The Principate CycleThe Principate Cycle30 BCE-285 CE30 BCE-285 CE

By: Samia Sara PopalBy: Samia Sara Popal

Overview of the CycleOverview of the Cycle

*The Participate cycle covers the three *The Participate cycle covers the three centuries between 27 BCE and 285 CEcenturies between 27 BCE and 285 CE

* The bulk of territorial expansion was * The bulk of territorial expansion was accomplished by the end of Augustus accomplished by the end of Augustus reign, fluctuations in territorial size reign, fluctuations in territorial size thereafter were relatively minor and thereafter were relatively minor and had minor effects on the social, had minor effects on the social, economic, and economic, and

demographic variables.demographic variables.

The Expansion The Expansion PhasePhase This was the century under the Julio-Claudian and This was the century under the Julio-Claudian and

Flavian emperors.Flavian emperors.

A period of population growth & ecomomic A period of population growth & ecomomic expansion, marred by political instability at the expansion, marred by political instability at the very top, affected mostly the ruling class.very top, affected mostly the ruling class.

6 out of 10 successors of Augustus; Caligula, 6 out of 10 successors of Augustus; Caligula, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Domitian were Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Domitian were overthrown & met a violent end, this was overthrown & met a violent end, this was accomplished by means of a palace coup.accomplished by means of a palace coup.

The most serious period of political instability was The most serious period of political instability was the one following Nero’s death this lasted less the one following Nero’s death this lasted less than two years from March 68 to December 69.than two years from March 68 to December 69.

The Stagflation PhaseThe Stagflation Phase

Began with the accession of Nerva (96)Began with the accession of Nerva (96) Ended with the arrival of the Antonine Ended with the arrival of the Antonine

plague (165). plague (165). This was a period of high political stability.This was a period of high political stability. The empire was governed by the five The empire was governed by the five

“good” emperors; Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, “good” emperors; Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.

Elites did very well & their numbers grewElites did very well & their numbers grew This was known as Golden Age of the This was known as Golden Age of the

Roman Empire.Roman Empire.

The Golden AgeThe Golden Age

This was the peak of state power, This was the peak of state power, territorial extent, and economic territorial extent, and economic prosperity for the elites.prosperity for the elites.

A number of social and economic A number of social and economic indicators, such as the number of indicators, such as the number of inscriptions & documents, building inscriptions & documents, building activity, marble and brick production, activity, marble and brick production, peaked towards the end, c.130–150peaked towards the end, c.130–150

The Crisis PhaseThe Crisis Phase Began with the first appearance of Began with the first appearance of

the Antonine plague (165). the Antonine plague (165). The concensus among the elites The concensus among the elites

unraveled & by the end of the period unraveled & by the end of the period when Commodus was overthrown when Commodus was overthrown the situation developed into full-the situation developed into full-blown civil war 192–7.blown civil war 192–7.

Which eventually turned into the Which eventually turned into the Depression Phase.Depression Phase.

The Depression PhaseThe Depression Phase When Septimus Severus was suceeded by Caracalla When Septimus Severus was suceeded by Caracalla

to 285 is best thought of as the depression phase.to 285 is best thought of as the depression phase.

This was characterized by incessant intra-elite This was characterized by incessant intra-elite conflict, chronic civil war, & further population conflict, chronic civil war, & further population decline resulting from recurring epidemics of the decline resulting from recurring epidemics of the 250s and 260s, among other causes. 250s and 260s, among other causes.

There were relatively peaceful interludes resulting There were relatively peaceful interludes resulting from sheer exhaustion of the warring parties.from sheer exhaustion of the warring parties.

The decentralization trend reversed itself when The decentralization trend reversed itself when

Diocletian defeated his rivals and established the Diocletian defeated his rivals and established the Dominate. Dominate.

Population DynamicsPopulation DynamicsEarly Imperial CensusEarly Imperial Census

I made this graphs to show you the change throughout the years;I made this graphs to show you the change throughout the years;We have three Augustan & one Claudian censuses of the Roman We have three Augustan & one Claudian censuses of the Roman

citizen population.citizen population.

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YearPopulationGrowth Rate

Year Population implied Growth Rate 28 BCE 4.063 – 8 BCE 4.233 0.2% p.a. 14 CE 4.937 0.7% p.a. 48 CE 5.894 0.5% p.a.

Secular CyclesSecular Cycles

The second half of the third century was The second half of the third century was characterized by site abandonment in all seven characterized by site abandonment in all seven regions.regions.

The degree of abandonment varied, and was The degree of abandonment varied, and was

correlated with the severity of civil correlated with the severity of civil war/barbarian invasions. The contrast is most war/barbarian invasions. The contrast is most vivid between Britain, which escaped barbarian vivid between Britain, which escaped barbarian invasions in the third century, and Gallia Belgica, invasions in the third century, and Gallia Belgica, which was completely overrun by the Franks.which was completely overrun by the Franks.

Social Structure and Social Structure and ElitesElites

* The senate collectively and most senators * The senate collectively and most senators individually were cut off from the exercise individually were cut off from the exercise of political power on behalf of the state.of political power on behalf of the state.

* The expansion phase (27 BCE–96) was * The expansion phase (27 BCE–96) was characterized by intermittent financial characterized by intermittent financial difficulties, which were largely resolved by difficulties, which were largely resolved by the end of the first century. Difficulties in the end of the first century. Difficulties in funding army discharge bonuses almost funding army discharge bonuses almost led to a mutiny.led to a mutiny.

***The Empire entered the stagflation phase (96–***The Empire entered the stagflation phase (96–165) with very strong finances. The reigns 165) with very strong finances. The reigns of Trajan and Hadrian were characterized by large of Trajan and Hadrian were characterized by large increases in spending that increases in spending that were apparently easily accommodated by the were apparently easily accommodated by the revenues.revenues.

***Imperially financed building activity reached the ***Imperially financed building activity reached the peak under Hadrian and was also very intense peak under Hadrian and was also very intense under Trajan and Antoninus Pius. Antoninus Pius left under Trajan and Antoninus Pius. Antoninus Pius left a very large surplus to his successors 2.7 billion. a very large surplus to his successors 2.7 billion. This was to be the last surplus reported until the This was to be the last surplus reported until the fifth century.fifth century.

The Imperial FinancesThe Imperial Finances Began during the crisis phase (165–192). Began during the crisis phase (165–192). Marcus Aurelius had to sell the gold vessels Marcus Aurelius had to sell the gold vessels

and artistics treasures of the Imperial and artistics treasures of the Imperial palace to finance his Danubian campaign of palace to finance his Danubian campaign of 169. 169.

Commodus attempted to buy popularity by Commodus attempted to buy popularity by frequent and lavish cash handouts, frequent and lavish cash handouts, congiaria. congiaria.

He spent around HS40 million on congiaria He spent around HS40 million on congiaria per year, double the amount that was spent per year, double the amount that was spent under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius.

He also entertained the citizens with He also entertained the citizens with frequent chariot races, gladiatorial combats, frequent chariot races, gladiatorial combats, and beast hunts in the arena.and beast hunts in the arena.

By itself, the spending on congiaria was not By itself, the spending on congiaria was not enough to break the treasury (it was perhaps 5% of enough to break the treasury (it was perhaps 5% of the estimate revenues of the Empire at the time). the estimate revenues of the Empire at the time). But the alarming growth of cash handouts to But the alarming growth of cash handouts to citizens was at least matched by the growth of citizens was at least matched by the growth of handouts to the army.handouts to the army.

Army costs constituted the bulk of the Army costs constituted the bulk of the Imperial budget, and their growth was what caused Imperial budget, and their growth was what caused the state bancruptcy. Financial difficulties of the state bancruptcy. Financial difficulties of Commodus are reflected in the debasement of the Commodus are reflected in the debasement of the denarius (declined from 3 to 2 g of silver,and in the denarius (declined from 3 to 2 g of silver,and in the alarming increase in the executions of wealthy alarming increase in the executions of wealthy nobles and the confiscation of their proper. The nobles and the confiscation of their proper. The next emperor, Pertinax (193) again used the next emperor, Pertinax (193) again used the expedient of selling palace treasuries to raise cash.expedient of selling palace treasuries to raise cash.

***After a brief relatively stable period under the ***After a brief relatively stable period under the Severi (193–235), the finaces collapsed for good Severi (193–235), the finaces collapsed for good during the civil wars of 235–284. Probably the during the civil wars of 235–284. Probably the best indicator of the financial difficulties of the best indicator of the financial difficulties of the Roman state is given by the rate at which the Roman state is given by the rate at which the main silver coin, denarius, was debased by main silver coin, denarius, was debased by successive emperors.successive emperors.

****The Empire minted coins primarily for the ****The Empire minted coins primarily for the purpose of paying the army, bureacracy, and purpose of paying the army, bureacracy, and making good on other state expenses. The making good on other state expenses. The Roman rulers recognized early on the value of Roman rulers recognized early on the value of debasement as a temporary solution of their debasement as a temporary solution of their fiscal difficulties. Thus, Nero reduced the silver fiscal difficulties. Thus, Nero reduced the silver content of the content of the denarius (both by making it lighter and by denarius (both by making it lighter and by increasing the percent of base metal) to 3.14 g increasing the percent of base metal) to 3.14 g (compared to 3.72 g under Augustus). Vespasian (compared to 3.72 g under Augustus). Vespasian further reduced it to 3.07 g, but once the further reduced it to 3.07 g, but once the financial health was regained, Domitian financial health was regained, Domitian increased the silver content of the denarius back increased the silver content of the denarius back to 3.28to 3.28

Sociopolitical Instability Sociopolitical Instability

- - From the point of view of sociopolitical From the point of view of sociopolitical stability and public order the period of the stability and public order the period of the Principate can be divided into three distinct Principate can be divided into three distinct

phases.phases.

*** See chart on next slide****** See chart on next slide***

Year- EventYear- Event

––22 Revolt at Rome 22 Revolt at Rome 15 Disturbances at Rome 15 Disturbances at Rome 24 Rebellion of the slaves in South Italy 24 Rebellion of the slaves in South Italy 41 Murder of Caligula; proclamation of Claudius 41 Murder of Caligula; proclamation of Claudius 42 Conspiracy at Rome (Scribonianus) 42 Conspiracy at Rome (Scribonianus) 59 Disturbances at Pompeii 59 Disturbances at Pompeii 64 Fire of Rome and disturbances 64 Fire of Rome and disturbances 65 Conspiracy at Rome (Piso) 65 Conspiracy at Rome (Piso) 68 Uprising against Nero 68 Uprising against Nero 69 Year of the three Emperors; Civil war 69 Year of the three Emperors; Civil war 95 Conspiracy at Rome 95 Conspiracy at Rome 96 Murder of Domitianus; Nerva 96 Murder of Domitianus; Nerva 182 Conspiracy at Rome (Commodus’ sister) 182 Conspiracy at Rome (Commodus’ sister) 189 Famine Revolution at Rome 189 Famine Revolution at Rome 192–7 Civil war (multiple emperors): murder of Commodus; Niger, Albinus 192–7 Civil war (multiple emperors): murder of Commodus; Niger, Albinus 211 Murder of Geta by Caracalla 211 Murder of Geta by Caracalla 217 Murder of Carcalla; Macrinus 217 Murder of Carcalla; Macrinus 218 Civil war; Macrinus assassinated 218 Civil war; Macrinus assassinated 221 Mutiny of army near Rome 221 Mutiny of army near Rome 222 Deposition of Elagabalus 222 Deposition of Elagabalus 228 Disturbances in armies in Rome (and Mesopotamia) 228 Disturbances in armies in Rome (and Mesopotamia) 235–8 Deposition of Alexander Severus; Civil war (multiple emperors) 235–8 Deposition of Alexander Severus; Civil war (multiple emperors) 244 Murder of Gordianus III 244 Murder of Gordianus III 248–9 Revolts in Syria, Egypt, and at Rome; Philippus killed in battle 248–9 Revolts in Syria, Egypt, and at Rome; Philippus killed in battle 249–53 Civil war (multiple emperors); Gallus killed by his troops 249–53 Civil war (multiple emperors); Gallus killed by his troops 258–68 Civil war (multiple emperors: “the Thirty Tyrants”) 258–68 Civil war (multiple emperors: “the Thirty Tyrants”) 269 Revolt at Bologna and other cities 269 Revolt at Bologna and other cities 270 Civil war (Quintillus-Aurelianus) 270 Civil war (Quintillus-Aurelianus) 274 Revolt at Rome (monetarii) 274 Revolt at Rome (monetarii) 275 Disturbances at Rome after the assassination of Aurelianus 275 Disturbances at Rome after the assassination of Aurelianus 276 Deposition of Tacitus, Florianus; Probus 276 Deposition of Tacitus, Florianus; Probus 282–5 Civil war (multiple emperors). Murder of Probus, Carinus; Diocletian282–5 Civil war (multiple emperors). Murder of Probus, Carinus; Diocletian

Marcus Aurelius Era (96–Marcus Aurelius Era (96–180)180)

Remarkable in its high stability—there Remarkable in its high stability—there were no major instability events at the were no major instability events at the imperial core, Italy. imperial core, Italy.

The third period, starting with the reign of The third period, starting with the reign of Commodus, introduced the period of high Commodus, introduced the period of high instability, recurrent state collapse, and instability, recurrent state collapse, and endemic civil war. endemic civil war.

There were periods of multisided civil war There were periods of multisided civil war and multiple emperors in 192–7, and then and multiple emperors in 192–7, and then almost continuously from 235 to 285.almost continuously from 235 to 285.

The Principate CycleThe Principate Cycle

• Began with greater numbers of relatively Began with greater numbers of relatively prosperous small and-owners, compared prosperous small and-owners, compared to the late Republic. to the late Republic.

• It is likely that this relative propserity was It is likely that this relative propserity was rapidly eroded during the first century as a rapidly eroded during the first century as a result of population growth. result of population growth.

• There was also a large number of slaves in There was also a large number of slaves in Italy it was estimated 2 million.Italy it was estimated 2 million.

* The number of slaves probably diminished * The number of slaves probably diminished during the first two centuries.during the first two centuries.

Secular Cycle: First CenturySecular Cycle: First Century

The low is reached under the Flavians and The low is reached under the Flavians and Hadrian, after which the curve increases Hadrian, after which the curve increases and reaches the second peak under A. Pius and reaches the second peak under A. Pius in Italy M. Aurelius in Sabratha, Commodus in Italy M. Aurelius in Sabratha, Commodus in Thugga, and even S. Severus in Lepcis in Thugga, and even S. Severus in Lepcis Magna Magna

The last observation is mainly explained The last observation is mainly explained by the fact that S. Severus was a native of by the fact that S. Severus was a native of Lepcis Magna. Lepcis Magna.

The funding was possible only for the The funding was possible only for the wealthiest members of the elite. wealthiest members of the elite.

StagflationStagflation Population pressure and economic change Population pressure and economic change

Price and wage data are very scarce for the Price and wage data are very scarce for the Roman Empire outside Egypt. The only empire-Roman Empire outside Egypt. The only empire-wide wages that we know about are those of wide wages that we know about are those of legionnaries.legionnaries.

Time period Annual wage, HS silver equivalent, g Time period Annual wage, HS silver equivalent, g Wheat, quintals Wheat, quintals

Augustus (27BCE–14) 900 837 9.3 Augustus (27BCE–14) 900 837 9.3 Domitian (81–96) 1,200 984 8.9 Domitian (81–96) 1,200 984 8.9 Severus (193–211) 1,600 816 Severus (193–211) 1,600 816 Caracalla (211–217) 2,400 984Caracalla (211–217) 2,400 984

Sociopolitical InstabilitySociopolitical Instability

Crisis PopulationCrisis Population The population decline during the The population decline during the

decentralization phase of the Principate cycle decentralization phase of the Principate cycle resulted, as usual, from a complex combination of resulted, as usual, from a complex combination of causes. It is probable that population numbers causes. It is probable that population numbers began declining in Italy during the second began declining in Italy during the second century. century.

The first major shock was delivered by an The first major shock was delivered by an epidemic that reached the Roman empire in 165epidemic that reached the Roman empire in 165

The “Antonine plague.” The Antonine plague was The “Antonine plague.” The Antonine plague was probably smallpox, or a combination of measles probably smallpox, or a combination of measles and smallpox. It was reputedly brought from the and smallpox. It was reputedly brought from the eastern Mediterranean by the Roman troops eastern Mediterranean by the Roman troops returning from the Parthian War.returning from the Parthian War.

Daily Monthly Wages-2Daily Monthly Wages-2ndnd CenturyCentury

By the 260s the real wages increased by about By the 260s the real wages increased by about 20% compared to the pre-plague period. 20% compared to the pre-plague period.

Other more anecdotal data support the Other more anecdotal data support the general trends summarized above. For general trends summarized above. For example, in the village of Theadelphia in the example, in the village of Theadelphia in the Fayyum the 2,500 residents in the 130s Fayyum the 2,500 residents in the 130s cultivated 1600–1700.cultivated 1600–1700.

In 216 an unknown but, obviously, diminished In 216 an unknown but, obviously, diminished number cultivated 990.number cultivated 990.

The Age of Gallienus 253–The Age of Gallienus 253–268268

The Age of Gallienus began in 253–268The Age of Gallienus began in 253–268 First co-ruler with his father Valerian, then sole ruler saw First co-ruler with his father Valerian, then sole ruler saw

the catastrophic external invasions and plague. the catastrophic external invasions and plague. Two-third of the population of Alexandira perished, and Two-third of the population of Alexandira perished, and

5,000 people died in Rome every day. 5,000 people died in Rome every day. The internal warfare reached the peak, with the empire The internal warfare reached the peak, with the empire

fragmenting and pretenders cropping up everywhere.fragmenting and pretenders cropping up everywhere. This was the age of “thirty tyrants”.This was the age of “thirty tyrants”. During the reign of Gallienus alone, eighteen usurpers During the reign of Gallienus alone, eighteen usurpers

attempted to seize the thrown. attempted to seize the thrown. Two-thirds of territory of the Roman Empire seceded (the Two-thirds of territory of the Roman Empire seceded (the

Gallic Empire under Postumus and the Palmyrene Empire Gallic Empire under Postumus and the Palmyrene Empire under Odenathus and Zenobia). under Odenathus and Zenobia).

In ConclusionIn Conclusion……

The Principate Cycle is different from The Principate Cycle is different from other secular cycles because of the other secular cycles because of the low and high cycles it faced, and all low and high cycles it faced, and all the power it gained after its major the power it gained after its major downfalls.downfalls.