The Principles of Scale Formation and Elimination by the By ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.

The Principles of The Principles of Scale Formation Scale Formation and Elimination and Elimination

by theby the

By ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.By ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.

This presentation is available in the following formats:

•Slide Show for PC on Zip Disk or CD-ROM - must have Microsoft PowerPoint 97 for Windows 95.

•Executable file on Zip Disk or CD-ROM - Must have Windows 95.

•Book binder format in full color.

•Book binder format in black & white.

Copyright 2001, second edition, ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc. Any reproduction or transmission without written permission if this

publication is strictly prohibited. All rights reserved.

3

Introduction

For nearly 3,000 years, man has attempted to solve the problems associated with scale buildup--mainly calcium carbonate. Early Egyptians used permanent magnets in an attempt to reduce scale deposits in pipes that carried hard water.

In the past 130 years or so, numerous efforts to introduce permanent magnets or electromagnetic devices have been made. More recently, a number of devices using electromagnetic field or sound waves have appeared on the market.

One of the major problems to these chemical free alternatives, is the lack of understanding about the operating principle or theory of such products. Many manufacturers of these products show a lack of understanding of the principle of fundamental physics and chemistry.

For one reason or another, most of the devices have failed to control scale on a consistent and reliable basis until the creation of the electronic descaler, “ScaleBlasterTM”, manufactured by ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.

4

Introduction (continued)

This presentation will first take a good look at scale--its definition, where scale is found, the cause of scale and its effects.

The second chapter will take a detailed look at the formation of scale.

The third chapter will focus on water and its effect on scale formation.

The fourth chapter will comprise of the complete theory of the ScaleBlasterTM.

Chapter five will discuss ScaleBlasterTM installation and commonly asked questions.

There are three Appendices at the end of this presentation. The first one contains ScaleBlasterTM owner’s manuals, the second contains specification sheets for each model and the third contains laboratory test results.

5

Chapter 1

What is Scale?

Scale is a coating or precipitate deposited on surfaces that are in contact with hard water. The most common form of scale is calcium carbonate and occurs naturally as an ingredient of chalk, limestone and marble. Water passing over and permeating through such rocks dissolves calcite and when this water subsequently flows through a water system, the calcite precipitates out in the form of a very hard scale on surfaces.

When hard water is heated and evaporation takes place, the problems are increased tremendously. Calcite forms ever growing layers of rock-like deposits until pipes are totally blocked.

In summary, scale is the accumulation of mineral deposits typically from a water stream. Depending on the type of industry you are in, scale is known by many names.

6

Chapter 1

•Fouling: often used to describe scale deposits created by living organisms

•Microbiological Fouling: scale deposits created by living organisms

•Sediment (sludge): loosed deposits on pipelines and vessels

•Gypsum: all types of scale deposits in the oil industry

•Stone: deposits in the brewing and dairy industries

•Incrustation: scale in marine (sea water) boilers

•Marine Fouling: growth of marine organisms on ship hulls and water intakes and conduits

•Calculus: mineral deposits in humans and animals

7

Chapter 1

Residential ApplicationsWhere is scale found?

In the home, scale can be found:

•Inside hot water pipes

•Inside hot water heaters

•On shower and bath surfaces

•Around faucets and water fixtures

•Humidifiers

•Around appliances, i.e., coffee machine, dishwasher

8

Chapter 1

Commercial ApplicationsWhere is scale found?

In industry, scale will accumulate:

•Inside hot water pipes

•Inside heat exchangers

•in cooling towers

•In distillation columns

•Any other processing equipment that

uses a lot of water, i.e., injection mold

machine

9

Chapter 1

Most Common Types of Scales

Calcium carbonate is by far the most common scale found in typical water processing, both in industry and in the home. We use carbonate in many different ways in our lives. We enjoy its beauty (pearls), we build our world with it (cement), we use it to teach students (chalk), and we live with its pains (gall stones). And, as scale, we must treat its presence.

The most common scales (although there are others) include:

•Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

•Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4)

•Barium Sulfate (BaSO4)

•Silica (SiO2)

•Iron (Fe2O3 & Fe2O4)

10

Chapter 1

Why is Scale a Problem?

It is a Nuisance!

It is difficult to clean, is unattractive and can promote bacterial growth, mold and mildew and corrosion.

It Costs Money!

It reduces the efficiency of boilers, hot water heaters, heat exchangers, air stripping columns, etc., which makes them more costly to operate. Equipment must be shut down and cleaned out, costing industry billions of dollars in down time and labor. Equipment also has to be periodically replaced, due to scale accumulation.

Safety!

As scale accumulates in conduits, the pressure drops can increase to unsafe levels. Also, boilers may become blocked entirely, creating a high pressure “bomb”. Loss of heating efficiency will cause heating elements to work harder, creating potential for local overheating.

11

WATER DISSOLVED MINERALS

SUPERSATURATION

NUCLEATION

PRECIPITATION

SCALE

DISSOLUTION

CRYSTAL GROWTH

Scale Formation

Summary chart of how scale forms

This section will describe exactly how scale formation takes place.

Chapter 2

12

Dissolution

Step 1: Water becomes acidic

How scale (calcium carbonate) gets into the water stream

Whenever it rains, water in contact with air will absorb the CO2 gas in the air

The following chemical reaction takes place:

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

CO2 gasses

(carbon dioxide)

Chapter 2

13

Step 2: Acidic water dissolves calcium carbonate

As the acidic rain water reaches the surface, it passes over and permeates through rocks such as limestone, marble and seashells, forming soluble calcium ions and bicarbonate ions.

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca++ + 2HCO3

(calcium carbonate) (carbonic acid) (in solution)

Chapter 2

14

Step 3: Any condition which alters the solubility of calcium bicarbonate will result in the precipitation of calcium carbonate (scale)

There are three (3) major factors that can alter the solubility of calcium bicarbonate and thus causes scale:

A.) Temperature effect on solubility

A change from cold to hot water will cause scale to form.

The reason? When the temperature increases, CO2

evaporates, allowing scale to precipitate. Heating water also causes evaporation, leaving minerals behind.

Solubility

of

CaCO3

20o 40o 60o 80o

Temperature oC

Chapter 2

15

B.) pH Change on Solubility

Solubility of CaCO3 decreases with an increase to the pH.

The reason? pH is a measure of the acidity of the liquid. The lower the pH, the higher the acid content. This will dissolve more calcium carbonate.

Solubility

of

CaCO3

3 5 7 9 11

pH

Chapter 2

16

C.) Pressure Effect on Solubility

A change in water pressure from high to low will cause scale to form. Pressure drop may occur from internal friction between the molecules of water, external friction between the water and the walls of the piping system, or rough area in the channel through which the water flows.

Pressure LossPressure Loss

The reason? At a lower pressure, CO2 evaporates, thus increasing pH. A higher pH allows for more scale formation.

Less dissolved

carbon dioxide

Less dissolved

carbon dioxideResults in

Decreased

carbonic acid

concentration

Decreased

carbonic acid

concentration

Results in

Decreased

calcium carbonate

solubility

Decreased

calcium carbonate

solubility

Results in

More

scale formation

More

scale formationResults in

Chapter 2

17

SupersaturationSupersaturation at the point of crystallization is the primary cause of scale deposition.

Definitions:

Saturation: The maximum equilibrium concentration of a compound that will dissolve into a solution under a given set of conditions (temperature, pressure, flow velocity, etc.).

Supersaturation: The solutions that contain higher concentrations of dissolved solute than their equilibrium concentration.

Con

cent

ratio

n

Unstable

(supersaturated) Meta-stable

Stable

(undersaturated)

Chapter 2

18

Ca ion

+

-Ca ion

+

-

Fully hydrated calcium ion - stable undersaturated solution

Partially hydrated calcium ion - unstable supersaturated solution

Chapter 2To simplify “supersaturation”, it can best be described as scale-causing ions that barely “hang in the water” When calcium and bicarbonate ions are hydrated, molecules are attached to the calcium and bicarbonate ions via ionic bonds, which are much stronger than the van der Waal force. In a supersaturated solution, the calcium and bicarbonate ions are ‘partially’ hydrated by water molecules. The harder water is, the calcium and bicarbonate ions are hydrated with much weaker hydration energy. We conclude that in a supersaturated solution, calcium ions are barely ‘hanging in water’.

19

Supersaturation leads to precipitationSupersaturation solutions can be easily triggered into dropping back to the saturated concentration, forcing the dissolved compound to precipitate or crystallize.

For Example:

A.) Consider an undersaturated 8% salt-water solution in a glass at 80oC.

B.) If you cool the 8% salt-water solution very slowly, you can have almost 8% solution at room temperature.

C.) When you tap the glass, salt comes out in the form of precipitation.

Con

cent

ratio

n

Unstable

(supersaturated)

Stable

(undersaturated)

0o 20o 40o 60o 80o

Temperature oC

12

3

Chapter 2

20

Chapter 2

How does Solution Become Supersaturated?

Most of the liquids (tap water, sea water) are fully saturated with scale compounds - calcium carbonate.

When these liquids are used, processed or transported, conditions change, which causes the solubility of calcium carbonate to drop.

These local regions of lower solubility will become supersaturated and it is at these regions only, that calcium carbonate will drop out of solution (nucleate) and crystallize into scale.

21

Chapter 2

Causes of Local Supersaturation

•Increase in temperature

•Increase in pH

•Decrease in pressure

•Agitation of the solution

•Decrease in flow velocity

Even when the bulk solution is less than fully saturated, scale formation can occur due to local supersaturation.

22

Nucleation Precipitation

You may be wondering when scale forms, why does it stick to surfaces?

The Answer: The electrostatic attraction between the metal surface and scale-causing minerals. Gravity plays no role in scale formation.

SCALE

Scale deposits are due to electrostatic attraction.

The unique characteristics of scale deposits are its uniformity. Precipitates or crystals formed in one part of a system and carried to another part are less adherent than those crystals formed on site.

Chapter 2

23

The electrostatic attraction can be described in three theories:

A.) Helmholtz ModelWhen a metal is in contact with an ionic solution such as water with scale-producing minerals, the metal surface has a high density of electrons, giving it a locally negative charge.

The solvated positive ions such as H+, Ca++ and Mg++ align themselves along the surface of the metal surface, producing an (electric) double layer--no thermal motion of ions considered.

+

+

+

+

_

_

_

_

_

_

Helmholtz Model

Metal Surface

Double Layer

Positive Ions

Water

Chapter 2

24

B.) The Gouy-Chapman Model - Diffuse Double-Layer

Due to the thermal motion of the ions in the solution, the population of positive charges (i.e., H+, Ca++ and Mg++) decreases exponentially with increasing distance from the metal surface.

Gouy-Chapman Model

Pipe Wall Pipe Center

Probability of Positive Charges

Chapter 2

25

C.) Stern Model - The Previous Two are Combined.

The positive ions closest to metal surface are constrained into a rigid Helmholtz plane while outside the plane, the positive ions are dispersed as in Gouy-Chapman model.

+

+

+

+

_

_

_

_

_

_

Stern Model

Metal Surface

Double Layer

Water

Exponential Decrease of Positive Ions

+

++

++

+

It is this electric potential (or coulombic) difference that causes the attraction of the scale to surfaces, which explains their uniform deposition.

Chapter 2

26

Chapter 2

Crystal Growth into Scale

There are two types of calcium carbonate--calcite and aragonite.

Calcite is a calcium carbonate which is formed at a lower temperature (below 30oC) and is easily removed by a weak acid. Calcite is less adherent than aragonite and has a hexagonal crystal shape. It’s specific gravity is 2.71.

Aragonite is formed at a higher temperature (above 30oC) and is difficult to remove. It has an orthorhombic crystal shape and a specific gravity of 2.94. Aragonite is a more troublesome form of calcium carbonate than calcite because it forms a harder and denser deposit than calcite in boilers and other heat transfer equipment. When calcium carbonate is formed at temperatures above 30oC, both aragonite (80%) and calcite (20%) are formed. Pearls are made out of aragonite.

27

Chapter 2Summary of the Two Types of Calcium Carbonate

CaCarbon

Oxygen

CO3 groups in same direction CO3 groups in same direction

Ca (not shown)Carbon

Oxygen

Crystal FormVisualization through

MicroscopeCarbonate Layer

Orientation (side view)

Carbonate Layer Orientation(top view)

CalciteSpecific Gravity 2.71Less Adherent to Pipe & Heating Surface

CaCarbon

Oxygen

CO3 groups in opposite directions

Ca (not shown)Carbon

Oxygen

CO3 groups in opposite directions

AragoniteSpecific Gravity 2.94Adherent to Pipe & Heating Surface

Crystal FormVisualization through

MicroscopeCarbonate Layer

Orientation (side view)

Carbonate Layer Orientation(top view)

28

Chapter 3

Basics of Water ChemistryWater is a polar molecule.

In a water molecule, two hydrogen atoms are joined to an oxygen atom by a covalent bond (a shared pair of electrons).

Oxygen is highly electron-negative, which means it will strongly attract the shared electrons from the covalent bonds. This gives the oxygen side of the molecule a strong overall negative charge.

A hydrogen molecule has a positive nucleus, with one electron orbiting around it. When this electron is locked in a covalent bond, and the bonding electrons are pulled towards the other atom, this “hydrogen” side of the water molecule becomes strongly positively charged.

The physical water treatment technology takes advantage of this unique characteristic of water, the polar molecule.

Oxygen

Hydrogen

29

Chapter 3

Hydrogen Bonds (van der Waals force)

The positive hydrogen of one water molecule is strongly attracted to the negative oxygen of a neighboring water molecule.

What determines whether water is a gas, a liquid, or a solid?

•Gas (steam): very weak hydrogen bonds

•Liquid (water): relatively strong

•Solid (ice): very strong

30

Chapter 3

Liquid Water

In the liquid state, there is a mixture of separate water molecules and agglomerates of hydrogen bonded molecules.

The more free, or separate water molecules are available, the more “reactive” the water will be as a solvent.

Ice-like aggregatesSeparate

water molecules

31

Chapter 3Dielectric ConstantsThe electrostatic attraction is given by the Coulomb potential,

where the dielectric constant is the ratio of permittivity of a medium to that of a vacuum.Dielectric constants

water at room temperature = 78.5

Plexiglas = 3.4

Teflon = 2.1

vacuum = 1

The Coulomb potential in water is reduced from the vacuum value by nearly two orders of magnitude.

This is why water is such a successful solvent: the Coulomb interactions are so strongly reduced by the solvent that the ions interact only weakly with each other and do not aggregate into a crystal.

_ 1_______

dielectric constantCoulomb potential

32

Chapter 3

Temperature EffectOn Dielectric Constant - Curie’s Law

Dielectric constant of water= 78.5 at room temperature

= 55.8 at 100o

Temperature

Dielectric Constant of Water

With increasing temperature, the electrostatic attraction increases due to the decrease in dielectric constant.

However, the disruptive effects of thermal motion increase much more rapidly than the electrostatic attraction with increasing temperature.

Salt, sugar, and detergent can dissolve more at higher temperatures.

33

Chapter 3Why does a liquid flow easier when it is hot than cold?Example: all liquids including water and engine oil

Moving a water molecule from site to site involves breaking weak van der Waals bonds (i.e., hydrogen bonds).

Answer: With increasing temperature, the hydrogen bonds of water become weaker and easier to break. Easy to flow.

1__

FluidityViscosity = ~ e E/RT

The Boltzmann Distribution:

The population (i.e., average number of particles) of each energy level can be calculated using the Boltzmann distribution.

Ni/Nj=e-(Ei-Ej)/kT

where N is the ratio of the numbers of particles with energies Ei and Ej.ScaleBlasterTM technology provides a means to break the hydrogen bond of water without increasing temperature. Water becomes free.

34

Chapter 3

Solvation

When ionic crystals dissolve in solvents, this is called solvation. When the solvent is water, it is called “hydration”.

The cations (positive ions) are hydrated as a result of their interaction with the oxygen of the water molecules.

The anions (negative ions) are hydrated by their interaction with the more positive regions of the water molecules (hydrogen atoms).

- +

35

Chapter 3

Solvation: Procedure1. As water dissolves a substance, water molecules will surround and form an electrostatic bond with the dissolving ion.

2. As these bonds between water molecules and dissolving ions form, energy is released (known as the heat of hydration).

3. When this hydration heat becomes larger than the bonding energy between the ions of the dissolving substance, the ion will “dissolve” into the water solution.

Solution of Ionic Compound

Water Molecules

Crystal Lattice

36

Chapter 34. Heats of hydration are typically much smaller than the bonding energy between the positive and negative ions of an ionic compound. Therefore, each ion of a solute must be surrounded by many water molecules before it can be solvated.

In other words, large aggregates of water can not effectively dissolve solutes, whereas separate water molecules can.

SolvationA substance will only dissolve if the attractions between its charge centers and the water molecules are sufficient to overcome the attractions between its own charge centers.

Solution of ions and polar covalent molecules (i.e., alcohol, glycol, sugar) in water.

Solution of Polar Covalent Compound

Polar Covalent Molecule

37

Chapter 3

Summary1. Water is a polar molecule.

2. Most water molecules are locked in agglomerates or aggregates - hydrogen bonds.

3. Physical treatment of water breaks the hydrogen bonds, freeing water molecules.

4. More individual (separate) water molecules are available to surround scale-causing compounds.

5. Therefore, the unstable supersaturation state becomes the stable (under) saturation state.

Con

cent

ratio

n

Unstable

(supersaturated) Meta-stable

Stable

(undersaturated)

Temperature

38

Chapter 3

Definition of Hard Water

Hard water is a very serious problem and is a very common one. Over 85% of the United States experiences hard water with similar numbers worldwide. Only in communities that draw water directly from snow filled mountain streams enjoy ideal water in terms of low hardness.

The most common method of designating the hardness of a water supply in the industry is classified as gpg (grains per gallon).

Grains per gallon equals the number of grains of a given substance in one U.S. gallon of water. One grain = 1/7,000 pound and one U.S. gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds.

Hardness can be expressed in terms of ppm (parts per million).

Conversion of parts per million or milligrams per liter into grains per gallon is simple. Divide the parts per million (or milligrams per liter) by 17.1 to convert to grains per gallon.

Parts per million (milligrams per liter) = grains per gallon

17.1

39

Chapter 3

Water is classified into five (5) levels of hardness:

GPG PPM Classification

less than 1.0 less than 17.1 soft1 - 3.5 17.1 to 60 slightly hard3.5 - 7.0 60 - 120 modestly hard7.0 - 10.5 120 - 180 hard10.5 and above 180 and above very hard

40

Chapter 3

Hard Water Vs. Soft Water

Hard Water Benefits•Mineral rich - health benefits

Hard Water Problems

•Scale buildup in pipes

•Reduced hot water efficiency

•Soap doesn’t lather well

•Scale buildup in appliances

•Leaves soap curd and detergent deposits on fabrics

Soft Water Benefits•No scale problems•Cleaning easier•Skin and hair rinsed more easily•Less soap and detergent required

Soft Water Problems

•Soft water made by softener contains high levels of salt which can lead to high blood pressure and heart attacks

41

Chapter 3About 85% of the United States experiences hard water

42

Chapter 4

ScaleBlasterTM TheoryThe majority of ScaleBlasterTM units (SB-50, SB-125, SB-200, SB-400, SB-600) are are developed with a square-wave technology, and are manufactured and designed to work on any non-ferrous based pipes. If a ferrous based pipe exists, a small section of the pipe must be removed and replaced with either PVC or copper pipe, or the other option is to install the SBR-800 unit, which uses radio-wave technology and can handle pipe size of up to 1 inch.

This booklet deals only with the square-wave technology.

43

Chapter 4

ScaleBlasterTM TheoryFor Non-ferrous Based PipesThe ScaleBlasterTM unit is composed of a signal cable that is wrapped several times around a pipe and an electronic unit that sends out a complex, dynamic current to produce extremely small, time-varying, oscillating fields inside the pipe. This electronic unit is available in several sizes in terms of power strength. The larger the size of the pipe, the more power is required. This unit is designed to work on non-ferrous based pipes only. The current that produces an oscillating field is known as Ampere’s Law.

ScaleBlaster’sTM signal produces a unique square wave current that sweeps all the frequency responses from 1,000 - 12,000 Hz at a rate of 20 times a second. When the strength of the oscillating field varies with time and changes direction, an induced current is produced inside the pipe, a phenomenon known as Faraday’s Law of Induction. This induced, oscillating electric field provides the necessary molecular agitation for scale prevention and removal.

44

Chapter 4The induced molecular agitation (IMA) of the ScaleBlasterTM technology causes the unstable mineral ions to precipitate, providing initial nucleation sites for further precipitation of adjacent mineral ions. A snowball effect starts, resulting in growth of many crystals, each consisting of numerous mineral ions. These insoluble crystal salts become large in size and float with water, thus they do not stick to the metal surfaces because the crystals do not have the charges at the surface anymore.

Negatively Charged Bicarbonate Ion

ScaleBlaster’s Square Wave Current

Flow

Unstable Supersaturated Water - Easy to Make Scale

Stable Undersaturated Water - Hard to Make Scale

Positively Charged Calcium Ion

ScaleBlaster’s Induction Coils

Insoluble Calcium Carbonate Crystal - No Surface Charges

Induced Molecular Agitation (IMA)

45

Chapter 4As the by-products of the precipitation and snowball effect of mineral particles, the free water molecules become available to dissolve existing scale. In other words, the electronic signal generated through the ScaleBlasterTM induction coil breaks apart water molecules with calcium carbonate attached and thus becomes an empty water molecule that immediately begins to attract calcium molecules from scale buildup on pipes throughout the system.

Direction of Flow

Water Pipe

Complex Modulating Frequency Waveform

Calcium Molecule Torn from Water Molecule

Water Molecule with Calcium Carbonate Molecule Attached

Electronic Signal

ScaleBlaster Induction Coils

Calcite (Scale) Buildup

Empty Water Molecules Attract Calcium Molecules from Scale Buildup on Pipes Throughout System

46

Chapter 4

It is well known in water chemistry that most water molecules are locked in aggregates in liquid water and less than 20% exists as free water molecules. This is because water molecules have a dipole moment - the hydrogen atom is attracted to the oxygen atom of the adjacent water molecule. The frequency modulation technology developed by ScaleBlasterTM allows the induced electrical agitation to tune to the natural frequency of the water molecules vibrating in the aggregates. Through the cooperative resonance of the water molecules, free water molecules become available, dissolving existing scale in the pipe.

47

ScaleBlaster’sTM Square Wave Current

Flow

Most water molecules are locked in aggregates, making water a less efficient solvent.

Hydrogen bonds are broken. More separate water molecules are available to remove existing scale.

Chapter 4

Schematic diagram of the operation of ScaleBlasterTM : Aggregates of water molecules contain most water molecules in liquid water. Induced molecular agitation breaks hydrogen bonds in aggregates, and separate water molecules become available, removing existing scale.

Aggregates of Water Molecules

Induced Molecular Agitation (IMA)

Free Water Molecule

48

Incoming water containingcalcium and other mineralsin solution.

Signal cable wrappedexternally around pipe.

Complex dynamic inaudiblemagnetic signal at sonicfrequencies causes turbulencein water molecules and ionexchange in mineral atoms.

Crystals unable toadhere to any surfaceand therefore do notprecipitate out as hardscale.

Signal takes calcium outof solution-formingminute charged soft,smooth crystals.

Chapter 4

49

Cross Section of scale as it is being removed from household pipe

Chapter 4

A

50


Chapter 4

B

51


Chapter 4

C

52


Chapter 4

D

53


Chapter 4

E

54

Chapter 4

Physical Law on the “IMA”

ScaleBlasterTM signal produces an IMA, induced molecular agitation which will be fully described in this section.

As reported earlier in this chapter, the ScaleBlasterTM unit involves an electric unit and a signal cable that is wound around the outside wall of the pipe. The unit supplies a current inside the coil to produce a magnetic field.

The “right-hand rule” determines the direction of the magnetic field inside the pipe. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the product of the current and the number of turns in the coil.

Where B = resulting fie ld vector

Ampere’s Law

55

Chapter 4

ScaleBlasterTM changes the current in the coil 2,000 - 24,000 times a second. This is done by a frequency-modulated square wave signal.

When the strength of the magnetic field varies with time, an induced current is produced inside the pipe.

This is known as Faraday’s Law of Induction.

This induced current, when supplied with the proper amount of DC current in milliamps, produces this induced molecular agitation to take place at the coil. The strength of this electric field is important.

56

Chapter 4

We will now fully describe the physical laws of induced molecular agitation (IMA).

1.) As we have mentioned before, a wire is wound several times on the outside of the pipe, thus creating a solenoid coil. When there is a current flowing in the solenoid coil, a magnetic field is produced called Ampere’s Law. The right-hand rule determines the direction of the magnetic field inside the pipe. The strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the product of the current, I, and the number of turns of coil, N.

B = y on I

Where B = magnetic field vector[ Wb/m2 or Ns/Cm]

The magnetic strength produced by ScaleBlaster’sTM solenoid coil is much smaller than that of permanent magnets.

57

Chapter 4

Comparison of Strength of Various Magnets

ScaleBlasterTM - 0.2 - 1.0 Gauss

Simple “Refrigerator” Magnet - 100 Gauss

Bar Magnet - 100 - 1,000 Gauss

Magnets Intended to Remove Scale - 4,000 - 6,000 Gauss

Large Scientific Magnets - 20,000 - 40,000 Gauss

Superconductivity Magnets - 5,000,000 - 10,000,000 Gauss

As you can see, ScaleBlasterTM does not rely on the strength of the magnetic field at all. The strength of the magnetic field produced by ScaleBlasterTM is about 1/1000 of a simple refrigerator magnet that you use to hold notes in the kitchen!

58

Chapter 4

2.) The ScaleBlasterTM changes the direction of the current in the coil 2,000 - 24,000 times a second. Thus, the magnetic field inside the pipe also changes 2,000 - 24,000 times a second. This step is called “frequency modulation”.

This frequency modulation is necessary because no one knows the natural frequency of supersaturated water--water where the calcium ions “are barely hanging on”. This is the key to ScaleBlaster’sTM success.

As you will see in the rest of this section, hitting the supersaturated’s “barely hanging in water” ions with the natural frequency is imperative for the ScaleBlasterTM to perform regardless of flow rate and hardness level. This is when most permanent magnets fail to do the job.

59

Chapter 4

The natural frequency of the supersaturated water critically depends on its viscosity (the tendency of a fluid to resist flowing due to internal forces such as the attraction of the molecules for each other or the friction of the molecules during flow) and water temperature. Since it is impossible to determine the natural frequency of water being treated in any given situation, a frequency modulation method needs to “self-tune” to the natural frequency of the water.

3.) In order to change the direction of the current, ScaleBlasterTM technology uses a pulsing or alternate current of a square wave type. ScaleBlasterTM will change the current from +65mA to -65mA on the small SB-50 model several times a second. It is this change of current that created a rapid magnetic flux change. It is imperative to create as rapid a change in polarities as possible to achieve proper treatment of the water.

This complete frequency modulation must be done during the time the water is passing through the induced coil to hit the resonance frequency of as many supersaturated molecules as possible. This is critical to the success of the ScaleBlasterTM, where most others fail.

60

Chapter 4

All flow rates vary as do pipe sizes. So a unit must be as sophisticated as the ScaleBlasterTM to be successful.

Flow

A - Before B - After

Supersaturated molecules entering frequency modulation wave form

Solenoid CoilBy the time the water as entered “A”, a complete frequency modulation must take place on as many of the supersaturated molecules as possible to be 100% effective.

61

Chapter 4

It is important to have the correct amount of wrapping of coil around the pipe. Too little will cause not all the supersaturated molecules from being “fine tuned” to the natural frequency as the water passes the coil. In other words, a coil only wrapped 1/2 way may, in theory, hit only 1/2 the water. The descaling process would take twice as long and the surface tension of the water molecules would not be altered much to notice any effects of the “descaled” water.

When the current changes from +65mA to -65mA, the corresponding magnetic field changes its direction from the right to the left. When the magnetic field varies with time, an induced current is produced inside the pipe according to Faraday’s law of induction:

62

Chapter 4Note that the strength of the induced electric field, E, not only depends on

the time rate change, t , but also the magnitude of the magnetic field

strength. This is because the value of the right hand side depends on ---B / T in reality. Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field produced by the solenoid is directly related to the overall performance of the ScaleBlasterTM system. Many competitor systems fail to deliver the proper amount of magnetic strength, even though the amount is minimal.

4.) When a particle with charge, q, moves in electric and magnetic fields, the particle experiences the Lorentz Force.

F = qE + q (VXB)

F = Lorentz force vector [N] and V is the particle velocity vector [m/s].

The Lorentz consists of the electric force (i.e., the first term in the right and side) and the magnetic force (i.e., the second term). The electric force is independent of the motion of the charge whereas the magnetic force depends on the velocity of the charge.

63

Note that the Lorentz force is the force experienced by the charged particle passing in an electromagnetic field under a steady state condition what happens with the ScaleBlasterTM technology is similar to but a very different phenomenon from the conventional Lorentz force.

What ScaleBlasterTM produces is “IMA”, induced molecular agitation. Because the induced current changes its direction 2,000 - 24,000 times a second, the charged particle such as water and other scale-causing ions experience molecular agitation as they pass the pipe section treated by the solenoid coil. Since the frequency continuously varies, the net result is “IMA”.

Chapter 4

64

O s c ill o s c o p e re a d o u t o f S c a le B la s t e r ’s S B -1 2 5 c o m p le x m o d u la ti n g f re q u e n c y w a v e fo r m

T im e b a s e : 1 0 0 u s /d iv 1 0 0 k S a /sT r ig g e r : A U T OIn p u t C o u p li n g : D CIn p u t Vo lt a g e : 2 .5 V /d ivD e lta T im e in S e c o n d 0 .3 8 m sD e lta Vo lt ag e : 1 0 .0 VD V M : 1 .2 V D C

O s c ill o s c o p e re a d o u t o f S c a le B la s te r ’s S B -5 0 c o m p lex m o d u la tin g fre q u e n c y w a ve fo r m

T im e b a s e : 1 0 0 u s /d iv 1 0 0 k S a /sT r ig g e r : A U T OIn p u t C o u p lin g : D CIn p u t Vo lt ag e : 2 5 0 m V /d ivD e lta T im e in S e co n d 0 .3 6 m sD e lta Vo lta g e : 0 .9 4 VD V M : 0 .4 7 - 0 .5 7 V D C

S B -5 0 - M a x im u m 1 ” p ip e / Ind o o r In s ta lla tio n

Chapter 4


T im e b a s e : 1 0 0 u s /d iv 1 0 0 k S a /sT r ig g e r : A U T OIn p u t C o u p li n g : D CIn p u t Vo lt a g e : 2 .5 V /d ivD e lta T im e in S e c o n d 0 .3 6 m sD e lta Vo lt ag e : 9 .4 VD V M : 0 .G V D C


T im e b a s e : 1 0 0 u s /d iv 1 0 0 k S a /sT r ig g e r : A U T OIn p u t C o u p li n g : D CIn p u t Vo lt a g e : 2 .5 V /d ivD e lta T im e in S e c o n d 0 .3 8 m sD e lta Vo lt ag e : 1 0 .0 VD V M : 2 .0 V D C

65

ScaleB laster changes the current anywhere from 2,000 - 24,000 times a second.

S c a le B la s te r ’s C u rre n tT M

Cu r r e n t

B

B

Cu r r e n t

S B -6 0 0 - M a x im u m 8“ p ip e / O utd o o r In s ta lla tio n


T im e b a s e : 1 0 0 u s /d iv 1 0 0 k S a /sT r ig g e r : A U T OIn p u t C o u p li n g : D CIn p u t Vo lt a g e : 2 .5 V /d ivD e lta T im e in S e c o n d 0 .3 8 m sD e lta Vo lt ag e : 1 0 .0 V

66

Chapter 4

Supersaturated Water Entering “IMA”

Earlier we mentioned “supersaturated” water as scale-causing ions that are barely “hanging in the water”.

Ca ion

+

-


Ca ion

+

-


As the supersaturated water is being treated by the “IMA”, the calcium and bicarbonate ions which are barely hanging in water collide with each other. Since these ions are not fully hydrated, the collision easily results in a solid calcium carbonate, creating a nucleation site.

67

Chapter 4

Once the new nucleation site becomes available, the snowball effect of precipitation occurs. A snowball of calcium carbonate will grow until it becomes so large that there are no more surface charges left to attract other “partially hydrated" calcium and bicarbonate ions. A large number of “partially hydrated” calcium ions are precipitated, thus removed from the supersaturated solution. Subsequently, the unstable “undersaturated” solution and the scale buildup stops.

68

Chapter 4

Ca ion

+

-


Bicarbonate

ion

+

-

Partially hydrated bicarbonate ion - unstable supersaturated solution

“Self-Tuning Induced Molecular Agitation” (IMA) creates nucleation.

Ca ionBicarbonate

ion

Snow Ball Effect StartsCalcium carbonate crystals grow

large until there is no more surface charge. These crystals

no longer stick to pipe wall.

69

Chapter 4

We mentioned earlier that scale-causing ions (calcium and bicarbonate ions) are barely “hanging in water” in a supersaturated solution. When “poorly dissolved” calcium and bicarbonate ions are removed from the supersaturated solution through nucleation and precipitation, those ions which are not involved in the precipitation become fully hydrated by freed water molecules, resulting in a thermodynamic equilibrium.

As the dissolved calcium and bicarbonate ions precipitate and are removed from the supersaturated solution through crystal growth, excess water molecules become available. These water molecules will either recombine with neighboring water molecules, thus locked in clusters of water or be used to fully hydrate the “poorly hydrated” calcium and bicarbonate ions which are barely hanging in water. Since the surface charges of calcium and bicarbonate ions are greater than that of water molecules, the temporarily freed water molecules are likely to be attracted to the surfaces of scale-causing ions.

70

Chapter 4Induced Molecular Agitation

(IMA)

Ca ion Bicarbonate

ion

Snow Ball Effect Starts

Calcium carbonate crystals grow large until there is no more

surface charge. These crystals no longer stick to pipe wall.

As a by-product of the snowball effect, freed water molecules

become available.

71

Chapter 4

The ScaleBlasterTM technology takes advantage of the unique characteristics of water, the polar molecule. The positive hydrogen of one water molecule is strongly attracted to the negative oxygen of a neighboring water molecule and the connecting force is the van der Waal force, often referred to simply as “hydrogen bond”. In the liquid water, there is a mixture of separate individual water molecules and aggregates of hydrogen-bonded water molecules. The water molecules in the aggregates do not function as efficiently as solvent as the separate water molecules.

Water Molecules are Locked in a Cluster

+

+

+

+

+

++

++

+-

- -

-

-

-

-

-

--

Individual Water Molecules

+

+

+

+

-

-

-

-

72

Chapter 4The ScaleBlasterTM technology generates a self-tuning induction using the frequency modulation with its specially designed square wave form. This self-tuning dynamic induction automatically tunes to the natural frequencies of vibrating water molecules, producing a resonance between the vibrating water molecules and the dynamic induction. The resonance breaks the hydrogen bonds in a cluster of liquid water, freeing water molecules. Since the solubility depends on the number of available separate water molecules, this process of breaking hydrogen bonds dramatically increases the solubility of water.

The freed individual water molecules will either recombine with neighboring water molecules or surround (hydrate) the calcium ions. The latter is what actually happens. In a supersaturated solution, the calcium and bicarbonate ions are partially hydrated, i.e., barely “hanging in water”, which is the reason they are unstable. Since the surface charges of the calcium and bicarbonate ions are greater than that of the water molecule, the freed water molecules will surround the calcium and bicarbonate ions which are not involved in the previously mentioned precipitation, thus fully hydrating them. Subsequently, the unstable supersaturated solution becomes a stable, undersaturated solution and the scale buildup stops.

73

Chapter 4

Freed Separate Water Molecules

Ca ion

+

-


Ca ion

+

-


Induced Molecular Agitation Increases Solubility. (IMA)

74

Chapter 4

How the Descaling Process Works Oxygen Atom

Hydrogen AtomUntreated Water

Hydrogen Bond

Water molecules are interconnected via hydrogen bonds. They are not readily available to dissolve minerals and chemicals.

ScaleBlaster Treated Water

Relaxation time = 10-12 s

The hydrogen bonds are broken, freeing individual water molecules, making water molecules available to minerals and chemicals.

This is accomplished with a time varying magnetic field inside the pipe at 2,000 - 12,000 Hz (Faraday’s Law of Induction combined with ScaleBlaster’sTM square wave signal, IMA)

75

Chapter 4

The Hypothesis of Descaling Process

Flow

Pipe Wall

Calcium Carbonate Scales

With ScaleBlasterTM Treatment

76

Chapter 4

The Natural Frequency of the Vibration of Water Molecules

The key to ScaleBlaster’sTM success is the way our "IMA" field hits the resonance frequency of the water molecules.

As we have mentioned before, ScaleBlasterTM changes the current 2,000 - 24,000 times a second. The actual cycle is 1,000 - 12,000 Hz a second as we alternate from + 5 volts to - 5 volts.

This produces 2,000 - 24,000 pulses of energy every second.

Many experts have estimated the internal frequency of water as

f = 1,000 - 10,000 Hz

The ScaleBlasterTM easily falls in this range and by changing the current it creates a rapid magnetic flux change. It is critical to create as rapid of a change in the polarities as possible to properly treat the water.

+ 5 volts

- 5 volts0 volts

77

Chapter 4Hydrogen Bond

Vibration of Water Molecules

The mechanism of breaking the hydrogen bond is resonance!

When the external disturbance provided by ScaleBlasterTM matches the natural frequency of the hydrogen atom, the hydrogen bonds are broken instantly. It is important that ScaleBlaster’sTM frequency range exceeds the best estimate of the internal natural frequency of water because this natural frequency can vary with temperature, pressure, minerals present, pH and other factors.

78

Chapter 4

Summary of ScaleBlasterTM Technology

ScaleBlasterTM produces a frequency modulation signal that produces an “IMA”, induced molecular agitation inside the pipe when applied with a square wave signal. When water and scale-causing ions (dissolved calcium carbonate) are treated by the “IMA”, two things happen:

1.) “IMA”: creates nucleation sites, initiating the “snowball” effect. Suspensions of soft and less-adherent calcium carbonate crystals are formed, thus removing dissolved calcium and bicarbonate ions from a supersaturated solution.

2.) “IMA” breaks hydrogen bonds in an aggregate of liquid water, freeing a lot of water molecules from the aggregate. More free water molecules mean an increase in the solubility of water. The unstable supersaturated calcium carbonate solution becomes a stable undersaturated solution, resulting in the prevention of scale buildup.

79

Chapter 4

Summary (Continued)

In order to produce the above mentioned IMA, ScaleBlasterTM applies a frequency-modulation technology. This technology is based on a well-established induction theory. When there is a change in a magnetic field with time, an induction of electric field is produced. Since the ScaleBlasterTM technology utilizes a square-wave current signal which varies it’s direction 2,000 - 24,000 times a second, the direction of the induced electric field varies accordingly.

Most scale-causing ions have either positive or negative charges. Furthermore, water molecules, although neutral, are polar molecules, thus behaving like an ion in an electric field. The oscillation of the induced electric field provided molecular agitation to these electrically active ions and water molecules. Subsequently, the scale-causing ions in a supersaturated solution begin to fall out of water, i.e., precipitate and nucleate, thus initiating the snowball effect. The solid calcium carbonate crystals which consist of numerous calcium carbonate molecules become less adherent and flow with the water in the form of suspended particles.

The Principles of Scale Formation and Elimination by the By ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.

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Transcript of The Principles of Scale Formation and Elimination by the By ClearWater Enviro Technologies, Inc.