (referring to Griffin’s (2011) comment that ‘riffs played higher on the guitar’s fret board will be accompanied by high pitched screams (and vice versa for lower on the fret board)’,

the use of pitch-shifted vocals – a technological practice used by grindcore bands to reach registers far lower and less intelligible than any style I have examined, and

the relationship between the studio recordings and the stage performance of the vocal styles, an important facet of discourse noted by Flender and Rauhe (1989).

However, over my experiments, I have successfully grasped an understanding of everything I initially intended to research. Firstly, I have learnt that the relationship between musical accentuation and articulation depends on how prosodically conventional the vocalist is in constructing his lyrical content. The work of Beal (2009), Simpson (1999) and Trudgill (1983) helped me to establish the role, the identity and the persona of the vocalist in social, economic and musical terms, which introduced me to the notion that the unique qualities of death metal vocals add both authenticity and a mass persona to a subculture, whilst rejecting typical mainstream values. ‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid Disgust’ portrayed how it is natural to allow articulation on musical stress, whilst the off-beat nature of ‘Hooch’ displayed the purposeful tailoring of linguistic stress and intonation as a divergent form of musical punctuation; from this, I learnt how lyrical content can act as both a rhythmic and a leading percussive instrument. I also learnt that the relationship between voiced and voiceless plosive articulation and musical accentuation depends on whether or not the vocals are intended to follow the musical intonation or too lead it. I concluded that lyrical content can act as both a rhythmic and leading tonal instrument, and along with the percussive results, I have portrayed a prosodic relationship between plosive sounds and musical accentuation.

Next, I established how the relationship between vocal articulation and lyrical

content is highly prevalent. Here, the work of Beal (2009), Simpson (1999) and Trudgill (1983) introduced me to the notion of appropriate vocal styles for appropriate genres or segments of music. By contextually proving that the ingressive nature of squealed articulation occurs less frequently than the egressive manners, I ascertained depth to my belief that the difficult and unnatural delivery has an effect on its amount of usage determined by the vocalist. I have also learnt that monophthong and diphthong usage – whilst evenly spread – has met a great deal of deviation across the three vocal styles, which appears to be dependent on the tonal qualities of the manners of articulation. I then established that the restrictive nature of the squealed vocal style (which mirrors the nature of Scandinavian ingressive speech) has led to its respective vowel sound articulation experiencing much less deviation from the ‘norm’ than the egressive styles. This clearly portrayed how a vocalist who uses all three vocal styles unavoidably contemplates the

Joe Richards

vowel sound of the word in relation to the chosen manner of articulation, revealing the prosodic relationship between the style of articulation and the lyrical content.

Finally, I determined how certain ‘negative’ words are specifically and prosodically chosen for their phonetic properties to maximise the vocal effect. Here, the work of Beal (2009), Simpson (1999) and Trudgill (1983) reinforced my understanding of an attached identity and persona to articulation, and significantly, how vocal styles can reinvent an identity of a recognised song; I then grasped how death metal both converges to and diverges from the ‘mainstream’. The prosodic analysis of such words helped to further my understanding of ingressive vocalisation – it is clear that both egressive manners of articulation feature ‘negative’ words at far greater frequencies (on both accented and unaccented beats). However, not all plosive articulation of the selected ‘negative’ words appeared at similar frequencies, regarding prosodic accentuation – this helped me to establish how the tonal qualities of the guttural approach can enforce the prosodic positioning of the voice as a leading instrument. Contextually, vocalists clearly attach focus to the prosodic placement of ‘death metal jargon’ in relation to the vocal style of choice and the musical accentuation, which highlights a prosodic relationship between the semantic context of the lyrical content and the musical composition of death metal.

This completes the cyclical nature of my analysis, and I can now confidently conclude my study, having successfully outlined several prosodic relationships between the musical composition, the articulation manner and the semantic context of death metal. ==================================================================================

Joe Richards

Word Count

Excluding Title, Contents, table data, Appendices, and Bibliography: 9,803.

Appendix

‘Woven in Fragments of Putrid Disgust’

Music by Hideous Miscreation (2009). Lyrics by Luke Griffin (2009).

Consumed in an insight, a fucking insight of damnation. Intrepid fragments of disgust will suffocate

her innocence drowning the mutilated body of her former self. But she’s just a child, trapped in this

vile illusion. Systematically it’s ripping out her sanity, an agonising process handled with a delicacy.

Bow, to your new master. I’ve came to mutilate your dreams. Hideously weaving fragments of

demon innards with your pure little form and I’m patiently burning these illusions of deception upon

your retina. Now you’re choking on the darkness of your nightmares, and there’s no choice but face

them. Follow me now, to the depths of your humanity, towards the spires of mutilation. This is not a

fucking fairytale, but we walk this bridge in squander shadowed by this structures twisted disgust.

But she’s just a child, is this some vile illusion? Shy footsteps down a vile path; wade through

dismembered body parts, towards the spires of mutilation built of flesh and bone. Her legs are

moving through no fault of her own. Step through its vulgar gates - your hideous destiny awaits. Its

gates slam shut trapping her inside. Why can’t she just wake up? This nightmare is consuming her

soul - ingesting her, twisting the layers of mentality as its walls bleed. Her actions reflect in the

hidden eyes of demons and the transformation is approaching, just know that nothing can stop little

girl becoming this lycan miscreation. The fangs burst through her, her tender ribcage starts to

mutilate and twist. Can you see her changing? Can you see this disgusting contrast from innocence

to a twisted and abominated slave to human flesh? Jaw dislocating, as she is bathed in demon blood

Watchers eyes scathe her as she shreds her feeble form. Falling unconscious, she awakens under

moonlight. Breathing so frantic, her mouth is stained with blood with lips repeating the same

maddening whispered words that this is just a nightmare, and I’ll wake up from this bloodbath, and

I’ll ignore the taste of flesh, I’ll just wait here in this nightmare singing: this isn’t real, this isn’t real,

this isn’t real, this isn’t real.

‘Hooch’

Music by The Melvins (1993). Lyrics by Buzz Osborne (1993).

Los ticka toe rest. Might likea sender doe ree. Your make a doll a ray day sender bright like a penelty.

Exi-tease my ray day member half lost a beat away. Purst in like a one way sender war give a heart

like a fay. Cuz I can ford a red eed only street a wide a ree land. Die-mond make a mid-evil bike a

sake a like a ree caste. Cuz I can ford a red eed only street a wide a ree land. On a ree land. Find a ree

land. You sink a my swan. Rolly a get a worst in. Maybe minus way far central poor forty duck a pin.

Milk maid dud bean. Master a load a head. Pill pop a dope a well run general hash pump a gonna

led.

Joe Richards

Interview with Luke Griffin - conducted via email on 1/4/2011.

Technical terms were explained in a glossary.

Introductory Questions

1. Would you say your grasp of creative writing (and the English language) is reflected in your

lyrical work, or has affected the style of your writing?

a. Yes, definitely. The only reason I took creative writing at university was because I

wrote death metal lyrics... and as a back-up encase the band failed! But that soon

changed and as the course progressed, so did my writing abilities. Things like

expanding my vocabulary and becoming better at using descriptive language helped

with my lyrical work.

2. During the song-writing process of Hideous Miscreation, which occurs first – the musical or

lyrical composition? Does one affect the other?

a. The musical composition occurs first, as I think it does in most cases. To write a

death metal song around the lyrics would be almost impossible... or at least fucking

hard for the rest of the band! In saying this though, adding lyrics to the newer

Hideous Miscreation material is growing harder and harder. The technicality and

pace of the newer material makes writing the lyrics a whole new ball game. For

instance, with Thrown to Belial I used to just write the lyrics before the music was

written. With Hideous Miscreation I need to hear the song first to see what syllables

will fit, because it is so fast paced.

3. Do you believe that the words comprising the lyrics of death metal are chosen for how they

sound, rather than their actual meaning (or vice versa)?

a. Both. I never chose words for how they sound until Hideous Miscreation came along

and I started to make my style very speed driven. I always wanted to be able to

scream at a fast pace and in order to do that I would have to listen to say... ten

seconds of our song over and over again whilst I work out a sentence that will fit and

also convey the meaning or narrative arc I am trying to put across.

4. Do you believe that the musical punctuation of a death metal song has an effect on the

construction of the lyrical content (or vice versa)?

a. Definitely, the lyrical content can change dramatically depending on the sound of

the song. To a certain extent, I even base the lyrics on the song. If a part sounds

particularly doom worthy, then the lyrics will follow suit. If it’s a fast paced guitar

riff, the lyrics will be fast paced. The type of music also affects the range of scream I

use... Usually fast paced riffs played higher on the guitar’s fret board will be

accompanied by high pitched screams (and vice versa for lower on the fret board).

Of course this isn't always the case, but the construction of the music definitely has

an effect on the lyrics and vocal styles used.

Joe Richards

Part 1 – Consonant Sounds

5. Do you believe that the more percussive, ‘plosive’ sounds are used on musical beats

between musical beats – if so, why? Or, neither.

a. It can vary between the two. Sometimes I aim to have certain parts of certain words

run throughout note-less parts of the music. And other times I make sure the hard

hitting sounds are in conjunction with the musical beats. This being said, I don't

consciously focus on these aspects whilst writing the lyrics. However, the lyrical

content does have an effect on what vocal style I use. Words beginning with “R” set

me up perfectly for a squeal, whilst words beginning with “A” or “Y” set me up

perfectly for a high scream.

6. Do you think voiced sounds or voiceless sounds bare any relationship to the melody of the

song?

a. I think the sounds do influence the melody of the song, because voiceless sounds are

much more likely to be used as long drawn out screams, rather than short, fast

paced screams.

7. Do you believe that the vocal style affects the choice of words used in the lyrics?

a. Yes, I accidentally commented on this earlier. The syllables in the word define what

vocal style I used... in some cases anyway. It always varies because there aren't any

real rules, so I may just think “that would sound cool” and go for it in that style. Or I

would play around with multiple styles until I find one that fits. To give some

examples, words beginning with “bre” are more likely to be squealed. “See” would

be a low scream and likely end with a squeal. Words beginning with “A” tend to be

high screams, whereas words beginning with "D" tend to suit guttural and low

vocals.

8. Do you think the squealed vocals are more difficult to perform than other styles? If so, does

this affect the choice of words you pick to squeal? What sort of words would you pick?

a. When I first learnt to squeal, it must have been like five or six years ago. Because I

was younger and less able in the vocals department, I wouldn’t be able to use words

that didn't begin with sounds like “r”, “re” or “be” when squealing which were easier

to pronounce. This changed with practice and I am now able to squeal any word, so I

can’t really detail any precise words I would choose anymore.

9. Do you believe that specific vowel sounds are chosen for certain vocal styles?

a. I think in the past I found it easier to shriek certain sounds and growl others, but

now it is just as easy for me to do either. I have been doing vocals for so long now

that I forget what words used to be easier to scream low and what ones high.

10. Do you use high pitched shrieks and low pitched growls at the same sort of frequency, or do

you favour one over the other – if so, why?

a. I tend to try and keep my vocals as varied as possible, simply because bands that

stick to one vocal style (all low growls or all high shrieks) tend to get a bit boring.

Joe Richards

Also because I like to push myself and try and make my vocals the most extreme out

there, so I constantly try and keep a balance between low growls, medium growls,

high shrieks and medium high shrieks. Squeals are also used although they are less

frequent and I tend to some these for moments where it would sound appropriate.

Part 3 – Lyrical Themes

11. You are part of the London death metal scene – have you noticed any particular linguistic

traits or lyrical themes emerging amongst the scene?

a. There haven't really been any themes that have emerged that have been specific to

London really... there are death metal themes that seem to rise in popularity.

Annotations of an Autopsy and Whitechapel made the whole degrading women

lyrical style popular and bands like Ingested followed suit. This is a style I strive to

stay away from. I would rather be screaming about black magic and mythology...

epic stuff, rather than something that is just pure disgusting. With Hideous

Miscreation I was going to do a whole EP themed around Vampires, and then

Twilight came along and ruined them! So the whole EP was then themed around

werewolves seeing as they are in a way, hideous mis-creations themselves. Now that

we are writing a full length album the theme is very much up for debate, it has got a

lot more sick and gory. This is because with our new album we have undergone a

change in style... our debut full length will be technical brutal death metal, as

opposed to the EP which was I suppose... brutal deathcore. The change in lyrical

theme has had a lot to do with the overall sound of newer songs. They are so evil

sounding and brutal that the lyrics just became more gory and sickening without my

own conscious intention.

12. Do you believe that any focus is attached to particularly ‘negative’ words regarding where

they are placed in the song?

a. The entirety of our songs are generally quite violent and blasphemous... in fact, our

song “Born to Lift the Veil” has sparked an almost year long debate about Satanism,

atheism and religion on YouTube. We have been dubbed Satanists by some, but we

are atheists probably. I find that I use more magical words, such as words describing

magic or alchemy during fast paced riffs that I scream in a high pitch. Whereas I find

myself screaming words describing say... ripping someone apart with low growls.

This is simply because low screams sound more brutal, where high screams sound

more epic. High screams can also be used to sound angrier.

Joe Richards

Interview with Joseph Stamps - conducted via email on 1/4/2011.

Technical terms were explained in a glossary.

Introductory Questions

1. Do you believe that the words comprising the lyrics of death metal are chosen for how they

sound, rather than their actual meaning (or vice versa)?

a. I believe the lyrics are chosen for their actual meaning as opposed to how they

sound. Despite the common complaint that many death metal vocals are often

incomprehensible or difficult to understand, that should not take anything away

from the meaning behind the song (people can still read the lyrics). Many operas,

even those in English, are difficult to understand with the untrained ear, yet they

don't receive the same criticism.

2. Do you believe that the musical punctuation of a death metal song has an effect on the

construction of the lyrical content (or vice versa)?

a. Yes, if you write lyrics without referring to rhythm and tempo you can end up with

vocals that just sound like unstructured noise over the instruments. Normally it's

best to practice with sounds and figure out exactly how many syllables you can

realistically fit into a certain space before you start writing lyrics.

Part 1 – Consonant Sounds

3. Do you believe there is a relationship between the percussive, ‘plosive’ sounds and musical

beats (if so, why)?

a. This is not something I’ve ever thought about.

4. Do you think voiced or voiceless sounds bare any relationship to the melody of the song?

a. It varies, depending on the song.

Part 2 – Vowel Sounds/ Vocal Style

5. Do you believe that the vocal style (guttural/ shriek/ squeal etc) affects the choice of words

used in the lyrics?

a. It can be two different ways. Sometimes a certain vocal style is the only style that

fits the music and therefore lyrics should be written that match that. However, if it’s

vice versa, certain lyrics dictate how the vocals sound.

6. Do you think squealed vocals are more difficult to perform than other styles? If so, would

this affect the choice of words you pick to squeal? What sort of words would you pick?

a. I would say no. It’s done in a different way (often by inhaling rather than exhaling)

but is more dependent on lung capacity rather than vocal ability. In my own

personal opinion lyrics are redundant using this style as they are impossible to

properly enunciate and the squealing technique is used more for effect than it is for

progression of the song.

Joe Richards

7. Do you believe that specific vowel sounds are chosen for certain vocal styles? For example,

do you believe it is easier to shriek some vowel sounds than it is to squeal them, or growl

them etc. If so, which sounds, in which styles?

a. This is also something that I’ve never thought about.

8. Do you use high pitched shrieks and low pitched growls at the same sort of frequency, or do

you favour one over the other – if so, why?

a. I prefer shrieks over growls as I find it’s much easier to properly enunciate the lyrics

and make the lyrics clearer. I also think there is much more range in the shrieked

vocals and you can show a lot more off in the way of emotion and atmosphere.

Lower, growled vocals are often much more monotone and more devoid of emotion

and atmosphere. I also find the higher shrieks easier as it’s more in tune with the

register in my normal speaking voice.

Part 3 – Lyrical Themes

9. You have been part of many bands across many death metal scenes – have you noticed any

particular linguistic traits or lyrical themes emerging amongst these scenes?

a. Many death metal bands tend to follow the old traditions of gore and violence, only

now they try to push the envelope further by being more gory and violent than their

predecessors. The downside to this is often going too far, not in terms of being

offensive, but more that lyrics and themes become overblown to the point of being

nothing more than ridiculous, puerile gibberish. In a similar way many more death

metal bands are going for more extreme vocals (squeals etc) making lyrics virtually

redundant as the vocals themselves are now so over the top that it’s impossible to

comprehend them. There are a handful of bands in the Northern death metal

scenes, however, who are trying something new in terms of themes such as urban

myths mixed with a comedic slant or sometimes even nightmares and psychological

torment.

10. Do you believe that any focus is attached to particularly ‘negative’ words (violent/

blasphemous/ taboo etc) regarding where they are placed in the song? I.e. more negative

words in faster/ heavier sections?

a. Generally a lot of death metal is violent and controversial, so such words are so

abundant in songs that where they are placed is rarely an issue. I personally believe

that swearing should always be kept to a minimum as it tends to instantly show a

lack of imagination, maturity and vocabulary. However, certain swear words such as

‘fuck’ can be very powerful if used rarely, and at a particular time.

Joe Richards

Bibliography

Beal, J. (2009). You’re Not From New York City, You’re From Rotherham: Dialect and Identity in British Indie Music. Sheffield: SAGE Publications. Burquest, D. & Payne, D. (1993). Phonological Analysis: A Functional Approach. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Chen, J. (2004). Centre for Speech and Language Pathology, found on http://www.speechtherapyct.com/glossary.htm – accessed on 27/03/2011. Coupland, N. (1988). Dialect in Use: Sociolinguistic Variation in Cardiff English. Cardiff, UK: University of Wales Press. Flender, R. & Rauhe, H. (1989). Popmusik: Aspekte ihrer Geschichte, Funktionen, Wirkung und Asthetik. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, in Morrissey, F. (2008). Liverpool to Louisiana in One Lyrical Line: Style Choice in British Rock, Pop and Folk Singing. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Fuks, L. (1998). From Air to Music: Acoustical, Physiological and Perceptual Aspects of Reed Wind Instrument Playing and Vocal-Ventricular Fold Phonation, found on http://www.speech.kth.se/music/publications/leofuks/thesis/contents.html - accessed on 13/04/2011. Giles, H. & Smith, P. (1979). Accommodation Theory: Optimal Levels of Convergence. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Konow, D. (2002). Bang Your Head: The Rise and Fall of Heavy Metal. Three Rivers Press. Large, John. (1972). Towards an Integrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers. Le Page, R. & Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985). Acts of Identity: Creole-based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group.

Morrissey, F. (2008). Liverpool to Louisiana in One Lyrical Line: Style Choice in British Rock, Pop and Folk Singing. Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter. Purcell, Natalie J. (2003). Death Metal Music: The Passion and Politics of a Subculture. McFarland & Company. Segalowitz, S. (2003). Handbook for Neuropsychology, 2nd Edition. Elsevier Science BV: Amsterdam. Sharpe-Young, G. (2008). Death Metal. Zonda Books Ltd. Simpson, P. (1999). Language, Culture and Identity: With (Another) Look at Accents in Pop and Rock Singing. Multilingua.

Trudgill, P. (1983). Acts of Conflicting Identity: The Sociolinguistics of British Pop-song Performance. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

http://www.speech.kth.se/music/publications/leofuks/thesis/contents.html



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