The Political Costs of Unequal Education · 2019. 5. 30. · Jane Junn, The Political Costs of...
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The Political Costs of Unequal Education
Jane Junn
Department of Political Science &
Eagleton Institute of Politics Rutgers University
Paper prepared for the symposium on The Social Costs of Inadequate Education
Teachers College, Columbia University October 24-25, 2005
DRAFT – Do not cite without permission [email protected]
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Executive Summary
The Political Costs of Unequal Education Jane Junn
• Education is a cornerstone of U.S. democracy, a notion supported by political philosophers and contemporary politicians from both sides of the political spectrum.
• Education makes democracy possible because it aids in the cognitive, ideological, and
strategic development of democratic citizens, allowing voters to acquire political information, deliberate about issues, voice perspectives, and engage in politics.
• The importance of education to democratic citizenship is neither solely a normative
dream nor a tool of political rhetoric. There is a long and well-documented empirical relationship between level of educational attainment and citizen political engagement.
• Americans with more education are more likely to be wealthy, and less likely to be
African American or Latino. Consequently, political activity in American democracy is characterized by divisions in class and race.
• Despite the egalitarian potential of education, the racial and class stratification in
democractic participation in the United States is the result of inequities in education.
• Education thus plays a dual role in driving democratic citizenship, at once enabling individuals to be active and engaged citizens, while simultaneously replicating structural hierarchies that reinforce inequality.
• Recognizing both the equality-enhancing and inequality-producing roles of formal
education is a reminder to carefully scrutinize educational policies designed to attenuate inequality.
• Policy change must therefore be directed in a broad context, focusing attention on both
education and the political system. American democratic institutions and practices must work together with education to enhance equality.
• The vigor and legitimacy of democracy in the United States depend on adequate and
equal education for all children in America.
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1 Unequal education and the cost to democracy Even during times of war and economic recession, American voters consistently rank
education among the most important political issues facing the nation. While education has in
recent years slipped in prominence behind contemporary concerns such as terrorism and health
care, it remains high on the agenda because voters recognize the critical role education plays
both in individual social mobility, and in maintaining the overall health of the nation. It is
therefore a near-universal phenomenon for politicians to emphasize their support of education,
citing the good more education will bring to families, communities, the economy, and
democracy. The nature of education policy, however, differs dramatically among politicians
arrayed along the ideological spectrum, though it is difficult to imagine a successful candidate
for national political office running on a platform advocating less education. More is always
considered better. Yet the critical questions are how much more, what kind of education, and for
whom?
These questions are not easily resolved, and despite billions of dollars and decades of
policy intervention, children in the United States today remain separated by vast disparities in
educational quality and attainment. These inequalities have enormous social and economic
implications, opening opportunities for the well endowed, and foreclosing life chances for
students who fall behind. No more evident is the manifest significance of education than in the
political sphere, where it is those with higher levels of education who participate in the civic and
political life of the nation. In the 2004 election, for example, college graduates were nearly three
times as likely to vote as Americans without a high school degree, replicating a longstanding
pattern of political participation directly proportional to educational attainment. In this regard,
E.E. Schattschneider’s observation that the voice of the people is a “chorus with an upper-crust
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accent,” remains as accurate today as it was nearly fifty years ago.1 Education policy is not only
driven by partisan political forces, but education – its quality, distribution, and content – has
enormous consequences for the conduct of politics and the legitimacy of democracy in America.
It is in this vein that I expand our discussion of the social costs of inadequate education to
include the political costs of unequal education.
I argue that the vigor and legitimacy of democracy in the United States are threatened in
the absence of equal education. Simply put, democracy loses when its citizens lack adequate
cognitive, economic and psychological resources and motivation for meaningful political
participation. Inequities in education have the result of creating systematic political disadvantage
for citizens who receive less schooling and education of poor quality. Likewise, when political
engagement is stratified by class and race, the resulting “voice of the people” is composed
disproportionately of the most advantaged citizens in American society, further straining the
legitimacy of U.S. democracy as a polity representing all of its people. The greater social and
economic advantage bestowed upon individuals through superior educational attainment
translates into unequal political voice that serves to compound discrepancies between Americans
separated by race and class. In what follows, I present data documenting the relationship between
educational attainment and citizen political participation, highlighting in particular the disparities
between Americans separated by race and class.
2 Education and the voice of the people
If there is a consistent refrain in the vast literature concerning education in America, it is
that it is good – good for democracy, for employment, for social mobility, for building strong
communities, and for democratic values. Indeed, education is most often viewed as a necessary 1 Schattschneider, The Semi-Sovereign People: A Realist’s View of Democracy in America, 1960.
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resource for the development of democratic citizens, providing the building materials of
knowledge about American government, political literacy, critical thinking ability, and positive
affect for politics. That is a high bar indeed, but even the least ambitious among us would find
merit in the argument that education should provide, among other things, the basic cognitive
skills to participate in politics. Education, and more of it, has clear value for increasing the
likelihood that citizens will make their voices heard. For all forms of political participation for
which political scientists have standard measures, and since systematic data on the subject have
been collected, level of educational attainment and political behavior are positively and closely
linked. One scholar has given formal education the moniker of the “universal solvent” to
describe the strength and the consistency with which education predicts voting, campaign
activity, contributing money, writing letters, protesting, and engaging with other citizens.2 Table
1 presents data on voting in the 2000 and 2004 U.S. election by educational attainment. The data
clearly show a strong relationship between education and the proportion of citizens who reported
voting.3
2 Philip E. Converse, “Change in the American Electorate,” in The Human Meaning of Social Change, eds., Angus Campbell and Philip E. Converse (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972). 3 Estimating voter turnout is an area of some controversy, and the data reported in Table 1 represent self-reported turnout among respondents interviewed by the U.S. Census Bureau in the Current Population Survey in 2000 and 2004. Official government estimates of voter turnout, calculated by tallying vote records from states, are typically 5% or more lower than the self-reports from surveys. People often mis-report and over-report their voting behavior in an interview setting. An additional controversy within voting studies is the use of the “voting age population,” versus the “voting eligible population” as the denominator for turnout statistics. The U.S. Electoral Assistance Commission, the official government organization charged with distributing information about voting in the United States, continues to utilize the former, which includes disenfranchised convicted felons and non-citizens, for example. In the last 10 years, the U.S. Census Bureau has estimated reported voter turnout with the CPS data for both the total population and among citizens only.
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Table 1. Voting in 2000 & 2004 by Educational attainment % Citizen
population reported
voting, 2000
% Citizen population reported
voting, 2004
Proportion of population,
2004
Less than 9th grade
39 39 6
9th to 12th grade, no diploma
38 40 10
High school graduate or GED
53 56 32
Some college or Associate’s degree
63 69 27
Bachelor’s degree
75 78 17
Advanced degree
81 84 9
Total
60
64
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, November 2000 & November 2004
Less than half of Americans (39%) without a high school degree voted in the elections of
2000 and 2004. In contrast, just over half of high school graduates, nearly two-thirds of
Americans with some formal education beyond high school, and more than three-quarters of
those with a college degree or higher, report having voted in the Presidential elections. While not
shown here, the data for previous election years shows a remarkably consistent pattern of a
strong, positive and mostly linear relationship between educational attainment and voting.
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Table 2: Voting in 2004 by Racial Group % Citizen
population reported
voting, 2004
% Total population reported
voting, 2004
White
67 66
Black
60 56
Hispanic/Latino
47 28
Asian
44 30
Total
64
58
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, November 2004 In national elections, at least, the voice of the people is disproportionately one that is well
educated. Table 2 documents voting participation in the 2004 election by race, and shows a
similar pattern of stratification, but along different dimensions. Figures are given for both the
proportion of the citizen population that reported voting, as well as the percent of the total
population of whites, blacks, Latinos, and Asians who said they voted in 2004. I present the data
in this way in order to highlight important differences in political activity between the citizen and
total Latino and Asian populations. Currently, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that 40% of
Latinos in the U.S. are immigrants, while 66% of Asian Americans are foreign-born. The rate at
which Asians naturalize to U.S. citizenship, however, is significantly higher than among Latino
immigrants. Table 2 shows that even holding constant U.S. citizenship, Asians and Latinos are
far less likely than their white and African American fellow citizens to vote. Two-thirds of
whites said they voted in 2004, while 60% of blacks voted. Less than half of Latino citizens, and
only 44% of Asian American citizens voted in 2004. The data show a clear pattern of louder
voice at the voting booth among white Americans as compared with minority citizens.
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While voting is certainly an important indicator of citizenship, it is but one activity of
many that Americans can take part in to express their political voice. Table 3 presents data on
political participation by racial groups across a wide range of political activities. These data
come from a survey of the U.S. population conducted in October 2004, just before the
Presidential election. The main purpose of this study was to gather data on the identities and
political activities of members of various racial groups, with a special emphasis on the young
adult population. The method and scope of the resulting data collection differs in important ways
from the U.S. Census Bureau Current Population Survey, and as a result, the properties of the
Latino and Asian American respondents are distinctive. In particular, the sample is younger, and
the Latino and Asian American populations are significantly more likely to be born in the U.S. or
to be naturalized citizens. I present these data not as a comparative frame to the earlier Census
data on voting shown in Table 2, but to facilitate comparisons across the four racial groups
surveyed in this study across a range of political activities. Acts of political participation beyond
voting were asked of all respondents, including electoral activity such as persuading others how
to vote, attending campaign meetings or rallies, working for a candidate, and contributing money
to a campaign. The first half of the table documents the proportion of respondents in each of the
four racial groups who reporting participating in electoral activities. The data clearly show that
white Americans are the most active, followed closely by Asian Americans. Only in voting do
blacks Americans outpace Asian Americans, and for all other electoral activities, African
American and Latino voices are heard with lower frequency than the other two groups.
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Table 3. Political Participation by Racial Group, 2004 % White % Black % Latino % Asian
American Electoral activities Voted in 2000 Presidential election
68 65 51 61
Persuade others how to vote
22 18 22 22
Attend campaign meeting or rally
9 4 7 7
Work for candidate
5 3 4 3
Contribute to a campaign
14 5 8 12
Average number of electoral activities
1.16 .95 .92 1.05
Other types of participation Contact government official
16 9 9 14
Sign petition
24 17 20 23
Protest
4 4 4 5
Boycott
11 6 11 11
Average number of other activities
.55 .36 .44 .53
N 421 416 416 354 Source: 2004 Ethnic Politics Pre-election Study, Junn 2005 Questions about activities beyond electoral politics were also asked in this study.
Americans reported whether they had contacted a government official, signed a petition,
protested, or engaged in a boycott. The results are shown in the second half of the table, and the
same pattern of white and Asian American advantage pertain here as well. Contrary to the
conventional expectation that resource-poor citizens would engage more frequently in the street
politics of the “weapons of the weak” – including protesting and boycotting – there was little
difference between any of the groups on the former, and African American are less likely to
boycott to express their political voice. Here again, the voices of those with more modest
economic resources are overshadowed by the political participation of the resource-rich.
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While there are some surprises in these data, particularly the findings regarding the Asian
American population in the 2004 Ethnic Politics Study, the data provide strong evidence for the
finding that educational inequality drives disparities in citizen political engagement. Indeed, and
as scholars in this symposium document more fully, there are substantial differences between
Americans classified by race in terms of educational attainment. To highlight the divergence, I
include data from a 2003 U.S. Census Current Population Survey on educational attainment by
race in Table 4. The table shows vast differences in education between whites and Asians on the
one hand, and African Americans and Latinos on the other. Indeed, the inequality in educational
resources is staggering, particularly in comparing Latinos and Asians, the latter of which is both
most highly educated and more heavily immigrant population than the other three groups. Fully
half of Asian Americans are college-educated, and only 13% do not have a high school degree.
Conversely, 41% of Latinos did not finish high school, and 25% have less than a 9th grade
education. Only 12% of the Latino population in the U.S. has a college degree. African
Americans are also heavily disadvantaged in terms of college degrees, and 17% of blacks are
college-educated, compared with 32% of whites. Double the proportion of African Americans
(19%) than whites (10%) have less than a high school education.
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Table 4: Educational Attainment by Race (population 25 years and over), 2003 % White % Black
% Latino
% Asian
Less than 9th grade
3 5 25 8
9th to 12th grade, no diploma
7 14 16 5
High school graduate or GED
33 36 28 20
Some college or Associate degree
27 27 19 18
Bachelor’s degree
20 12 9 30
Advanced degree
11 5 3 20
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2003
The data on educational attainment by race speaks volumes about why the patterns of
political engagement are as clear as they are. African Americans and Latinos are less likely to
express their political voice through participation in part because they possess significantly fewer
of the educational resources that facilitate political activity. But education is not the only
resource influencing participation, and income also plays a significant role. Table 5 details data
from the 1990 Citizen Participation Study by Sidney Verba, Kay Schlozman, and Henry Brady.4
The table compares the proportion of people with low annual income (less than $15,000) and
high income ($75,000 or more) who participate in a variety of political activities. Across the
board, the wealthy clobber the poor in expressing their political voice; the order of magnitude in
the difference across the two poles is substantial.
4 Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
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Table 5: Political Participation by Income (%) Income less
than $ 15,000Income $ 75,000 or
more
Voting
52 86
Campaign work
4 17
Campaign contributions
6 56
Contact government official
25 50
Protest
3 7
Informal community activity
13 38
Board membership
1 6
Affiliated with political organization
29 73
N (weighted) 483 224 Source: 1990 Citizen Participation Study, Verba Schlozman and Brady 1995 Education is again implicated in this important resource for political participation,
because income and earnings are so strongly tied to formal educational attainment. Table 6
presents U.S. Census Current Population Survey data from 2003 on average earnings by
educational attainment for the four racial groups. The bottom row in the table reiterates the story
of higher education contributing to stronger earnings for whites and Asian Americans. There is
more to the story than this overall conclusion, however, as the remaining cells in the table attest.
While Asian Americans have much higher levels of education overall than whites, their average
earnings, while larger, are not as big as one would predict in a population where half the
population has a college degree. Indeed, the only reason why the total income for Asians is larger
than whites is because there are so many more Asian Americans with high levels of education,
but who earn less than their white counterparts at every level of education. For example, whites
with a Bachelor’s degree earn just over $53,185, while the average earnings for Asian Americans
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in the same educational category is $46,628. This pattern is repeated with even greater
magnitude for African Americans and Latinos. Again, at every level of educational attainment,
blacks fare the worst in terms of earnings, with average wages of $42,285 for those with a
Bachelor’s degree, twenty-five percent less than their white counterparts. Similarly
disadvantaged in terms of returns to educational attainment are Latinos, who also systematically
earn less than their white counterparts at every level of education.
Table 6: Educational Attainment and Average Earnings by Race, 2003 White Black
Latino
Asian
Not a high school graduate
$ 19,423 $ 16,516 $ 18,981 $ 16,746
High school graduate
$ 28,756 $ 22,823 $ 24,163 $ 24,900
Some college or Associate’s degree
$ 32,318 $ 27,626 $ 27,757 $ 27,340
Bachelor’s degree
$ 53,185 $ 42,285 $ 40,949 $ 46,628
Advanced degree
$ 74,122 $ 59,944 $ 67,679 $ 72,852
Total
$ 39,220 $ 28,179 $ 25,824 $ 40,793
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplement, 2003
Taken together, these data demonstrate a clear pattern of advantage in economy and
politics for those who achieve higher educational attainment. But that is not the entire story.
Even these simple tables reflect the searing reality of political and economic inequality at the
same levels of education for people of different racial groups. Education is most often viewed as
a resource that, when fairly distributed, can provide equal opportunities for individuals in society
to succeed. It is easy to drawn into the claim that more education is better, not only for its
normative appeal, but also because of the sheer quantity of evidence that supports the notion that
education contributes in a positive sense to many important individual-level outcomes. However
it is clear that education buys neither the same amount of political voice, nor an equal sum of
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dollars in exchange for labor in the United States for minority Americans as it does for whites.
Something is clearly amiss with the notion that education is an equal-opportunity promoter
wealth and political advantage, and the data lay the groundwork for a story of the dual role of
education in American democracy.
3 The dual role of education
There is a longstanding belief in the critical role of education in the maintenance of a
healthy democracy. Political philosophers as diverse as Aristotle, John Locke, John Stuart Mill,
Thomas Jefferson, Horace Mann and Martin Luther King identify the enduring role of education
in the development of democratic citizens. Of particular significance is the role education plays
in inculcating a set of values supporting democratic principles and practice, training people to
prioritize norms of liberty and equality. In its first function, then, education is a socializing
mechanism, imparting values and teaching citizens how we ought to behave and what we need to
know about politics, tolerance and democratic principles of equality and fairness. At the same
time, education serves as a powerful sorting mechanism, conferring skills and signaling a higher
placement in the economic and social hierarchy for individuals based on educational attainment.
Indeed, generations of labor economists and sociologists have documented this second role of
education as one of the most powerful agents of stratification in post-industrial society. In this
regard, the same data that validate the critical importance of education to social, political and
economic outcomes and inform the position that more education is better, also identify education
as the main mechanism perpetuating hierarchy and inequality.
A simple counterclaim to this somewhat gloomy conclusion would be that despite its
equality-attenuating role, more education should still be better for politics and democracy
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because it should engender more political participation, and consequently, more political voice.
If education is so strongly, positively, and consistently correlated with citizen engagement,
shouldn’t more education predict higher rates of political participation in the aggregate? It does
not. Educational attainment has never been higher for Americans, yet the rate of voting – the
most basic and widely-documented act of citizen participation – has remained constant over the
exact time period in which the proportion of Americans with a high school degree has nearly
doubled, and the college-educated population tripled. Table 7 presents trends in voter turnout and
educational attainment between 1964 and 2000. Scholars who view this set of relationships as a
puzzle make the mistake of extrapolating longitudinally from the cross-sectional evidence that
higher education predicts more participation. It is not only empirically incorrect to predict there
is more citizen participation over time as a result of more education, it also theoretically wrong
to expect the relationship to pertain.
Table 7: Trends in voter turnout* and educational attainment,** 1964-2004 Year National
voter turnout (VAP) %
High school graduate
%
College graduate
%
1964 62 48 9 1968 61 53 11 1972 55 58 12 1976 54 64 15 1980 53 69 17 1984 53 73 19 1988 50 76 20 1992 55 79 21 1996 49 82 24 2000 55 84 26 2004 NA 85 27 Source: Electoral Assistance Commission (EAC); U.S. Census Bureau * The EAC calculates national voter turnout as a function of the voting age population (VAP), including all residents 18 years and older in the U.S. regardless of disenfranchisement (e.g., felony conviction) or citizenship. Official estimates of voter turnout in 2004 are not yet available. ** Percentages calculated for the population 25 years and older.
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Instead, uncovering the answer lies in the recognition of the importance of the relative
distribution of education among politically relevant groups. More education for all – increasing
the adequacy of education – implies a framework for returns to education in real terms, serving
to “raise the floor” in terms of educational resources. This is clearly important, but it is an
insufficient solution to the necessary imperative to “level the playing field” among democratic
citizens separated by disparities in social and economic resources, chief among them, their
degree of educational attainment. As the engine driving labor market participation, occupational
certification, and income earnings, education is a prime mechanism behind economic
stratification. To the extent that political influence follows financial resources, in politics as in
economy, the rich get richer. Politicians disproportionately hear messages and feel political
pressure from those with greater economic, and therefore, political resources. If there were no
differences in terms of policy preferences and political attitudes between groups of people
categorized by financial resources and education, the phenomenon of preferences voiced
disproportionately from well-heeled citizens might be more benign. But this is not the case; not
only do educationally- and economically-disadvantaged voters participate in politics at a far
lower rate than middle-class and wealthy citizens, they have distinctive political preferences.
Raising the floor by providing more adequate education for this group of Americans certainly
aids their ability to advocate for their positions, but they remain at a relative disadvantage to
those already ahead of them in the educational and political game. Education is thus a force that
is both positive-sum and zero-sum, imparting skills to those who take part, but also acting as a
powerful sorting device, by placing some at the top of the hierarchy and leaving others at the
bottom. In this regard, and as a mechanism of social stratification, education can be conceived as
exactly the opposite of an equalizing force. Education can at once be both a purveyor of
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individual-level resources while at the macro-societal level, act to reproduce and legitimate
structural inequalities that drive disparities and nurture inequality.
These inconsistencies in expectation and outcome provide another way to look at
education as an individual-level resource. While formal education may indeed encourage the
development of cognitive ability and individual resources, it may also be the case that these skills
are far less relevant to securing one’s place in the social hierarchy of American life. Instead, the
important of education to stratification may be the role it plays as a powerful socialization
device, teaching students who are successful and who progress through educational institutions
to also become initiated into the hierarchical norms of commerce, politics, and social life.5 In
short, education may be a particularly effective means of reproducing cultural, political, and
economic practices. As one of the primary mechanisms behind social stratification, education
can also be conceived as exactly the opposite from an equalizing force. Instead, at the macro-
societal level, education may reproduce and legitimate structural inequalities that in turn drive
vast disparities in wealth, and nurture the persistence of the dominance of the in-group to the
systematic disadvantage of out-groups.6 How can education be understood simultaneously as
both an equalizing force and a stratification mechanism? Education both enables and restricts; it
is a location for the development of both individual agency and structural constraint.
The value of the resources conveyed upon individuals by educational attainment must be
considered in relation to what level of resources are held by others in the society. The value of
education to social outcomes like income earnings and political participation must be assessed in
5 See, for example, Pierre Bourdieu 1987, Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture, 2nd ed., (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1990). 6 This “revisionist” perspective identifies education as critical to the maintenance of capitalism. See Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (New York: Basic Books, 1976). But also see Paul Willis, Learning to Labor: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977) for his analysis of the Hammertown lads subjectively reproduce labor power through resistance to and rebellion from middle-class educational imperatives.
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relative terms to how much everyone else has. More education in the aggregate does not
necessarily improve conditions at either the macro-societal level or the individual level. Instead,
more education simply shifts the baseline upward. If the pace of gains by disadvantaged groups
does not keep up with the growth in education by advantaged groups, the former fall further
behind even as they are making progress in level of educational attainment in an absolute sense.
Far from a simple theoretical exercise, this situation reflects the current reality of more rapid
gains in education by the advantaged over African-Americans and Latinos, who continue to
operate at a distinct educational disadvantage. The gap in educational attainment between whites
and Asians on the one hand, and African-Americans and Latinos on the other, has narrowed, but
not disappeared. These conclusions about the collective outcomes of education are sobering for
minorities and the poor, who have more to lose from the educational progress of advantaged
groups.
Disadvantaged groups stay that way not only by virtue of their relatively low placement
in the educational hierarchy, but also because the legitimacy of this unequal structure is
propagated in part by American educational institutions themselves. Rather than sitting outside
of the political, economic, and social structures that reinforce inequality and domination,
education is a part of it. Education plays two important roles in the maintenance of an ideology
of meritocracy in the United States. In its sorting function, formal education confers certification,
degrees and other scarce outcomes that places those with what are defined as the best credentials
at the top of the hierarchy, and those with lesser near the bottom. In its role as a powerful
socializer, education teaches the ideology of meritocracy, by grading on normal curves and
assuring those who finish on the right tail that they will succeed because they deserve to. The
second role is critical, for it is necessary to have some mechanism which reliably reproduces the
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ideology that maintains the positions of power for those at the top who benefit from the system
as it already exists.7 When outcomes are positional or scarce – when not everyone can be rich,
and not everyone can be granted admission into a top school – the liberal democratic ideology
must have an answer to its production of unequal outcomes. Merit can be used as a justification
for inequality of outcomes in a system where the rules are supposed to be fair.
This discussion of the dual role of education as both a location for the development of
individual agency as well as and structural constraints is intended as a gentle if unpleasant
reminder that policies that seek to redress the consequences of political inequality cannot assume
that providing more resources for competition in an unequal system will eliminate the inequality.
To the extent that education contributes to the maintenance of social stratification, sorting those
with high attainment and credentials to the top and those with less toward the bottom, while at
the same time reproducing an ideology of meritocracy, we cannot expect that mechanism in its
same form to also dismantle the hierarchy.
4 Education for citizenship
The magnitude of the loss for democracy from inadequate and unequal education is not
easily measurable. For it is difficult to quantify the cost to the American democratic polity for
the loss of citizen political participation and social engagement, and it is tricky to enumerate the
lost political capital that stems from the absence of a sense of belonging and empowerment in the
community. Nor is it clear whether strengthening democracy through expanded citizen
participation is a goal shared by all. Skeptical observers point to the strategic calculations
manifest among political players with precisely the opposite imperative – to keep people out of
7 Charles Tilly, in Durable Inequality (University of California Press 1999) describes these processes of “emulation” and “adaptation.”
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the political sphere. The power elite, including political incumbents occupying “safe” legislative
seats, are most comfortable when constituents are predictable voters or abstainers; adding
newcomers to the mix only introduces uncertainty to elections. The extremely high degree of
incumbent success in the United States Congress – less than 10% of seats in the House of
Representatives are expected to be competitive elections in 2006 – provides strong testimony to
the creativity of those in power to control the political system. In this regard, foes of expanding
the electorate and increasing citizen participation come in all partisan stripes. In addition, a long
tradition of political thought deeply embedded in the American political experience has defined
politics as the province of the elite. This is perhaps best exemplified in founding elements of
American democratic institutions including the Electoral College and a bicameral federal
legislature designed to insulate the Senate from the popular will. While many of the vestiges of
this 18th Century elitism are no longer clearly visible (U.S. Senators are now elected directly
elected by voters from the states), the legacies of elitist democratic theory remain evident today.
Taking their cue from enlightenment philosophers, modern political theorists in the elitist
tradition continue to make a strong normative case for encouraging political participation only
among educated and informed citizens who are least susceptible to political manipulation and
demagoguery.
From quite the opposite pole emanates a different critique of the normative position that
more participation is good for democracy. More political activity has been advocated as a
procedural and substantive solution for distributional inequities in social and political goods.
Increasing political activity among those traditionally disadvantaged and politically
underrepresented can help create public policies that take their interests into account as well as
empower those previously disenfranchised to take political stands in order to develop and
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forward their interests. Because minorities tend to participate in politics at comparatively lower
rates, people in these groups have become the target for calls for political activity through
naturalization and voter registration drives. Such well-intentioned campaigns seek greater
equality in political outcomes by making the electorate more descriptively representative of the
population at large. The inference is that policies beneficial to those previously disenfranchised
are most likely to be adopted when the face of the electorate mirrors the face of the polity.
Conversely, undesirable political outcomes are reasoned to be the result of the lack of political
activity among those whose interests are at stake. Under circumstances of relatively modest rates
of political activity among minorities, what falls under scrutiny for change are the individuals
who supposedly influence the institutions and process of democratic government, rather than the
institutions and practices themselves. In this regard, the analytic emphasis on the individual-level
subject has trained the focus for change on the non-participant citizen while at the expense of a
critical examination of the structure and institutions of democracy in which agency is acted out.
But if we relax the assumption that the political process – the democratic culture,
practice, and institutions of democracy – provides equality of agency for all regardless of race or
some other politically-relevant category, then the comparatively low rates of participatory
activity among minority Americans can be interpreted in another way, as an indicator of the
structural inequalities present. The analytic strategy of holding the assumption to greater scrutiny
does not necessarily imply a structurally functionalist argument. Rather, it asks us to consider the
location of the significance of race for political participation on the dichotomy between structure
and agency that make up the ends of the continuum from the debilitating determinism of a
system continually reenacting domination, to the unwarranted optimism of unencumbered
agency.
Jane Junn, The Political Costs of Unequal Education, p. 20
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In developing strategies to enhance democracy by improving the adequacy and equality
of education, we first need to ask “what good is more education for democracy?” rather than take
it for granted. To fruitfully address the problems of democracy, we must train the focus of our
policy recommendations not only on the education community at large, but on the structures and
institutions of government itself. We must ask whether citizens are being presented with
adequate resources to act, and question how we might re-envision the incentives for political
engagement to be more inclusive of all citizens. John Dewey observed that one of the most
important roles of education is to promote the social continuity of life. If one of these
continuities in a democracy is based on principles of liberty and equality, and in that regard
innovation, it should be the case that we should continually strive to improve our democratic
system of institutions and structures. Ultimately, more education and more democracy do hold
promise for a better America. But it must be a democracy that is enacted in a way that provides
equal access and opportunities to participate. Education can make democracy possible, but it
must also be the case that democracy enables education to find its transformative potential.
Jane Junn, The Political Costs of Unequal Education, p. 21