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ABSTRACT

The political environment is closely implicated in all economics sectors and tourism is

immersed directly or indirectly in the economy of countries. Thus, this study represents

an opportunity to evaluate the political factors that influence tourism, especially in

Kenya in the first decade of the 21st. century. To achieve this aim, this dissertation`s

approach is based on an evaluation of the relationship between tourism and politics. At

the same time it reflects the political factors involved in tourism such as the influence of

governments, the impact of policies and political instability in the tourism sector.

This study is based on meanings expressed through words. As a consequence of this, the

author did a qualitative analysis. This method analyses and focuses on the content of the

collected of primary and secondary data.

The primary data used helps to gather valid and reliable data in order to clarify the

political influence in tourism. The secondary data were utilized to find information to

solve, explain and to understand the research. In addition the triangulation method was

used. This model consists of a comparison of a variety of data sources both primary and

secondary, relating to the same event. All of this is in order to check on the

trustworthiness and comprehensiveness of the qualitative data.

The findings illustrate that tourism has gained more attention and participation by the

government of Kenya for its economic contribution. At the same time it reflects the

strong political influence by the government over tourism.

The Hall model will be employed to evaluate the policy-making process and the impact

of this on tourism. The analysis has been done in two different periods (2002-2007) and

(2008-2012), in order to identify the reliable problems in Kenya. In addition, Tourism is

a sensitive market due to unfortunate events such as the political instability experienced

in 2007. This has been an impediment to the development of full of the potential of

tourism in Kenya.

It is evident that the political environment affects tourism directly or indirectly. Based

on the decisions made it has a positive or negative effect on tourism. On the other hand,

as politics is a complex and extensive science, this research has served as a preliminary

study to future researches.

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Contents

CHAPTER I .........................................................................................................5

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................5

1.1 Aims .......................................................................................................................5

1.2 Objectives ...............................................................................................................5

1.3 Rationale .................................................................................................................6

1.4 Research structure ..................................................................................................7

CHAPTER II ........................................................................................................8

2. Literature Review .......................................................................................................8

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................8

2.2 Relationship between Tourism and Politics ...........................................................8

2.3 What is the role of the government in Tourism? ..................................................10

2.4 Evaluating policies and decision making by Governments ..................................12

2.5 Political instability ................................................................................................17

2.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................19

CHAPTER III ....................................................................................................20

3. Methodology ............................................................................................................20

3.1 Choice of research design .....................................................................................20

3.2 Justification...........................................................................................................20

3.3 Primary and Secondary data .................................................................................21

3.3.1 Primary Data .....................................................................................................21

3.3.2 Secondary Data .................................................................................................22

3.4 Data Analysis........................................................................................................23

3.4.1 Qualitative Method ...........................................................................................23

3.4.2 Triangulation Model .........................................................................................24

3.5 Procedure ..............................................................................................................25

CHAPTER IV ................................................................................................... 27

4. Findings and analysis ...........................................................................................27

4.1 Kenya ....................................................................................................................27

4.2 Politics, Government and tourism in Kenya in the last 10 years of the 21st century

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4.3 Evaluating policies and decision making .............................................................29

4.3.1 Tourism Policies in Kenya ................................................................................29

4.3.2 Policy Demands (Period 2002 -2007) ...............................................................30

4.3.3 Policy decisions ................................................................................................31

4.3.4 Policy Outputs...................................................................................................32

4.3.5 Policy Outcomes ...............................................................................................33

4.4 Tourism policy in Kenya 2008-2012 ....................................................................35

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4.4.1 Policy demands .................................................................................................35

4.4.2 Policy decision ..................................................................................................36

4.4.3 Policy Outputs...................................................................................................37

4.4.4 Policy Outcomes ...............................................................................................38

4.5 To evaluate how influential political instability is on the tourism industry in

Kenya. ..............................................................................................................................39

CHAPTER V ..........................................................................................43

5. Conclusion................................................................................................................43

CHAPTER VI ........................................................................................45

6. Recommendation ......................................................................................................45

References ......................................................................................................................47

Annexes ...........................................................................................................................55

Annex 1 ...........................................................................................................................55

Annex 2 ...........................................................................................................................57

Annex 3 ...........................................................................................................................59

List of abbreviations

EAC- East African Community

IP-ERS – Invest Program for Economic Recovery Strategy

KWS – Kenya Wildlife Service

TPU – Tourism Police Unit

TTCI – Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index

TTC – Travel and Tourism Caucus

USAID – United States Agency International Development

WTO – World Travel Organization

List of figures

Figure 1- Tourism benefits in the economies of countries……………………………. 7

Figure 2- Easton’s simplified model of the political system…………………………..13

Figure 3 - Elements in the tourism policy-making process……………………………14

Figure 4 - Research Characteristics……………………………………………………20

Figure 5 - Forms of interview………………………………………………………….22

Figure 6 - Tourism arrivals and earnings (2002 – 2007) ……………………………...34

Figure 7 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2002-2007)………...34

Figure 8 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2007-2010)………..39

Figure 9 – Tourist visitor arrivals in Kenya (2005 – 2010)…………………………...40

Figure 10 – Tourist arrivals by mode of transport (2005 – 2010) …………………....41

Figure 11 – Tourism earnings (Ksh in Billions; 2005 – 2010)………………………..41

Figure 12 – Foreign visitors / tourist number ‘000 (2001-2010)……………………...42

List of tables Table 1 – Four components of the policy-making process……………………………14

Table 2 – Summary of the components of Chinese government policies………….....16

Table 3 - Types of Primary data………………………………………………………21

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CHAPTER I

1. Introduction

Tourism has been closely implicated in political action in recent years. This is because

tourism has been immersed directly or indirectly in the economy of countries. The

relationship between tourism and other sectors of economic activity has helped with the

passage of time to be considered as one of the major industries in the world (Burns and

Novelli, 2007).

The political dimensions of tourism are many; it is as a consequence of a powerful mix

of cultural, socioeconomic and political phenomena (Bauma, 2005 cited in Burns and

Novelli, 2007). Due to this, the tourism sector needs the participation of politics,

because governments are involved in political decisions concerned in improving and

creating an adequate environment to develop tourism (Laws, 1995).

Tourism then is an important part of the economy in any country; economics concern

decisions about scarce resources, whilst politics are concerned with making decisions

about public resources. It is thus evident that tourism is inherently related to politics

(Cook et al., 2010).

1.1 Aims

To evaluate, the political factors influencing tourism in Kenya in the first decade of the

21st century. Specifically, using the Hall (1994) method to evaluate the policy making,

focusing on an economic performance

1.2 Objectives

The research objectives address factors and elements of politics that influence tourism,

these objectives include the following:

To understand the relationship between tourism and politics.

To examine the position of the government in the tourism sector in Kenya.

To analyze the tourism policy-making process and the economic impact of

tourism in Kenya.

To evaluate how political instability influences tourism in Kenya.

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1.3 Rationale

Tourism is regarded as a highlight and an integral part of economies in many

developing countries; the benefits are present at both: macro (national level) or micro

(Local, regional), Dieke (2003).

Figure 1- Tourism benefits in the economies of countries.

Source: Adapt from Dieke, (2003, p.287).

Following on from this Cook et al. (2010) note that tourism invokes positive economic

benefits such as the following:

It is an industry that helps to maintain economic stability in periods of recession

that affect virtually all industries.

Tourism provides economic diversity, the variety of sectors involved in the

industry generate a wide range of different job opportunities.

Tourism allows for support in the development of countries; this has a positive

impact on both visitors and communities.

Subsequently, Richter (1990, cited in Aquino, 2010, p.110) notes that the political

dimensions of tourism in some countries are viewed as a capitalist device with

governments willing to consider them in order to improve the economy.

Although politics include aspects of tourism linked with economic factors, it takes into

consideration the environment and local communities in order to develop the quality of

life for the people and to develop the economies of countries (Richter 1990, cited in

Aquino, 2010, p.108).

According to Koster (1984 cited in Lew et al., 2004, p.534),

“If a multidisciplinary tourism science develops without the necessary

ingredient of political analysis, it will remain imperfect and

incomplete.”

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However, politics in tourism is a relatively new area of scholarly inquiry; there is little

agreement on how public tourism policies should be studied or on the reasons

underpinning such studies. Nevertheless, studies of tourism policy must go beyond

describing “what governments do” (Hall & Jenkins, 1995, p.2).

According to Hall and Jenkins (1995, p.4) government activity in respect to tourism is

relatively recent in comparison with other traditional concerns of the government such

as economics, manufacturing and social welfare. Based on this, Hall and Jenkins

suggest that in governments there is an element of inexperience in the formulation and

implementation of tourism policies (ibid.).

For all of these reasons the researcher considers that this study represents an opportunity

to evaluate the political factors that influence tourism, especially in Kenya, where

tourism plays an important role in the economy of the country.

1.4 Research structure

Chapter II literature review

A theoretical analysis of the objectives is reviewed in this chapter in order to design

the research.

Chapter III Methodology and research design

This chapter explains systematically the method and the data collection used in the

research and gives an explanation of methods employed in the data analysis.

Chapter IV Findings and Analysis

The analysis has been carried out in order to reach the aim of this dissertation.

Chapter V Conclusion

Main remarks on the political factors influencing directly and indirectly in tourism

Kenya.

Chapter VI Recommendation

Suggestions for further studies.

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CHAPTER II

2. Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Tourism is an important factor in regional and national economies, in terms of

environmental issues and social effects. The political aspect however has rarely been

discussed in literature (Hall, 1994), yet the magnitude to which industry has become

widespread and is growing needs immediate attention as a subject of political research

(Richter, 1989). Following this Henderson (2003, p. 98) notes:

“Tourism is, without doubt, a highly political phenomenon which

extends beyond the sphere of formal government structures and

processes if politics are conceived as being essentially about power

relations, and it is thus an underlying and indirect theme in much

tourism research.”

It is immediately evident therefore that political factors in tourism are numerous. Hence

the aim of this literature review is to clarify and to describe in a theoretical manner, and

the factors relevant in this study such as:

Relationship between tourism and politics.

What the role of the government in the tourism sector is?

Evaluating policies and decision making by governments.

The political instability that has a direct and indirect effect on the tourism

industry.

2.2 Relationship between Tourism and Politics

Understanding the relationship between politics and tourism is especially significant for

developing countries, where the tourism industry plays an important role in the

economy (Kosters, 1984 cited in Chambers and Airey, 2001).

The study of politics in tourism does not nevertheless only concern elections, group

interests or political parties; it involves the study of power in all forms of society.

Laswell (1958 cited in Harrison, 2011, p.149) notes that politics is about power, “who

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gets what, when and how”, further adding a most limited definition of politics as “the

study of government and how individuals influence government actions” (Lasswell,

cited in Harrison, 2011, p.149).

Consequently, Hall (1994) suggests that the political system, directly or indirectly

influences tourism, through policies that are established by governments in order to

develop the country.

According to Edgell (1990, cited in Hall, 1994, p.2),

“The highest purpose of tourism policy is to integrate the economic,

political, cultural, and intellectual and economics benefits of tourism

cohesively with people, destinations and countries in order to improve

the global quality of life and provide a foundation of peace and

prosperity”.

Hall (1994, p.2) expresses the view that “tourism is not only the continuation of

politics” but it is an integral part of the world’s economy. In addition Magara (2010,

p.47), suggests that politics involves competing for power, authority and influence in

supporting the quality of life a society desires.

Politics therefore is an important factor in any market when it is developing, because

political decisions by the government in power affect the tourism industry as with any

other industry.

For instance, in Spain the tourism boom in the late 1950s was influenced by government

intervention, which provided and regulated tourism activity. The most important aspect

with regard to state intervention was the search for the growth of tourist activity and the

control over prices of accommodation (Apostolopoulos et al., 2001).

On the other hand, tourism in Asia is seen by government leaders as a political bridge

between nations, initiating or widening the scope of cooperative alliances with other

nations. Added to these, other important players involved in both politics and tourism

are international organizations and multinational corporations (airlines, hotels chains,

and tour companies), namely, those who drive the industry (Richter, 1989).

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Interests of groups however in the tourism industry generate a conflict in tourism policy

formulation, especially in environment and social issues (Craik, 1990 cited in Hall,

1994, p.70).

For instance, the influence of the United States Congressional Travel and Tourism

Caucus (TTC) on the American national tourism policy; the TTC provides a network for

the channelling of information from the tourism industry, political negotiations, and the

formation of compromises in legislative decision making, It also acts as a mechanism

for industry to influence policies which affect their interest (Hayes; 1981, cited in Hall,

1994, p.56).

Private industry in the tourism sector thus needs to be alert to changes of government, in

order to adapt to the new government, if it want to survive in the market. This means

adapting to the new strategies and being aware of possible changes of policies within

this industry (Pride et al., 2010).

Thus it is clear that politics and tourism share a wide range of factors such as social,

economic, political and cultural, in a country. It is therefore important to create a policy

for the environment propitious to the development of this productive sector of the

economy.

2.3 What is the role of the government in Tourism?

There is almost a universal acceptance by governments around the world, regardless of

ideology, that tourism is a good thing with most tourism policies designed to expand

tourism (Hall, 1994, p.29).

According to Elliot (1997), governments are involved in tourism because this sector

generates important benefits and help to boost the economies of countries. At the same

time, tourism economic activity is seen as a multiplier effect helping other sectors of the

economy.

For instance, Mak (2004) in the course of a study on Hawaii determined the multiplier

effect in the economy of this country and at the same time, noted that the impact of the

multiplier effect depends on how much the visitors spends. It is therefore evident that

the role of government in tourism involves being responsible for creating a propitious

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environment for visitors, in order to boost tourism and generate more revenue for the

economy of the country.

Similarly The United Kingdom’s House of Commons (1988, cited in Elliot, 1997,

p.29) notes,

“The government fully recognizes the great economic and

employment contribution and potential of tourism and seeks to

encourage the development, growth and international competitiveness

of the UK tourism industry”.

Certain authors (Lea, 1998; Pearce, 1989; Ritcher, 1989; cited in Hall, 1994, p.1)

express the view that in many modern governments tourism occupies an important role

in the economy, as it occurs in both developed and undeveloped countries.

For instance, The Kenyan government through President Mwai Kibaki (2010, cited in

African Review, 2010, p.1) recognizes the importance of tourism and notes the value of

supporting this industry, because it is helping to alleviate poverty and to create

employment and other opportunities for people in the country. Similarly, the Prime

Minister of the UK, David Cameron (2011, cited in Penrose, 2011, p.4) notes the

importance of tourism and saying,

“Our aim is clear, we want to take tourism in Britain to a whole new

level and harness the huge potential this area holds to grow our

economy”.

The United Kingdom government recognizes that it is necessary to focus on policy-

making in the tourism sector, because it considers tourism as a huge potential sector for

the growth of the economy in the country. Government strategy consists of improving

and creating infrastructure, promoting the country and eliminating barriers to the growth

of this sector, (Penrose, 2011).

According to Apostolopoulos, et al., (2001, p.34) tourism policies are established by

governments in three levels which are “central governments, autonomous government

and the municipal government”, in order to develop the tourism sector. For instance,

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“The UK government in the local government Act of 1948 gave local

governments the power to provide information and publicity for

tourism”, (Elliot, 1997, p.138).

Similarly, the federal government of Mexico, through an agreement with the State of

Oaxaca launched a plan (1997-2000) to secure substantial public and private sector

investment through a promotion program in infrastructure, conservation and culture. All

of these sought to develop that area of the country (Jeffries, 2001).

It is immediately evident therefore that “governments are the legitimate holders of

power in political systems”, (Elliot, 2001, p.38). In addition, Jeffries, (2001) notes that

governments are responsible for making policy and establishing policy guidelines,

within the constitutional, legal and political environment established by them.

On the other hand, Mill and Morrison (1985, cited in Hall, 1994, p.32) identifies five

roles of government vital for the success of the tourism industry: “coordination,

planning, legislation and regulation, entrepreneurship, and stimulation”. Further two

more roles were added by Hall (1994), one is related to social tourism and the other is in

the interest of protection.

According to Jeffries (2001, p.108)

“The great complexity of tourism, of the industry and of its products

calls for coordination and cooperation which arguably only

governments have the authority and apparatus to organize”.

Governments thus have the responsibility of ensuring synergy between different roles,

in order to aid the effective development of the tourism sector.

2.4 Evaluating policies and decision making by Governments

Policy making is a political activity that is embedded within the economic and social

characteristics of society. As such it reflects society’s values, ideologies, distribution of

power, institutions and decision-making (Hall and Jenkins, 2004 cited in Buhalis and

Costa, 2006, p.155).

Similarly, Elder and Etta (2005) suggest that policy-making is a political act and, as a

political act it requires extensive consultation, time and resources.

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Edgel, (1987) and Richter (1983 cited in Zang et al., 1998, p.2) however examine the

evolution of Chinese tourism policy, and found that it is not only important to

understand the design of the policy, but that it is necessary to take into consideration the

society and its administrative social environment.

Following this, Easton (1965) and Hall (1994 cited in Zang, et al., 1998, p.3) note that

the government’s role in tourism is an outcome of its tourism policy formulation and

implementations.

Mitchell (1989, cited in Hall, 2008) suggests that in policy-making two types of models

can be adopted, prescriptive and descriptive. Prescriptive models based on pre-

established standards seek to demonstrate how policy making should occur and

descriptive models descriptive models give an explanation of events occurred during the

decision making process. At the same time, descriptive models “document the way in

which the policy process actually occurs" (Hall, 2008, p.71). This represents a refutation

of the rational policy-administration dichotomy that characterises prescriptive

approaches to policy analysis, thus;

“Policy making typically involves a pattern of action over time and

involving many decisions”, (Anderson, 1975 cited in Hall, 1994,

p.48).

In accordance with Easton (1965 cited in Hall, 1994, p.49) in policy-making it is

important to consider the policy-process within a political system that it is operating in

political environment (see figure 2).

Figure 2- Easton’s simplified model of the political system

Source: Easton (1965 cited in Hall 1994, p.50).

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Following this, the model describes the four components in the policy-making process

(See table 1)

Table 1 – Four components of the policy-making process.

Source: adapted from Hall (1994, p.49)

Dahl (1970 cited in Elliot 1997) defines a political system as any persistent pattern of

human relationships that involves, to a significant extent, power, rule or authority.

Elliot (1997, p.40) adds,

“A political system can be liberal, democratic or totalitarian, but in

practice all types of governments have supported or sponsored

tourism”.

Elliot (1997) nevertheless notes that the ideology, beliefs and values of the political

system will determine how far governments will get involved in the economic system.

At the same time what will be the role of the private sector, and how much economic

support will be given to tourism needs to determined.

It is immediately evident that policy-making is established in a political arena, where

participants (interest groups, institutions, community and the institutional leadership)

can interact in determining tourism policy choices (Hall, 1994, p. 51). (See figure 3)

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Figure 3 - Elements in the tourism policy-making process

Source: Hall (1994, p.50)

Following this, Elder and Etta (2005) note that Policy-making is a long expensive

process requiring leadership, and it is commonly expected that government and

institutions will provide this leadership.

In addition, The Word Travel Organization (2011, p.5) notes that those responsible for

policy making are national legislators and government administrative officials, who

adopt policies and focus on aiding the growth of national economies, whilst at the same

time aiding and increasing the number of jobs available.

For instance, Zhang (1995 cited in Zhang et al. 1999, p.473) identifies that the nature of

tourism in China from 1978 to 1985 was a mix of politics and economics; as a

consequence tourism was viewed as an economic activity by the supreme leaders of the

government of China, "The Communist Party of China". This was evident in the

economic reform policy in 1978 (Zhang et al., 1999). (See table 2.)

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Table 2 – Summary of the components of Chinese government policies

Source: Zhang et al., (1999, p.474).

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The policies adopted by governments will determine the area and sector of the impact. It

could be economic, social or environmental. Simultaneously, it allows identifying the

power structures and actors behind the policy making (Dahll, 1961 cited in Thomas, and

Thomas, 2010, p.123).

Hall and Jenkins, (2004, cited in Anastasiadou, 2008, p.26), note,

“Policies are formulated and implemented in dynamic environments

where there is a complex pattern of decisions, actions, interactions,

reaction and feedback”

For instance, the introduction of the euro in January 2002 was anticipated as a great

opportunity for tourism. Conversion to the new currency however increased costs for

tourism enterprises and resulted in a loss of price competitiveness over non-EU

destinations, (Anastasiadou, 2008). Following this,

"The World Tourism Organization (WTO) reported that in 2004 the

more mature destinations in the euro-zone experienced a decline in

their market share and increased competition from non-euro

destinations in Europe such as North Africa (Morocco and Tunisia)

and the Middle East (Egypt)" (Anastasiadou, 2008, p.30)

The researcher notes that it is evident that policy- making in tourism has a widespread

effect on economic, social, environmental and political actions, in countries where these

have been applied. The development of policies for tourism, both short-term and long-

term, will however depend on the actors that are immersed in decision-making policies.

2.5 Political instability

Political instability refers to a situation in which conditions and mechanism of

governance and rule are challenged as to their political legitimacy by elements operating

from outside the normal operations of the political system (Hall, 2005, p.301).

Following this, Hall (2005) suggests that governments are stable when they are able to

adapt and satisfy the demands of the external elements within a political system. In

contrast when the governments are unable to satisfy the demands and to adapt to the

challenges of the external forces then political instability occurs. It is because external

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elements seek to satisfy their demands, outside of the political system in a non

legitimate manner. As a consequence, it gives rise to protests, violence and civil war.

In addition, Hall (2005) considers that political stability has been provided by different

types of governments such as socialist and communist. For instance, the Republic of

China is a communist system and it has been more stable than other communist regimes

in Eastern Europe (ibid.)

Although the duration of political violence may be short lived, the long term

implications for tourism can last for many years affecting the confidence not only of the

tourists, but also of potential investors in tourism. In contrast political stability is one of

the essential prerequisites for attracting tourists to a destination (Hall, 1994).

Hall (1994) adds that political stability is not only important to develop infrastructure,

but important to project an image of stability, and for this to be possible is necessary

for governments to invest in marketing campaigns and promotion in order to project the

country as a safe environment for tourists.

For instance, Mattila (1997, cited in Henderson, 2003, p.107) notes that due to

perceptions of “political risk and lack of investment security” in Myanmar it provoked a

strong aversion to this country by Asian leaders and investors.

Lea and Small (1988 cited in Hall, 1994, p.95) suggests however that political violence

can to be presented in different forms such as “wars, coups, terrorism, riots and strikes”.

According to Hall (1994) political violence can have an affect both directly and

indirectly on other economic sectors and on employment.

It is immediately evident that “tourists are highly sensitive to political instability which

could threaten their personal safety and security” (Sharpley et al., 1996 cited in Okech,

2010, p. 2). An insecure environment provokes a decrease in tourism; at the same time

it represents a hurdle to attract investments.

On the other hand, Governments have the responsibility to guarantee the continued

existence of the nation. To make this possible it is necessary for governments to develop

policy and control systems to support the tourism industry, in order to avoid a reduction

in tourist arrivals (Elliott, 1997).

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For instance in Fiji (1987) after the political turmoil, there was a decline in the number

of tourist arrivals. This continued until 1992 when the government accepted peace and

order, this was essential to attract and keep tourist and at the same time this brought

democracy and stability to the country (Elliott, 1997).

Alsarayreh et al., (2010) recognize that tourism is highly impacted on by political

instability such as civil wars, riots, coups and strikes. In addition, Ritcher, (1982; 1989);

Ritcher and Waugh, (1991 cited in Burns and Novelli, 2007, p.13) note that political

instability is one of the elements that destroys tourism in any country.

2.6 Conclusion

Tourism has gained more attention with the passage of time. The factors are multiple

but the most important one is its economic impact. Through politics people have

become more aware of this sector in both developed and undeveloped countries.

Although politics include factors of tourism linked with economic factors, the

environment and local communities are also taken into consideration in order to develop

the quality of life for people and to develop the economies of the countries.

On the other hand, tourism is viewed by governments as a facilitator of international

relations between countries.

It is evident that political influences on tourism occur through the government. because

it is government which has the power and responsibility of policy making whilst at the

same time establishing policy guidelines in order to create a correct environment to

attract tourists and investments, two essential elements in tourism.

On the other hand, tourism although it is a strong contributor in certain economies, is a

sector sensitive to internal and external hazards such as political instability, violence,

war, turmoil, and terrorism.

Following this, political instability destroys tourism, affecting directly or indirectly

other productive sectors linked with tourism, hence governments have a responsibility

to create a safe and healthy environment to attract tourism.

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CHAPTER III

3. Methodology

Methodology is a perspective for viewing "the empirical world", where the perspectives

are established by data and methods predicting a framework for understanding the

findings of the research (Blumer, 1969 cited in Baugh, 2006, p.1). On the other hand,

Baugh (2006, p.1) states that the term “methodology” has no uniform meaning and as a

consequence has infinite boundaries.

Based on all expressed before, the researcher in this chapter explains systematically the

methods used in the research, at the same time, this is justified in a theoretical analysis,

looking to clarify this research in a rational way.

3.1 Choice of research design

Ghauri and GrФnhaug, (2010), note that research is a process of planning, executing

and investigating in order to find answers to specific research questions. Similarly

Saunders et al., (2007, p.5) define research as something that people undertake in order

to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing knowledge. In addition, the

research has a number of characteristics (see figure 4).

Figure 4 - Research Characteristics.

Source: Adapted from Saunders (2008, p.5)

3.2 Justification

The type of approach used by the researcher in this dissertation has been determined by

the origin of the data. This can come in two forms, primary and secondary data. This

type of data helps the researcher to evaluate and analyze the data based on a logical

relation and not only in beliefs (Saunders, 2007).

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In addition, the researcher uses the data triangulation method in order to improve the

accuracy of judgments and thereby the results of this research. This is because in many

cases, one method alone cannot be enough to explain or describe an event, and a multi-

method approach is needed to get the whole truth (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010).

Finally, to develop the triangulation method the researcher used both primary and

secondary data.

3.3 Primary and Secondary data

3.3.1 Primary Data

Primary sources refer to data that have been observed, experienced or recorded close to

the event to obtain the truth (Walliman, 2011). Following this, Walliman (2011) adds

that according to the method by which the data are collected, there are four types of

primary data (see table 3)

Table 3 - Types of Primary data

Source: adapted from Walliman (2011, p.70)

The choice of data collection will depend upon an overall judgement on which type of

data is needed for a particular research (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010). Consequently

Ghauri and GrФnhaug add that these are multiple methods of data collection such as

observation, experiment, interview, and surveys. This also includes documentary

sources such as reports, statistics, published and unpublished documents. The researcher

decides on the kind of data collection method to use (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010).

Following this, the primary data method to collect information used by the researcher is

based on interviews, interviews can be formal, structured or informal and unstructured

(Saunders et al., 2007).

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On the other hand Healey, 1991; Healey and Rawilson, (1993; cited in Saunders et al.,

2007, p.312) suggest other types of interview, differentiating between the standardised

interview and the non standardised interview, but both help to gather valid and reliable

data relevant for the research.

The researcher decided to use unstructured interviews because they are more

exploratory. According to Saunders et al., (2007) this type of interview is informal and

it is generally used to explore in depth general areas in which the researcher is

interested (see figure 5).

Figure 5 - Forms of interview

Source: adapted from Saunders (2007, p.313)

Interviews are used to gather data, which are normally analysed qualitatively; the

researcher uses qualitative analysis.

3.3.2 Secondary Data

Secondary sources are written sources that interpret or record primary data, thus

primary data collected by someone may turn into secondary data for another (Walliman,

2011).

Secondary data help the researcher to find information, to solve, to explain and

understand the research, however the quality of the secondary data used in the research

will depend on the source, and the methods of presentation and qualification of the

writer of the research (Walliman, 2011, p.71).

23

The type of secondary data sources are multiple such as books, professional journals,

magazines articles, online data sources, websites of firms, governments, semi-

governmental organizations, catalogues and information on the internet (Ghauri and

GrФnhaug, 2010, p.91)

This type of data has advantages and limitations; hence the researcher should be aware

of both (Kumar, 2008).

The researcher based on Ghauri and GrФnhaug, (2010) identified the most important

advantages of utilising secondary data and these are;

To facilitate cross-cultural international research it is easier to obtain

information about countries through the international surveys carried out by

serious organisations such as World Bank and Euro Monitor.

The majority of the data collected by international organisations and

governments are of high quality and are reliable. It is because the data are

collected by experts using rigorous methods.

The secondary data helps in the verification of the process and provides

excellent historical data.

Secondary research reduces cost and time for the researcher

The secondary data also provides a comparison of instruments with which the

primary data are easily interpreted and understood.

As a result the secondary data help the researcher to evaluate the questions and helps to

proportionate answers to the aim of this study, (Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010).

3.4 Data Analysis

3.4.1 Qualitative Method

The methodology used by the researcher to achieve the aims for this study will be

qualitative methods, because this study is based on meanings expressed through words,

compilation of results in non-standardised data requiring classification into categories

and analysis conducted through the use of conceptualisation (Saunders et al,. 2007, p.

472).

24

Qualitative data are attractive for many reasons: they are rich, full, earthly, holistic, and

real; they preserve chronological flow where that is important, and suffer minimally

from retrospective distortion; and they in principle, offer a far more precise way to

assess causality in organizational affairs than arcane efforts like cross-lagged

correlations (Miles, 1979, cited in Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010, p.106)

According to Walliman, (2011, p.73) qualitative data cannot be accurately measured

and are generally expressed in words. They consist essentially of human activities and

attributes such as ideas, customs, and beliefs. In addition, Walliman (2011) adds that the

data can be descriptive in character, this does not mean that they are less valuable than

quantitative data; in fact their richness and subtlety has led to great insights into human

society.

Similarly, Saunders et al., (2007) note that qualitative data have not been quantified.

Saunders adds that they are a product of a series of research strategies. It might be an

online questionnaire, an in depth interview or interview based on policy documents, all

of which serve to achieve the aim of the research.

This method analyses and focuses on the content of the collected primary and secondary

data. It makes a descriptive research of the current documents and more relevant issues.

Added analysis is concerned with the explanation of status of some events at a

particular time or its development over a period of time (Catane, 2002, p.37)

Qualitative data rely on human interpretation and evaluation and cannot be objectively

measured in a standard way (Walliman, 2011). It is therefore important for the

researcher to evaluate the qualitative data collected.

On the other hand, the researcher used the triangulation model, in order to check on the

trustworthiness and fullness of the qualitative data. This model was made possible by

consulting a variety of sources of data relating to the same event (Ghauri and

GrФnhaug, 2010).

3.4.2 Triangulation Model

Triangulation refers to the combination of methodologies in the study of the same event.

Through the triangulation model it is possible to improve the accuracy of judgments and

thereby results, because in many cases, one method alone cannot be enough to explain

25

or describe an event, and a multi-method approach is needed to get the full picture

(Ghauri and GrФnhaug, 2010 p. 212). .

Similarly, Veal (2006, p. 107) suggests that often “triangulation” is claimed in a study

because there is more than one data source and / or analytical method is used to address

different aspects of the research question, or even different research questions. It is

however when the different data methods address the same question that true

triangulation can be said to have occurred.

To develop the triangulation method the researcher used both primary and secondary

data.

3.5 Procedure

The researcher used secondary data because this type of data provides a variety of

sources of information to analyze.

The researcher considers government plans as they are vital to the development of the

economy of any country. Government plans foreshadow a new policy and they help to

understand the role of the government. Sources used in this analysis are secondary data

concerned with government plans, namely The Second East African Community

Development Strategy (2001-2005), (2006-2010). This helps to compare the theory,

concepts and the importance of politics between nations. At the same time it enabled

the author to identify the role of tourism and how important it is for the economy. The

Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation Plan helped the

researcher to identify the position of tourism in the economy. The Ministry of Forestry

and Wildlife (2005 -2010) and (2008 – 2012), in both periods launched a Strategic Plan

in Kenya´s Wildlife Service; The Ministry of States for the development of northern

Kenya and other arid lands (2005); the National Vision and Plan Strategy (2005-2015),

helped to identify how important tourism is for the Kenyan government. The Ministry

of Tourism and Wildlife (2006) national tourism policy, Mid Term Plan (2008 – 2012)

and the last more ambitious Plan Vision 2030 launched in 2008. This helped to identify

the position of politics and tourism in the economy of Kenya in both the short and long

term.

Consequently, the researcher used information from Kenyas National Bureau of

Statistics (KNBS; 2001-2010). It enabled the author to obtain information on tourist

26

arrivals to the country and to measure the impact in a period of time. Data monitor

(2012) country analysis identified the role of politics in Kenya. African Economic

Outlook (2007-2012) helped to analyse the political context in Kenya. Kenya country

report (2006) helped to identify the importance of the tourism sector in Kenya.

Finally, the researcher used web data documents, journals and online news provided by

the press room of Kenya Tourism Federation. It helped to analyze and contrast all the

information.

The primary data was gathered through non-standardised interviews. The first contact

was via telephone when an appointment was made with Mr. Githure Kamau

(Commercial and Technical Services Officer of the Embassy in Madrid). The interview

was carried out over several different sessions. The first session was face to face, it

helped to the author to understand the political environment in Kenya.

The second session was made via video conference; both sessions of the interview were

based on open ended questions in order to have in depth information about the role of

political factors in tourism in Kenya.

The other two interviews were made by telephone and video conference. The

interviewees were a former employee of the Embassy of Mexico and an employee of the

Embassy of Argentina: both embassies are located in Kenya. The objective of the

interviews was to gain the opinions of people who are in contact with the day to day

political reality of the country. This information has been contrasted with other

secondary data in order to clarify the aim of this research.

These interviews were based on a series of open ended questions that helped the

researcher to achieve the aim. Subsequently the interviews were transcribed by the

researcher in order contrast them with the other data collected. In addition, it helped to

elaborate the triangulation method in the next session (findings).

Finally, the primary and secondary research has been discussed with the literature

review theories (chapter 2) in order to provide sufficient knowledge for the researcher to

draw a conclusion and give recommendations at the end of this paper.

27

CHAPTER IV

4. Findings and analysis

4.1 Kenya

Kenya is one of the leading tourist destinations in sub-Saharan Africa, (International

Monetary Fund, 2010, p.58), as a consequence of this, it is ranked 8th regionally. In

addition, Kenya is ranked 28th for its natural resources, with its two World Heritage

natural sites and its rich diversity of fauna. Tourism is a recognized priority within the

country (ranked 18th on this pillar), with high government spending on the sector and

effective destination marketing (World Economic Forum, 2011).

According to Data monitor (2012, p.23) tourism in Kenya represents one of the most

important productive sectors in the economy of the country. For instance tourism is one

of the largest foreign exchange earnings in the economy of Kenya.

In consequence of this economic importance, the tourism sector has gained more

attention and participation by the government (as discussed in the literature review).

To understand the political influence of tourism in Kenya in the last 10 years, it is

necessary to understand the relationship between politics, government and tourism and

to evaluate policy and decision making, and finally, how the political instability

influenced the tourism sector in 2007-2008.

4.2 Politics, Government and tourism in Kenya in the last 10 years

of the 21st century

According to Richter (1990, cited in Aquino, 2010, p.110) the political dimensions of

tourism are viewed by governments as a capitalist device. Similarly in the opinion of

one of the interviewees, in Kenya tourism was viewed by the government as an

important contributor in the economy of the country. Nowadays, as a consequence of

this, tourism is given priority in the political agenda, (see annex 1).

Kenya in 2004 saw an increase in its GDP (4.3%) compared with 2003 when there was

only an increase of 2.8 %; therefore, tourism was one of the sectors that made a

significant contribution to the achievement of growth in the economy of 15.1%,

28

followed by; transport and communications with a 9.7 % (International Monetary Fund,

2007b, p.6).

Rase (1984 cited in Bañon and Carrillo, 1997, p.2) notes that governments are

responsible for combining resource - political, human, financial and technological-and

transforming them into policies, plans, and services to address the problems of citizens;

meet their demands and ultimately achieve some social, political and economic

objectives (as seen previously in the literature review).

For instance, the government of Kenya (1998 - 2004) implemented several strategies to

boost, improve and diversify tourism products along its coastline. As a result of this

intervention by the government of Kenya, tourism along the coast experienced a

positive impact. It contributed between 52% and 68% of the total tourist earnings in

Kenya, (Government of Kenya, 2005 cited in Government of Kenya 2009, p.44).

Governments are viewed as political bridges between nations. This helps to improve

relations and make agreements between countries in order to develop tourism and

improve economies between them (Richter, 1989).

A Similar situation occurred in Kenya between 2001 and 2005 when the second

agreement called East African Community (EAC)1 development strategy was signed.

This strategy allowed for cooperation between the members of the public and the

private sector. This served to coordinate and to develop a strategic focus on promoting

the marketing of quality tourism (East African Community, 2011).

According to interview one, in Kenya it is easy to see the influence of the political

environment in tourism and other economic sectors. It is only necessary to compare the

government of Arap Moi (1978 – 2002) and the government of Mwai Kibaki (2002-

2012).The first government was authoritarian and the majority of its policies

implemented were short-term. In addition this period was one of chaos, corruption and

continued internal protest. These reasons slowed the development of tourism as in the

government of Mwai Kibaki (see annex 1).

1 The East African Community (EAC) is the regional intergovernmental organisation of the

Republics of Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Republic of Rwanda and Republic of Burundi with its headquarters in Arusha, Tanzania

29

According to Lacey (2002) the government led by Mwai Kibaki (2002-2012) has

focused mainly on the fight against corruption; and socio-economic problems in order

to provide political stability and improve the economy of Kenya.

For instance, the Plan launched by the government of Kenya in 2003, called “Economic

Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation (2003-2007)” was one of the

most important, where tourism was seen as a productive sector by the government. This

was due to its high economic multiplier effect on other sectors such as transport,

entertainment, agriculture, trade and industry (Government of Kenya, 2003, p. 25)

According to interview Three, the government of Kenya plays an important role in

tourism through the ministry of tourism, which promotes this sector. The KTB (Kenya

Tourism Board) regulates this, via the catering and tourist development levy trustees. It

trains and educates service providers through the Kenya Uteri college and develops

tourism through the Kenya Tourism Development Corporation (see annex 3).

On the whole, governments have the power in the political systems and at the same time

governments are responsible for policy-making and establishing policy guide lines, (as

notes Jeffries (2001) in the literature review, p. 14).

4.3 Evaluating policies and decision making

4.3.1 Tourism Policies in Kenya

According to interview two, policy-making in Kenya is important because it allows an

evaluation of the reliable problems in the country. At the same time the process of

policy-making allows for room to learn of past errors in order to improve in the future.

In addition, the interviewed states that the Ministry of Tourism needs to coordinate with

other ministries in order to create policies that allow it to be seen as a competitive

tourism destination in Africa (see annex 2).

According to the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife (2006, p.9) policy-making is

necessary to coordinate tourism, wild-life and land use policies. These factors are

crucial for consistency between tourism development and wildlife conservation, at the

same time it helps to minimise the human wildlife conflict. Additionally, the Ministry of

Tourism and Wildlife (2006 p.12) notes:

30

“The overall aim of the national tourism policy is to ensure that

tourism retains its position as a leading export, and that it becomes a

major vehicle for job creation, poverty reduction and wealth creation

for Kenyans in the future. Its practices are closely harmonised with

key national policies and laws pertaining to wildlife conservation, land

ownership and physical planning”.

As a result, the researcher notes that in Kenya there is a strong political influence in

policy-making for tourism. For this reason it is necessary to evaluate the policy-making

process. To do so, the researcher used the Hall model (see literature review p.18). The

analysis in this research was done in two different periods, 2002-2007 and 2008- 2012.

4.3.2 Policy Demands (Period 2002 -2007)

Policy demands are actions that are arising from inside and outside the political system

(as was stated in the literature review - table 1).

For this reason, the researcher identifies and summarizes the policy demands for

tourism in Kenya, based on the National Plan, economic recovery strategy for wealth

and employment creation 2003 to 2007, (Government of Kenya, 2003); Impact of

tourism on the environment in Kenya, Status and Policy (Ikiara and Okech, 2002); the

second East African Community (EAC) development strategy 2001 to 2005.

Following this, the coast of Kenya is the region most popular for tourism products, as a

consequence of this; there is an imbalance of investment compared with other regions,

signifying that the majority of tourism is concentrated along the coast and islands. This

provoked environmental problems due an uncoordinated development and tourism

activity on coastlines; trail degradation and deforestation in the highlands and disruption

of the normal behaviour of wildlife (Ikiara and Okech, 2002, p.20).

Subsequently, because of the concentration of tourism in certain areas and traditional

tourism products it has been necessary to diversify the tourism sector; hence it is

necessary to create new tourism niches such as sports, cultural tourism and events

(Government of Kenya, 2003, p.42).

31

The centralization of power linked with the authoritarianism of the last regime created

an environment of political instability, projecting an image of an unsafe place (Otieno,

2008, p.7). A similar opinion is given in interview one (see annex 1).

Simultaneously, the lack of promotion and marketing in both national and international

market has been a negative factor in boosting the growth of the tourism sector,

(Government of Kenya, 2003). In addition, because of conflicts involving the

community, wildlife and tourism, it has been necessary for the government to create a

plan, which involves all of them (Government of Kenya, 2003).

The population and housing census (1999), states that the population of Kenya in the

coast has grown by 54% since 1989. It represented 8 % of the national population in

1999. Its uncontrolled and unplanned population growth, linked with lack training in

themes of tourism, especially in the conservation of fauna and wildlife has provoked a

distortion in the natural environment and disrupted local communities and wildlife

(Government of Kenya, 2009).

The construction of structures of inappropriate design and size, linked with an

uncoordinated developed planning has affected the local landscape, (Ikiara and Okech,

2002).

The researcher notes that policy demands in this period were based on the weakness of

the country. The major weaknesses related with tourism in this period were social,

environmental, educational, insecurity, lack of coordination, planning and a poor image

of the country.

4.3.3 Policy decisions

The researcher identified the policy-decisions made by the government, based on the

National Plan for the Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment

Creation 2003 to 2007 (Government of Kenya, 2003). Following this, the government

re-launched Kenya as a global tourism destination building a new image of Kenya, to

restore the image caused by political instability and terrorist attack2 whilst the last

government was in power.

2 On August 7, 1998, Kenya’s tourism sector suffered a terrorist attack against the U.S.

embassy in Nairobi, when 213 people where killed, 12 of who were U.S. citizens. (Dagne. 2002)

32

Subsequently, as tourism was focused on traditional markets, the Ministry of Planning

and National Development (2003) decided to diversify and improve tourism products,

with this it sought to boost and improve tourism and create more employees in all

regions.

The government of Kenya to satisfy the demand for security updated the Tourist Police

Unit (TPU). The TPU was upgraded and widely spread to other regions in the country.

With this action the government wanted to project Kenya as a secure environment

(Government of Kenya, 2003).

At the same time the government of Kenya decided to ensure that the standards of

tourism products were maintained through regular inspections; improving the regulation

in this sector; licensing; the regulation of Hotels or other accommodation and

proportionate refurbishment of facilities.

Local Communities were involved in the plan launched by the government in order to

satisfy the demands. At the same time the government coordinated private and public

education programmes, all of which were oriented towards developing sustainable

tourism.

4.3.4 Policy Outputs

Policy outputs are what the system does (see table 1). Following this the researcher

noted that policy-outputs proving the action of the government, agree with policy-

decisions of the past. The government during the period 2002-2007, reinforced security

in the main tourist resorts through the operation of a TPU; it strengthened airport

security and created an Anti-Terrorist Police Unit (International Monetary Fund, 2007a,

p.39)

Subsequently, the government launched a major aggressive marketing and promotional

campaigns to rebuild tourism. The programmes included participation in international,

regional travel fairs and exhibitions, in order to project a new image of Kenya

(International Monetary Fund, 2007a).

At the same time, the government of Kenya launched the Emergency Market Recovery

Programme and Marketing campaigns in the Far East (China, Japan and Thailand). This

allowed for the opening of a marketing office in Hong-Kong, in order to boost tourism.

33

In addition, the Ministry of Tourism of Kenya and China signed an agreement called

"Approved Destination Status"(International Monetary Fund, 2007a, p.39). It allowed

for an open skies policy between China and Kenya.

During the financial year 2004- 2005, the tourism sector continued to implement some

of the activities commenced in 2003-2004 and identified more activities in pursuit of the

“Investment Program for Economic Recovery Strategy (IP-ERS)” Republic of Kenya

(International Monetary Fund, 2007b, p.36).

In 2005-2006, an advanced scheme Plan for Conservation Policy and Wildlife was

under review, in order to have sufficient time to prepare a document that will help with

conservation of the environment and wildlife.

Finally, although tourism has been able to implement most of the activities identified in

the IP-ERS, some are yet to be planned for.

The researcher identified the policy-outputs based on: Kenya: Poverty Reduction

Strategy, Annual Progress Report 2003 - 2004 (International monetary Fund, 2007a)

and Kenya and Poverty Reduction Strategy Annual Progress Report 2004 - 2005

(International monetary Fund, 2007b).

4.3.5 Policy Outcomes

The researcher notes that the policy-outputs are positives and negatives for tourism,

such as:

The tourism Recovery Programme which started in 2003 had positive results, as

international arrivals rose by an average of 12.5 % annually, from about 1 million in

2002 to about 1.8 million in 2007. Domestic tourism registered a remarkable growth

from 656,100 bed nights in 2002, to 1,869,800 bed nights in 2007 (see figure 6).

34

Figure 6 - Tourism arrivals and earnings (2002 – 2007)

Tourism arrivals and earnings, 2002 -2007

YEAR

Holiday/

Business

Visitors ('000)

Visitors

on transit

('000)

Other

visitors

('000)

Total international

tourist arrivals

('000)

Bed nights by

residents of

Kenya ('000)

Earnings

(Kshs

Billion)

2002 819,0 163,3 189,9 1001,3 656,1 21,7

2003 866,1 219,0 61,0 1146,1 738,7 25,8

2004 1132,0 162,2 66,5 1360,7 1190,3 39,2

2005 1269,2 79,8 130,0 1479,0 1129,6 48,9

2006 1313,6 137,2 149,8 1600,5 1374,8 56,2

2007 1520,7 130,9 165,2 1816,8 1869,8 65,4

Source: International Monetary Fund (2010, p. 59)

According to the International Monetary Fund (2010, p.58) the sector was a leading

foreign exchange earner, generating about Kshs 65.4 billion in 2007, up from Kshs 21.7

billion in 2002. In addition, Tourism and Travel in 2006 represented 11.4 % of the total

GDP, creating 556 thousand employees (World Economic Forum, 2007, p.238)

The diversification, marketing and promotion of tourism in Kenya had positive impacts.

Local conferences increased from 805 in 2003 to 912 in 2004 and international

conference tourism increased from 126 conferences in 2003 to 145 in 2004

(International Monetary Fund, 2007b, p.36). In addition, during 2003 to 2007 there was

an increase in the number of visitors to game parks and reserves (see figure 7)

Figure 7 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2003-2007)

Source: Adapted from Kenya Open Data, (2011)

35

The relationship between China and Kenya allowed for the signing of the most

important agreement for Kenya. It involved developing the road infrastructure to help

tourism in terms of accessibility. In addition in May 2004, China designated Kenya as

“an approved tourist destination,” thereby opening new markets (Chege, 2008, p.34).

In contrast in 2004, the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) was accused of mismanagement

and failure to respect and respond to the interests of local communities in the face of

wildlife hazards (Kabiri, 2010, p.426). In addition, the growth of tourism is connected

with the establishment of protected natural areas. It has created conflicts in local

communities3 and disconformities with the government (Stavenhagen, 2006, cited in

Kabiri, 2010, p.427).

According to Obwocha (2007, p.5) the implementation of policies of the

National Plan (2003 – 2007), has been successful in the tourism sector.

4.4 Tourism policy in Kenya 2008-2012

The government in this period has been characterized by a long term-vision; it has

become the reference point for all government policy activities. The long-term vision

includes the more ambitious plan of Kenya - Vision 2030. It comprises three key pillars:

Economic, Social, and Political (Ministry of Tourism, 2008, p.1).

Vision 2030 contains various medium term “five-year” plans, the first Strategic plan

2008-2012, another five-year plan will be produced to cover the period 2012 to 2017,

and so on until 2030 (Ministry of Tourism, 2008). The researcher will be analyzing the

first period (2008-2012).

4.4.1 Policy demands

According to interview two, tourism policy in Kenya is dynamic, but it still has

potential for improvement, provided the government identifies the weakness of tourism.

At the same time, the Ministry of Tourism suggests that both local and foreign tourists

are catered for in the policy drawn up by the government, (see annex 2).

3 In Maasai Mara, the construction of a private tourist resort reportedly associated with top

government officials has involved fencing off an area traditionally belonging to the Sekenani

village, leading to the” loss of access to one of the only three sources of water for everyday

human and cattle consumption” (Stavenhagen, 2006 cited in Kabiri, 2010, p.427)

36

The policy demands are based on the weaknesses of the last period (2002 – 2007),

following which the government of Kenya identified that there was an inadequate hotel-

bed capacity. As a consequence of an increase in tourist arrivals registered, it was not

accompanied by a corresponding investment in tourist accommodation (International

Monetary Fund, 2010).

Although advances were made in security, political instability and insecurity, were

present at the end of the period 2002 to 2007, (see more in the next section - political

instability).

According to interview one, tourism is a sensitive service sector in Kenya, where the

main attractions are based on natural resources, land, water, wildlife, fauna, and air

resources, (see annex 1). It was therefore necessary to diversify, in order to continue to

develop new tourism niches. This diversification is essential to develop tourism and to

avoid the effect of seasonality (International Monetary Fund, 2010).

Following this, Thaxton (2007) states that Kenya is home to 35,000 unknown species of

flora and fauna, and only thirteen percent of Kenya’ surface is currently in protected

areas.

Finally, the government needs to create policies in order to solve the conflict between

wildlife and humans. It is a consequence of human encroachment into migration routes

and the use of protected areas such as grazing areas by pastoralists.

The researcher formulated the policy-demands based on the Strategic National Plan

2008-2012, Poverty Reduction Strategy 2010 and KWS Strategic Plan 2008-2012.

4.4.2 Policy decision

The researcher determined the policy decisions that will be based on the Strategic Plan

2008-2012, launched by the government of Kenya in 2008.

The government of Kenya recognizes that security and political stability are important

for attracting tourists. It became more aware of this after the political instability

experienced in 2007 (see more in political instability, p.52). The government thus

considered it of some importance to train TPU and KWS rangers, while at the same

time, enhancing the capacity of crisis management centres and coordinating the

management of beach activities.

37

The government of Kenya formulated a recovery strategy based on marketing and

promotion, in order to remedy the damage caused to the tourism sector by the violence

of post election. For instance, the premier parks initiative will involve branding of the

most popular parks with the aim of offering a high quality experience at premium rates.

Subsequently, due to the importance of tourism in Kenya, the government decided to

maintain internationally accepted standards of tourist service; to develop new products

and diversify source markets. At the same time, it decided to develop three Resort cities

– Isiolo, Diani and Kilifi to be constructed between 2011-2012, in order to alleviate the

hotel occupancy, (International Monetary Fund, 2010).

Finally, the government established the maintenance of wildlife and biodiversity, in

order to ensure continuity of viable ecosystems and capacity building for natural

resource management.

4.4.3 Policy Outputs

The researcher formulated the policy outputs based on the First Medium Term Plan,

2008 – 2012 (International Monetary Fund, 2010) and the First Medium Term Plan was

updated, Vision 2030 (Ministry of State for Planning and National Development, 2011).

Although the government’s term in office has is not finished, the researcher identified

and summarized what the government did in terms of tourism.

As the growth in tourist arrivals in the last few years (2005 to 2007 – see in figure 9)

has been important for the economy, the government implemented the First National

Spatial Plan of Integrated Transport Master Plan (2009-2010). It was implemented to

develop the infrastructure.

For instance, the national road safety programme is being implemented; the integrated

national transport policy was presented to Cabinet and approved.

In addition, the government of Kenya is developing of a new transport corridor to

southern Sudan and Ethiopia, fast tracking the implementation of the national road

safety action plan. It helps to boost the domestic and regional tourism; at the same time

the government looks to improve the quality of life of the people.

38

The government started the modernization of Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, at

the same time. Improvement of Kisumu International Airport, Wilson Airports and the

rehabilitation of 10 air strips across the country is in progress. In addition, concept

papers for the three resort cities at Diani/Ukunda, Kilifi and Isiolo were finalized.

In terms of security it has to improve: from 2010 to 2011 in the MTP 20,000 police staff

housing units4 were constructed.

Finally, an aggressive advertising of Kenyan products and Media Campaigns were

launched both locally and internationally. All of this was to promote Kenya as a safe

tourism destination (International Monetary Fund, 2010, p.60).

4.4.4 Policy Outcomes

The researcher notes that it is possible to do an analysis of the impact of the policies on

the government 2008 - 2011 because the government has everything planned and works

with objectives.

The formulation of the policies is based on the same secondary data mentioned in the

policy-output and it consists of:

International arrivals peaked at 1.8 million in 2007; however, the sector was severely

impacted on by the post election violence resulting in a steep decline in international

arrivals to 1.2 million in 2008. Since then, the sector has been on a steady recovery

(Ministry of State for Planning and National Development, 2011, p. 7).

Strategic intervention was made in tourism, internal security and policy covering the

entire nation, enhancing regional integration and social equity.

The number of visitors increased after the violence of 2007. The research suggests that

it was as consequence of the policies adopted by the government. For instance, the

policies implemented by the government which relate to game parks have allowed

growth in this sector of tourism (see figure 8).

4 In terms of security 1,615 units for the Kenya Police and 1,478 units for the Administration

Police were created.

39

Figure 8 – Total number of visitors to game parks and reserves (2007-2010)

Source: Adapted from Kenya open data 2012.

During the financial year 2009 to 2010 the sector continued to intensify environmental

conservation and management, to ensure a clean and secure environment for sustainable

economic growth.

This meant there was a negative impact on the population of most wildlife species. They

declined due to severe drought conditions during the period under review; forest

plantation stocks also decreased from 114.0 thousand hectares in 2008 to 107.0

thousand hectares in 2009, mainly as a result of high planting failures and fire damage.

4.5 To evaluate how influential political instability is on the tourism

industry in Kenya.

In December, 2007 Kenya was involved in political instability, as a consequence of the

dissatisfaction with the result of the elections, which meant a second term for Mwai

Kibaki, who belongs to the Party of National Unity (PNU). (Africa Report, 2008)

The opposition party Orange Democratic Movement (ODM), supported by its leader

Raila Odinga was dissatisfied with the results and made accusation of fraud in the

process of the election. As a consequence of this, violence occurred between the parties

(ODM and PNU). People on the streets were involved in protests, theft and

confrontations with the police, projecting a bad image of Kenya around the world.

(Africa Report, 2008)

“Political instability and political violence can impact on tourism, the

effects of political violence can be both direct and incidental, and may

40

have repercussions far beyond the immediate location in which the

violence occurs. By driving tourists away political instability can have

major effects on the economy and on employment” (Hall, 1994, p.60)

According to interview two the post election violence in 2007 was harmful to Kenya.

After the episodes of violence erupted in Kenya, various countries offered travel advice

to their citizens. This meant that tourists cancelled their travel bookings to Kenya. This

provoked losses in the tourism sector, especially in the hotel industry. Now that the

political situation has improved and the new policies are implemented, the government

has created confidence in international tourism and the number of tourist has increased.

Similarly, Mkhabela (2011, p.5) stated that the political violence experienced during the

elections of 2007 forced many countries to advise their citizens not to have their

vacations in Kenya. It was due to gross insecurity.

Data from the Ministry of Tourism of Kenya (2008) show that tourist arrivals

experienced a decrease of 34% compared with 2007. This was a consequence of the

violence experienced in December, 2007. (see figure 9)

Figure 9 – Tourist visitor arrivals in Kenya (2005 - 2010)

Source: Adapted from: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics data (2012)

The researcher based on data from the Ministry of tourism in Kenya (2012) suggests

that the airline companies were affected more than other types of transport. In 2008 Air-

41

transport suffered a decrease of 32 % compared with 2007, the date when political

instability occurred. (see figure 10)

Figure 10 – Tourist arrivals by mode of transport (2005 – 2010)

Source: Adapted from data of Ministry of Tourism Kenya (2012)

In 2008 repercussions from the political instability was reflected from an economic

aspect. Tourism earnings decreased by 19% in 2008 in comparison with 2007. (See in

figure 11)

Figure 11 – Tourism earnings (Ksh. in Billions; 2005 – 2010)

Source: Adapted from Ministry of Tourism (2012)

According to Interview one, political instability greatly affects tourism in Kenya. It is

widely accepted that it is the key impediment to the realization of its full potential.

42

Following the post-electoral violence in the disputed 2007 elections, tourism revenues

dropped significantly. It is widely accepted that elections have created a cyclical effect

on tourism revenues.

Similarly, the Embassy of Kenya in Germany (2011, p.1) states,

“The security and safety of tourists is a priority responsibility of the

government. Security is a key consideration while selecting a holiday

or travel destination. The Government of Kenya is thus committed to

ensuring the security and safety of all visitors, citizens and residents”

On the other hand, in order to understand the influence of politics on tourism, it is

important to give a short comparison between the Arap Moi government and the Mwai

kibaki government. The Arap Moi government was characterised by a lack of the

formulation of policies, corruption, political instability, an authoritarian government,

and the lowest growth of tourism as mentioned in the analysis before. The Mwai kibaki

government was characterized by formulation of policies in order to recover the

economy and the image of the country in order to attract more visitors (see figure 12).

Figure 12 – Number of visitor arrivals in Kenya - ‘000 - (2001-2010)

Source: East African Community Statistic Database (2012)

In conclusion in both periods (2002-2007) and (2008 -2012) of the new government

lead by Mwai Kibaki, tourism acquired more importance. It was taken into

consideration as a productive sector, in order to recover the economy of the country,

fight against socio economic problems and create a safer political environment.

43

CHAPTER V

5. Conclusion

The researcher notes that the relationship between Politics and tourism has acquired

more importance in the 21st century in Kenya; one of the main reasons was that Mwai

Kibaki made the economic importance of tourism mandatory in order to develop the

country. For instance, in 2010 tourism and travel represented 9 % of the GDP, this

represented $ 3,541million to the economy of Kenya at the same time it created 438,000

jobs (World Economic Forum, 2011, p.236).

It was then evident that politics in Kenya were interested in tourism because it is a

capitalist device (as discussed in the literature review). On the other hand, the researcher

agreeing with Hall (1994) notes that politics are important because they are about

control, at local regional and national level, the same as in Kenya. The intervention of

the government has been important, because the government is integrated with a group

of different organizations and ministries. The government combines its resources:

human, financial and physics, in order to formulate policies to satisfy demands that it

consider important to improve.

Similarly, in interview three it was said that the government of Kenya plays a role in

tourism through the Ministry of Tourism which promotes tourism through the Kenya

Tourism Board. At the same time, It is the organization responsible for regulating

tourism industry, trains and educates service providers through its institutions (see

annex 3).

According to the researcher there was clearly influences of politics in the period 2002 -

2007, although this period was characterized by an economic recovery, (as was

mentioned before). Involvement of the government is evident within tourism and it used

this sector as a medium to reduce poverty, create new jobs, to improve the quality of life

of the people and the economy of Kenya.

On the other hand, the formulation of policies in the tourism sector was made within the

National Plan (2003-2007); consequently the body responsible for achieving this goal

was the Ministry of Tourism. The national tourism policy had as a priority economic,

social, environment and wildlife, security and education factors.

44

The policy implemented by the government was effective, the impact was in the

increase of tourist arrivals (see figure 9), at the same time in the increase of earnings too

(see figure 11). Although the plans implemented by the government were successful,

they had some negative impact especially in local communities and on wildlife.

The period 2007-2008 was identified by political instability after the post election of

2007, as a result of disconformities with the results of the elections of the new

government (2008-2012).

In Kenya tourism is a market susceptible to external and internal hazards. For instance,

internationals tourists were a sensitive sector in Kenya as a consequences of the

unfortunate events experienced in 2007. The image of the country projected by the mass

media was one of insecurity and an unhealthy touristic place; it caused as a result the

cancellation of travel bookings by tourist, affecting industries related to tourism such as

airlines, companies’, tour operators and hotels.

In addition, the decline in numbers of visitors in 2008, (see figure. 12) meant an

important economic loss for the economy of Kenya. This was because this industry is

directly or indirectly linked with other sectors.

At the same time, the unfortunate events experienced in Kenya show that a poor image

was projected as a consequence of this. It is difficult to recover from this, thus

governments should be more aware in order to create a propitious environment and

avoid such types of events from occurring. The government in order to re-establish

political stability signed an agreement with the opposition. It made evident the political

influence of tourism in themes concerning stability.

On the other hand, as the National Plan of the last period was successful, in the period

2008 – 2012, the government was more ambitious and decided to implement the new

National Plan Vision 2030. In this Plan, the political aspect is viewed as a pillar to

develop Kenya and tourism was viewed as an important productive sector to boost the

economy of the country.

The Plan Vision 2030 is integrated for various five term National Plans; in this paper

the researcher has analyzed the first National Plan (2008-2012). This Plan was made by

45

the government after knowing the weakness of the last plan in order to improve and

develop this sector.

The policy-making was similar to the last period. It was focused on economic, social,

environmental, wildlife, security and political aspects. The intervention of the

government through policy making in order to reactivate the tourism in Kenya was

effective. Consequently with the implementation of this new plan and new policies,

tourism in 2009 started to recover after its decline in 2008 (see figure 12) and continued

to grow until 2010.

It is evident from all mentioned that there is great political influence in tourism, it is due

all political environments affect this sector directly or indirectly. The Kenyan

experience can be to extrapolate to other settings or countries, focusing on two essential

ingredients such as: the political will among political actors through arrangements that

safeguard this sector, and policy-making through a National Plan to short , medium and

long term. This will help improve and resolve latent weaknesses in the sector.

It is thus necessary to coordinate correct planning to execute an accurate policy in order

to solve the weakness of this sector.

CHAPTER VI

6. Recommendation

This research shows situation regarding political influence on tourism in Kenya, and

how politics and governments are immersed in the policy process. At the same time it

shows how political instability has direct and indirect effects. Politics however is a

complex and extensive study: this research served as a preliminary study to future

research.

The suggestions for future researches are:

In future studies it would be important to analyze, how the political ideologies

affect decision making in the tourism sector. It is a consideration that in Kenya

there are 42 ethnics groups, with different values and interests

46

As the tourism sector in Kenya is an important earner of foreign exchange, and it

is one of the most important sectors in the economy, it is important to conduct

an analysis focused only on the multiplier effect of this sector in the economy of

Kenya. For this the researcher recommends using the model of Input- Output.

Analyze the effect of international tourism on local communities. It is important

to answer questions such as what is the impact of the policies on local

communities and who benefits from the tourism sector.

It would be interesting to analyze the influence of the mass media on

international tourists in the principal markets of Kenya, especially in periods of

political instability.

47

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55

Annexes

Annex 1

This interview was in connection with research carried out by a student at

Universidad Europea de Madrid

The interview was based on a list of questions not predetermined. The time

implemented in this interview was between ten to thirty minutes. It helps to

understand the political factors that have had an influence on the government in

Kenya, in the last 10 years.

Name: James Kamau Bernard Githure Date: January 4, 2012

Public sector/Government: Kenya Embassy Spain- Madrid

1. Do you think that politics have an influence on tourism in Kenya? If so why?

In Kenya it is evident to see the influence of the political environment in tourism and

other economic sectors. It is only necessary to compare the government of Arap Moi

(1978 – 2002) and the government of Mwai Kibaki (2002.2012).The first government

was authoritarian and the majorities of policies implemented were for short-term, in

addition this period was of chaos, corruption and continued internal protest. These

reasons slowed the development of tourism as in the government of Mwai Kibaki.

2. What do you think about tourism in Kenya?

Tourism is a sensitive service sector in Kenya, where the main attractions are based in

natural resources, land, water, wildlife, fauna, and air resources. Maintaining a

sustainable environment focused on conservation thus helps to maintain the resources

for the future, but to do so it is necessary to coordinate the national policies on land-use,

wildlife and tourism.

3. Why is the tourism sector important to the government of Kenya?

Tourism in Kenya is viewed by the government as an important contributor in the

economy of the country nowadays, as consequence of this; tourism has more priority in

the political agenda

56

4. What is the political influence in the policy process in Kenya?

Tourism sector in Kenya are mainly influenced by the political environment, at the same

time mentioned that in Kenya in the actual government (2008 – 2012) there are 40

ministries and to design and to implement any policy coordination is necessary between

some of them

5. What do you think about the effect of political instability in tourism in Kenya?

The political instability greatly affects tourism in Kenya. It is widely accepted that it is

the key impediment to the realization of its full potential. Following the post-electoral

violence in the disputed 2007 elections, tourism revenues dropped significantly. It is

widely accepted that elections have created a cyclical effect on tourism revenues.

Signature

James Kamau Bernard Githure

Commercial and Technical Services

Embassy of Kenya (Spain-Madrid)

jkamau@kenyaembassyspain.es

Date: March, 30 -2012

57

Annex 2

This interview was in connection with research carried out by a student at

Universidad Europea de Madrid.

The interview was based on a list of questions not predetermined. The time

implemented in this interview was between ten to thirty minutes. It helps to

understand the political factors that have had an influence on the government in

Kenya, in the last 10 years

Name: Eric Njoroge Mwema Date: March 6, 2012

International Organization: Embassy of Argentina, (Kenya – Nairobi)

1. What do you think about the tourism policy in Kenya?

Tourism policy in Kenya is dynamic, but it still has potential for improvement, provided

the government identify the weakness of tourism. At the same time the interviewee

suggests that both local and foreign tourists are catered for in the policy-making by

government.

2. Why it is important the policy making?

The policy-making in Kenya is important because it allows an evaluation of the reliable

problems in the country. At the same time the process of policy-making allows for room

to learn of past errors in order to improve in the future. In addition the interview two

said that the ministry of tourism needs to coordinate with other ministries in order to

create policies that allow being a competitive tourism destiny in Africa

3. How do you think political Instability affects tourism in Kenya?

The political instability lived in Kenya in the last 10 years has been the post election

violence in 2007, it was harmful to Kenya. After the episodes of violence erupted in

Kenya, various countries offered travel advice to their citizens. This meant that tourists

cancelled their travel bookings to Kenya. This provoked losses in the tourism sector,

especially the hotel industry. Now that the political situation has improved and the new

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policies are implemented, the government has created confidence in international

tourists and the number of tourists has increased.

4. What is the role of politics in tourism in Kenya for the next years “long-term

and short-term”?

In the short term, being an election year, everyone will be watching if there is any cause

of alarm. If tourists are not guaranteed their safety they will avoid visiting Kenya. In the

long term the government has to ensure that its policies are in such a manner that the

tourism sector is protected from negative effects

Signature.

Eric Njoroge Mwema.

Embassy of Argentina, (Kenya – Nairobi)

E-mail: mail@embargentinakenya.org

Date: March, 30 -2012

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Annex 3

This interview was in connection with research carried out by a student at

Universidad Europea de Madrid.

The interview was based on a list of questions not predetermined. The time

implemented in this interview was between ten to thirty minutes. It helps to

understand the political factors that have had an influence on the government in

Kenya, in the last 10 years

Name: Duncan Oyaro Nyanamba Date: February 28, 2012

1. What do you think is the role of the government in Kenya?

The government of Kenya plays an important role in tourism through the ministry of

tourism which promotes this sector. The KTB Kenya tourism board regulates this, via

the catering and tourist development levy trustees. It trains and educates service

providers through the Kenya uteri college and develops tourism through the Kenya

tourism development corporation.

2. What do you think is the reason that politics has become aware of tourism?

It is because of its economic importance, tourism certainly has a multiplier effect in the

economy of Kenya. Tourism dominates Kenya’s services sector which contributes

64.9% of the country’s GDP and it is also the principal foreign exchange earner making

it a key in any development agenda for all political parties. It plays an important role in

Kenya’s development map (vision 2030).

3. What do you think is the role of the government in tourism in Kenya?

The government of Kenya plays a role in tourism through the Ministry of Tourism

which promotes tourism through the Kenya Tourism Board. At the same time, it is the

organization responsible for regulating tourism industry, trains and educates service

providers through its institutions.

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4. What is the role of politics in tourism in Kenya for the next years “long-term

and short-term”?

The interviewed believe that the principal role of the political class in the coming years

would be the implementation of policies that would promote tourism in Kenya, the

construction of infrastructure that will make Kenya’s wildlife resources more accessible

to tourists as well as ensuring political stability to eliminate the cyclical effect it has on

tourism.

Signature

Duncan Oyaro Nyanamba

Former employee - Embassy of Mexico.

(Kenya - Nairobi)

doyaro@gmail.com

Date: March, 30 -2012