Neurobiology of Language

126391245781110The Power of Neuroplasticity: Enhancing Human PotentialRutgers University, NewarkCo-Founder Scientific Learning CorporationPaula Tallal, Ph.D.

Research funded by NIH and NSF

1Spoken language communication is the foundation upon which social/emotional, behavioral, academic and occupational outcomes depend.

For a variety of biological, social and cultural reasons, increasing numbers of children are entering school without sufficiently strong spoken language skills on which to build adequate literacy and other academic skills.

The most effective route to improving reading, academic and social competency is to strengthen the basic perceptual, cognitive and linguistic skills that build language communication proficiency.News Flash !2Our research has focused on understanding the neurobiological basis of language development and disorders.

We began our research program with the observation that many children with specific developmental language impairments (SLI) and reading deficits have particular difficulty at the phonological (speech) level of language.

Neurobiology of Language

3Our earliest studies led to the discovery that language impaired children have particular difficulty in both perceiving and producing brief, rapidly successive signals, specifically in the tens of millisecond time range.Neurobiology of Language4Children with weak language developmentcant sequence 2 tones at rapid presentation rates

Tone Duration = 75 msecTone 1 = 100 Hz, Tone 2 = 300 HzTallal & Piercy (1973) Nature.

510s of milliseconds can determine which syllable we hearMany speech sounds (phonemes) differ only by brief spectral and/or temporal changes, specifically within 10s of milliseconds

6Steady-state vowel portions of syllables do not incorporate brief spectral or temporal changes

Not all speech sounds contain rapid spectrotemporal changes7Language impaired children have selective deficits in discriminating those speech sounds that differ by rapidly changing acoustic cues

Tallal & Piercy (1974) Neuropsychologia, 12.8

Speech can be computer modified to slow down the fast acoustic changes

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Tallal & Piercy (1975) Neuropsychologia, 13.Children with slow language developmentshow significant improvement in syllable discrimination when the fast acoustic changes are extended in time10

100 mssaystayAmplitudeTime (milliseconds)For speech, 10s of milliseconds can change the meaning of a wordThese waveforms are identical except for an inserted 100ms silent gap, yet we hear two different words. In order to be able to read and spell we need to hear these small acoustic differences in words. 11 Rapid auditory processing (RAP) can be studied in infantsAn operantly conditioned head-turn procedure is used to reward an infant for discriminating a change in a 2-tone sequence

12No significant group difference in mismatch response at 300ms ISIInfants with LI family history show significantly reduced MMR at 70ms ISISignificant group differences at 70ms ISI occur primarily in left hemisphere

Benasich et al.(2002) Dev. Psychobiol. 278-292.Electrophysiological differences (mismatched response - MMR) to rapid tone sequences are observed in infants with a family history of language learning impairmentControlFamily History

13Benasich and colleagues showed that infants with a family history of language learning impairments show reduced mismatch negativity (MMN) to tone sequences, selectively in the LH and selectively for sequences presented with brief (70 ms), but not longer (300 ms) ISIs. Subsequent studies discovered that difficulty in both perceiving and producing brief, rapidly successive signals:

extended to attention, sequencing and memory problems

2) extended to other populations of struggling learners (ADHD, Autism)Neurobiology of Language14Tallal (1980) Brain & Lang. 9.There is a highly significant correlation between nonsense word reading and rapid auditory processing in dyslexics

15Perceptual weakness Weak phonological representationsReading, writing, spelling problems Learning and academic problems Struggling studentsOral language weaknessLanguage Literacy Continuum16Strengthen the underlying linguistic as well as perceptual/cognitive building blocks for learning, which include memory, attention, processing speed and sequencing.Goals for intervention17Strengthen Perceptual/Cognitive SkillsSharpen phonological representationsStrengthen reading, writing, spellingReduce learning and academic problems Successful studentsEnhance oral language abilitiesGoals for Intervention18

4 mm

1 sec.216Neuroplastic physiological changes are induced by behavioral auditory temporal training in mature ratsMercado et al. (2001) Neuroreport.

The cortical area responding to complex sound was much smaller in nave rats (A) than in trained rats (B)Cortical responses evoked by periodic trains of FM sweeps were less in number and persistent in nave rats (C) than in trained rats (D)

BACDPost-stimulus Time (s) HistogramsMean # of spikeskHz19Variables Driving Neuroplasticity Frequent / intense input Adaptive trials Sustained attention Timely rewards 20

The goal of this exercise is to detect whether the two tones are both rising, both falling, or rising and fallingAs training progresses the rate of presentation increases21

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24Computer-Based Cognitive and Literacy Skills TrainingLiteracy: Stellar Stories

25Randomized Control Trial of Intervention

Group Performance on Matching VariablesProcessed SpeechNatural Speech

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Intervention Results: LanguagePre-Test vs. Post-Test Differences27Scaling Up: Randomized control trial in Cherry Hill, NJ schools Fast ForWord compared to classroom intervention73 students identified as struggling with phonemic awareness were randomly assigned to one of two groups matched on degree of language impairmentThe participant group used Fast ForWord Language for an average of 34 school days, while the control group received regular school interventionPre- and post-assessments show that, on average, Fast ForWord participants made significantly greater gains in language ability than controls

Average-1 SDBelow AveragePerformance on standardized language assessment batteryMAPS for Learning Educator Reports (2004) 8(4)1-4.28Strengthen perceptual/cognitive skillsSharpen phonological representationsStrengthen reading, writing, spellingReduce learning and academic problemsSuccessful studentsEnhance oral language abilitiesGoals for Intervention29

This research from the fields of education and cognitive psychology was coming together for me CLICKat about the same time, the school where I was teaching, bought the Fast ForWord series of trainings.

I must admit; I was a doubter; a nay-sayer even. So I decided to go through the training myself. I started by completing the Literacy program.

And it was then that I noticed the implicit grammar instruction embedded in the exercises.

and I began to make connections between what these exercises were training and how I was teaching writing

It was this A-HA moment that has turned into my doctoral thesis and the beginning of my career in research.

Literacy: Star Pics, Stellar Stories, Sky RiderR2: Fish Frenzy, Ant AnticsR3: Canine Crew, Twisted PicturesR4: Jitterbug Jukebox, Hoof Beat

30SpellingRepetitionAutomaticityMcCutchen, 1996

Graham, Harris, & Chorzempa, 2002Reading 2: Magic Bird

In this exercise, the student must make as many real words as possible by matching a partially spelled word with several onsets on the grid

SHELLTELLBELL

Each time the student mouse-clicks a tile that makes a real word,

the assembled word is presented both visually and aurally.

The student continues working on the grid until all possible word combinations have been presented, or until an incorrect selection is made.31Applying Rules of Grammar in ContextReading 3: Hog Hat Zone

In some ways, HOG HAT ZONE is a more advanced version of Leaping Lizards.Students are applying all of the rules of grammar in CONTEXT but the sentences are more complex and are used to build paragraphs which forces students to maintain more content in WORKING MEMORY for longer periods of timea skill which is needed for writing. I WANT YOU TO NOTICE, That just like we write in chunksor phrases, The exercise also builds sentences from phrases and the sentences are used to build paragraphs.

Lets take a look. In this ex., students are working with pronouns and verbs.

In the 1st sentence, the student needs to look ahead to figure out which pronoun to use.They are BUILDING their WORKING memory It was very dark, and the wind howled around _____, but Dorothy Dorothy cues us that the correct answer is her and not him.

(OBJECTIVE CASE OF the PRONOUN)

32707580859095100105110115120ControlGroupStandard Score (Mean = 100, SD = 15)Before InterventionAfter InterventionReal Word ReadingNon-Word DecodingPassageComprehension ** p < .0005DyslexicControlDyslexicControlDyslexicTemple et al. (2003) PNAS 100. Average-1 SDBelow Average*** p < .0001* p < .005Reading improvements after intervention33the behavioral effects of training are summarized here. the results from 3 reading tests - real word reading, nonword decoding, and passage comprehension.

On the x axis is group normal and dyslexic reader for each test - and on the y axis is standard score - 100 - where the black dotted line is the standardized mean

and these red lines above and below it represents 1 SD above and below the meanThe Normal Readers - NR - did not undergo any training, but simply were tested 2 times about 8 weeks apart and, of course, had no significant change in their scores.

and for all 3 tests, the dyslexic children - as a group - showed a significant improvement after training.

ID: 6/26 no change or neg

ControlFrontalAND Temporo-parietalFrontalbut NOT Temporo-parietalDyslexicTemple et al. (2003) PNAS, 100.fMRI activation while viewing two letters and determining whether their names rhymeExample: B D = Rhyme B K = Do Not Rhyme34To remind you of the results obtained previouslywe showed that during phonological processing, the normal readers have both left frontal and left temporo-parietal activity

while the dyslexic children have only left frontal and no left temporo-parietal at all

Controls

Frontal& Temporo-parietal

Frontalbut NO Temporo-parietalDyslexicsPre-InterventionfMRI Activation While Rhyming LettersTemple et al. (2003) PNASMetabolic Brain activity differs between controls and dyslexics:Training alters functional activity such that it more closely resembles normal activity

Increased activity in Frontal & Temporo-parietalDyslexicsPost-Intervention35This slide shows that this training also changes the brain of dyslexics to look more like normals.Thomas Gibbs Elementary 12% white 194 students total 87% African American 86% free & reduced

State-wide Achievement Results : St. Marys Parish, LA194 students from Gibbs Elementary school began using the Fast ForWord- Language and Reading programs in 2006. At that time only 19 percent of these students scored at basic or above in English Language Arts on the LA state- wide achievement test as compared to the state-wide average of 51 % who scored in this range. This longitudinal study shows the progress of Gibbs students over the two years that they used Fast ForWord programs.36Generalizability: High-Stakes Math Achievement Test- St. Marys Parish, LA

Thomas Gibbs Elementary 12% white 194 students total 87% African American 86% free & reduced80% of classroom instruction is spoken language. Language abilities has been shown to be highly correlated with math abilities. This suggests that improving cognitive building blocks for learning coupled with linguistic training should generalize to math improvement. This graph demonstrates that this is true.37Attendance, Teacher Intervention and Time on Task Matters

Before I show you the results, I want to mention the importance of attendance.

The students were trained for a mean of 39 days with attendance ranging from 36 to 42 days.

and participation, indicating time on task, was 89%.

Im particularly proud of our high levels of participation. We were on a 40 minute protocol for a 42 minute class. I know our time on task would have been higher had we had 2 extra minutes in the class period for students to transition ON and OFF the computers.

In any case, most students were participating between 36-38 minutes each day.

38Strengthen perceptual/cognitive skillsSharpen phonological representationsStrengthen reading, writing, spellingReduce learning and academic problemsSuccessful studentsEnhance oral language abilitiesGoals for Intervention39Advanced Sentence Combining

Lets try another one.READ sentence

PAUSE!!!!

Again, raise your hand if you think the correct answer is:Top-leftTop-RightBottom-Left: Good Job!!!

Did you notice the amount of vocabulary you are working with in context? 40Paragraph Development

Reading 5: Quack SplashAnd in the most advanced level of the training, students build multiple-paragraph passages.As I mentioned earlier, all of the students in both of the studies I will be presentingcompleted all of the initial Literacy training and varying degrees of the Reading Series.

Sothe effects of this computer-based cognitive and literacy skills training on students basic writing skills is what I wanted to evaluate empirically in my study.

41Randomized Control Trial: Effects of Computer Intervention on Writing Skills in Middle School Students

80 general education 6th grade students

39 Experimental41 Waiting ControlPretest Pretest TRAININGPosttest Posttest Rogowsky, Kropiewnicki, Waskiewicz, & Dompier, 2010In the original study, which took place during the 2009-2010 academic year.80 6th grade students from the general education population were Randomly assigned by the schools scheduling software to an CLICKExperimental group with 39 students ANDa waiting Control group with 41 students

I was very lucky that the superintendent of my school had her PhD and knew the necessity for randomized controlled studies.

Both groups took the OWLS PRETEST prior to EXP groups TRAINING.

The experimental group received 9 weeks of Training (40 minutes per day) and completed all of the initial Literacy training, and varying degrees of Reading 2 and 3

After the EXPERIMENTAL Groups training, both groups took the OWLS POSTTEST.42Randomized Control StudyRogowsky, Kropiewnicki, Waskiewicz, & Dompier, 2010

Effect size pre to post Exp. Groupd = 1.12Now lets look at what happened to the EXPERIMENTAL GROUP. Keep in mind these these students were in the same literacy classes as the students in the control group.

Only these students also completed Fast ForWord during this period of time.

Youll see that there was a striking difference between their pretest and posttest writing scores.

They increase over an entire Standard Deviation in their writing ability as measured by the OWLS Written Expression Scale.

The effect size from pre to post within the experimental group was 1.12which is an effect size that falls within the range of what is considered an extremely large effect size.

43OWLS Written Expression ScaleExperimental-Pretest

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Experimental-Posttest

The same students posttest response after training:The table shows that in the 5th and 9th grades, girls are more likely to read 2 or more books than boys are. In 5th grade, 70% of boys read 1 book or less and only 30% of boys read 2 or more books. In the 9th grade more boys, 50%, start to read 2 or more books. Overall in both 5th and 9th grades girls beat boys when it comes to reading books.

And what you will notice hereIMPROVEMENT

Lets end our session by giving ourselves a grade. Take a look at your sentence describing a bicycle to an alien. Lets see how you did.

44Effects of Computer Intervention on Writing Skills in College Students

Training Group (n= 25)Freshmen in developmental writing coursesLSAMP Students (under representative minorities in STEM majors)

Comparison (n= 27)General population students

PRETESTPRETESTTraining 50 min/11 wksPOSTTESTPOSTTESTThe comparison group only participated in pre and post testing

PRETEST were taken before the experimental groups participation in training.

Our training group completed Fast ForWord in the Spring 2011 semester for 50 min/day4-5 days/wk11 weeks

AFTER the experimental groups training,both groups took the POSTTEST

Youll notice that their time training was a great deal longer than with the original study with middle school students.

45Writing Scores on the OWLS

Rogowsky et al, 2013 Frontiers in Educational Psychology, v 4 (137) pp 1- 11Now lets look at what happened to the EXPERIMENTAL GROUP.

Youll see that there is a statistically significant difference between their pretest and posttest writing scores.

They increased nearly 2 Standard Deviations in their writing ability as measured by the OWLS Written Expression Scale.

You can tell this was a very motivated group of students and they had longer time on the product.

What do these numbers they look like?

46Strengthen Perceptual/Cognitive SkillsSharpen phonological representationsStrengthen reading, writing, spellingReduce learning and academic problemsSuccessful studentsEnhance oral language abilitiesGoals for Intervention47To date, over 2 million children in the US and in 44 countries internationally have completed Fast ForWord Language and/or Reading intervention programs. On any given day approximately 150,000 log in to work on Fast ForWord.Improving Language and Literacy is a Matter of Time

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For More Information and Research on ForWord

www.scientificlearning.com

I thank the thousands of educators, clinicians, students and the dedicated professionals at Scientific Learning. for their invaluable collaboration in the development of Fast ForWord training programs. 49