The Phases of Speech
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Transcript of The Phases of Speech
• THE PHASES OF SPEECH By Catford
Dr.SundarabaluDept.of LinguisticsBharathiar [email protected]
This is how people communicate: This is how neurons communicate:
Transmitter Receptor Neurotransmitter Neuroreceptor
THE PHASES OF SPEECH • When someone speaks to someone, the sequence of events is, In response to the need to communicate about some event the speaker conceptualizes the event in a particular way and then encodes that conceptualization in a form placed down by the grammar of his language.
• The linguistically encoded utterance is
externalized and apprehended by the hearer
through the agency of a series of events that we
term the phases of speech. Hearing is two –
• internal and external
• These phases start in the speaker, and culminate (To reach
the highest point or degree; climax) in the hearer decoding the utterance and
arriving at a conceptualization which, assuming he
is familiar with the speaker’s language, closely
matches the speaker’s conceptualization, which was
the start of the process. (Zapraszamy,)
• The processes of conceptualization and coding/decoding are outside the domain of phonetics.
• The purely phonetic part of the speech process begins, we assume, with the implementation of a short term neural programme in the central nervous system, which is produced by the lexico-grammatical structure of the utterance and determines the nature and the sequencing of everything that follows. We may call this the neurolinguistic programming phase of the utterance.
• Programming- already fixed /or written in gene-DNA
Alternative approach and methods-9
1. Nero-linguistics Programming
The period from the 1970s through the 1980s viewed a major paradigm shift in language teaching
• NLP is a powerful, practical and specific approach in the direction of allowing you to achieve your goals and make your life
• gathering information about their internal external view of the world,(walk)
• NLP is collection of techniques, pattern, and strategies for supporting effective communication, personal growth and change, and learning. It is based on a series of underlying assumptions about how the mind works and how people act and interact (Narman 1997:14)
• The assumptions of NLP refer to attitudes to life ,to people and to self discovery and awareness
• However , in NLP neuro refers to beliefs about the brain and how it function :
• Programming refers to observable patterns (referred to as ‘programs’) of thought and behavior.
• Rapport is an essential basis for successful communication - if there is no rapport there is no (real) communication.
• (It is mind process/ sound Process. If you have good sound in your body people like you otherwise ? )
• Sensory perception : noticing what another person is communication, consciously and nonverbally. This can be expressed as “Use your senses .Look at , listen to, and feel what is actually happening”.
Goals of Neurolinguistics
• To find where the language is represented in brain.
• To find how language is represented in brain.
• To find how the nervous system function in the act of expression and comprehension.(language processing studies).
The network of connections whereby signals can be transmitted from one part of the body to another is known as the nervous system. This system is subdivided into the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
It contains billions of nerve cells, some of which relay information to and from connections with the peripheral nervous system, others of which transfer information within the central nervous system.
The CNS consists of the brain, the spinal cord which consists to it, and their associated membranes and fluids. The system is immensely complex, and its potential for processing information needs to be appreciated.
The PNS consist of the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves.
The Nervous System
CN I
CN III
CN VII
CN IX
CN XI
CN II
CN IV
CN VI
CN VIII
CN X
CN XII
CN V
Parts of Cranial Nerves
Names and Functions of Cranial NervesName and Number Functions of Sensory Component Functions of Motor Component
I. Olfactory Smell (no motor nerve)
II. Optic Vision (no motor nerve)
III. Oculomotor Sensations from eye muscles Eye movements, pupil construction
IV. Trochlear Sensations from eye muscles Eye movements
V. Trigemial Sensations from skin of face, nose, and mouth
Chewing, Swallowing
VI. Abucens Sensations from eye muscles Eye movements
VII. Facial Taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, visceral sensations from the head
Facial expressions, crying, salivation, and dilation of blood vessels in the head
VIII. Statoacoustic Hearing, equilibrium (no motor nerve)
IX.Glossopharyngeal Taste and other sensations from throat and posterior third of tongue
Swallowing, salivation, dilation of blood vessel
X. Vagus Taste and sensations from neck, thorax, and abdomen
Swallowing, control of larynx, parasympathetic nerves to heart and viscera
XI. Accessory (no sensory nerve) Movements of shoulders and head; parasympathetic to viscera
XII. Hypoglossal Sensation from tongue muscles Movements of tongue
COMMON PROBLEMS OF DYSLEXIAThe most commonly encountered problems are as follows:
1. Number and letter recognition
2. Letter reversals
3. Word recognition
4. Number, letter and word recollection
5. Spelling problems
6. Punctuation recognition
7. Fixation problems
8. Word additions and omissions
9. Poor comprehension
COMMON PROBLEMS OF DYSLEXIAThe most commonly encountered problems are as follows:
1. Number and letter recognition
2. Letter reversals
3. Word recognition
4. Number, letter and word recollection
5. Spelling problems
6. Punctuation recognition
7. Fixation problems
8. Word additions and omissions
9. Poor comprehension
• Thereafter, in a sequence no doubt determined during the stage of neurolinguistics programming, specific motor commands flow out through motor nerves to muscles in the chest, throat, mouth, etc. As a result, these muscles contract-in whole or in part, successively or simultaneously, more or less strongly. We call this whole process of motor commands (the outflow of neural impulses from the central nervous system), together with the Permanently related muscle contractions, the neuromuscular phase.
18
• As a result of the muscular contractions occurring in this neuromuscular phase, the organs to which these muscles are attached adopt particular postures or make particular movements the ribcage (set of curved bones in chest.) may contract, the vocal folds in the larynx may be brought close together, the tongue adopt a particular configuration, and so on.
• In short, the follow-up to the neuromuscular phase is a posturing or movement of whole organs in the vocal tract. We therefore call this the organic phase.
• The movements of organs during the organic phase act upon the air contained within the vocal tract. They compress the air, or dilate it, and they set it moving in various ways-in rapid puffs, in sudden bursts, in a smooth flow, in a rough, eddying, turbulent stream, and so on. All of this constitutes the aerodynamic phase of speech.
Vocal Sound Production
Vocal Sound Production
Diaphragm action pushes air from the lungs through the vocal folds, producing a periodic train of air pulses. This pulse train is shaped by the resonances of the vocal tract. The basic resonances, called vocal formants, can be changed by the action of the articulators to produce distinguishable voice sounds, like the vowel sounds.
Although our one-mass model is a closer representation of actual vocal fold oscillation than the myoelastic-aerodynamic model, some refinements will make the model even more like human phonation.
http://www.ncvs.org/ncvs/tutorials/voiceprod/tutorial/model.html
• As the air flows through the vocal tract during
the aerodynamic phase the things that
happen to it set the air molecules oscillating
in ways that can be perceived by our sense of
hearing. In other words, the aerodynamic
events generate sound-waves, and these
constitute the acoustic phase of speech.
Sense organs
Language in –sound form, liquid form, concrete , abstract ,form/form less
Definition of senseSense refers to the inherent(natural) meaning of the linguistic form; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations. It is the collection of all the semantic features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized(In general)
Sense / feeling: The firm/strong /doubt-free/clear awareness of something
• In the acoustic phase, an airborne sound-wave
radiates from the speaker's mouth and reaches the
ear of anyone within hearing distance, including
the speaker himself. The sound-wave, interrupting
on the hearer's ear-drum, sets it vibrating in step
with the wave-form, and these vibrations are
transmitted, by the little bones of the middle ear,
to the inner ear, or cochlea, where they stimulate
sensory endings of the auditory nerve.
basilar membrane: analysis of sound frequencies
Ref:The analysis of sound frequencies by the basilar membrane. (A) The fibres of the basilar membrane become progressively wider and more flexible from the base of the cochlea to the apex. As a result, each area of the basilar membrane vibrates preferentially to a particular sound frequency. (B) High-frequency sound waves cause maximum vibration of the area of the basilar membrane nearest to the base of the cochlea; (C) medium-frequency waves affect the centre of the membrane; (D) and low-frequency waves preferentially stimulate the apex of the basilar membrane. (The locations of cochlear frequencies along the basilar membrane shown are a composite drawn from different sources.)Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
(Ref:The mechanism of hearing. Sound waves enter the outer ear and travel through the external auditory canal until they reach the tympanic membrane, causing the membrane and the attached chain of auditory ossicles to vibrate. The motion of the stapes against the oval window sets up waves in the fluids of the cochlea, causing the basilar membrane to vibrate. This stimulates the sensory cells of the organ of Corti, atop the basilar membrane, to send nerve impulses to the brain.)Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/536/The-mechanism-of-hearing?topicId=175622
ear: hearing mechanism
Sound Map
These many words and sounds signalling warnings, friendship, and daily routine are a natural part of the day for people who hear
http://www.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/information_and_resources/info_to_go/hearing_loss_information/hearing_loss_for_older_children.html
SOUND AND THE EAR Each part of the ear has a special role to play in the hearing process. It's a process that begins only when sound reaches the ear.
Variations in Air Pressure and Corresponding Waveform
Sound is defined as vibrations transmitted through a solid, liquid or gas capable of being detected by the ear
When we hear a sound, it’s usually the result of air molecules being set in motion around a vibrating object (the sound source). We usually call the invisible vibration of these air molecules “sound waves.” Sound waves are detected by our eardrums, which are connected to nerves within our brains.
The cochlea divided into three regions called: the scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani.
The sound from a tuning fork is pure and has a smooth, regular sound-wave pattern. A hammer's sound has an irregular, ''spiky'' wave, which is typical of a noise.
http://theemster.com/sound.htm
Pure sound -noise
• Neural impulses from the nerve-endings travel up
the auditory nerve to the brain, where they give
rise to sensations of sound. We call this whole
process of peripheral stimulation and afferent
neural transmission the neuroreceptive phase.
• Finally, an interpretative process occurs in which
the coming neuroreceptive signals are identified as
this or that particular vocal sound or sound-
sequence. This is the phase of neuroolinguistic
identification, which we can regard as more or less
the verse of the neurolinguistic programming phase
with which the phonetic event began.
• Though there may always be some awareness of sound in this
phase, the identification as particular speech-sounds is usually
below the threshold of consciousness. In the actual exchange
of conversation, attention is directed more to the meaning of
what is said than to the sounds by which that meaning is
manifest.
• The final steps in the process-the hearer's decoding and
ultimate conceptualization-are outside the domain of
phonetics, just as were the matching conceptualization and
encoding in the speaker.
summarize the phases of speech : (l) Neurolinguistics programming: the selection, sequencing, and timing of what follows.
(sequencing-Biochemistry) the procedure of determining the order of amino acids in the polypeptide chain of a protein (protein sequencing) or of nucleotides in a DNA section comprising a gene (gene sequencing)
The firm/strong /doubt-free/clear awareness of something
1. Neuromuscular phase: transmission of outbound (motor) neural impulses and the contraction of individual muscles.
(impulses-Physiology The electrochemical transmission of a signal along a nerve fiber that produces an excitatory or inhibitory response at a target tissue, such as a muscle or another nerve.)
• A neurotransmitter is a chemical released by a neuron to communicate with other cells
ax·on-that process of a neuron by which impulses travel away from the cell body;
synapse / the site of functional apposition between neurons, where an impulse is transmitted from one to another, usually by a chemical neurotransmitter released by the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron.
• (3) Organic phase: postures and movements of whole organs.
• postures -A position of the body or of body parts
Speech_Graphics_Simone_Articulation_System.mp4
• (4) Aerodynamic phase: dilation, compression, and flow of air in and through the vocal tract.
• Dilation- The act of expanding
(5) Acoustic phase: propagation of sound-waves from speaker's vocal tract.
Propagation of sound waves through air
Ref: wave motion is the propagation of sound from one place to another. When a person speaks, the molecules of air near the mouth of the speaker are disturbed resulting in vibration of these molecules about their mean positions. These vibrating molecules in turn push the nearby molecules and the process continues until the molecules of the air near the listener's ear start vibrating. These disturbances vibrate the eardrum and these vibrations of the eardrum in turn sends the message to the brain through nerve connections. In this case also, it is the disturbance, which moves forward and not the particles of air.
propagation :sound waves, is transmitted through a medium such as air or water.
(6) Neuroreceptive phase: peripheral auditory stimulation and transmission of inbound neural impulses.
This is how people communicate: This is how neurons communicate:
Transmitter Receptor Neurotransmitter Neuroreceptor
How does the brain communicate? The brain is a communications center of the body, consisting of billions of neurons, or nerve cells. Networks of neurons pass messages back and forth to different structures within the brain, the spinal column, and the peripheral nervous system. These nerve networks coordinate and regulate everything we feel, think, and do. Each nerve cell in the brain sends and receives messages in the form of electrical impulses. Once a cell receives and processes a message, it sends it on to other neurons. The messages are carried between neurons by chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Nerve_impulse_Animation.mp4
Vestibular System
• (7) Neurolinguistic identification: potential or actual identification of incoming signals as specific speech-sounds.
Brain uses sleep to cleanse itself of toxins Watch the video - Screen India.webm
• In addition to all this we must take note of two other phases, aspects, of the speech process. These are the two kinds of feedback: kinesthetic feedback and auditory feedback.
• As the organs of speech posture and move about in the performance of speech, sensory nerve-endings within the muscle and on the surfaces of the organs are stimulated by music contraction and by contact and pressure.
• We may be, but often are not, conscious of this feedback as proprioceptive sensations (feelings of muscular contraction and tension) and tactile sensations. As a general name for these proprioceptive and tactile sensations we use the term 'kinaesthesis', hence kinaesthetic feedback.
• The second type of feedback consists of the
stimulation of the speaker's peripheral hearing
organs by the sound-wave issuing from his own
mouth which reaches his ears both externally, by
air conduction, and internally, by bone
conduction. This is auditory feedback.
• These feedback systems monitor and control speech by inserting into the motor system information concerning the continuing muscular, organic, aerodynamic, and acoustic events. Much of phonetic training involves making these feedbacks, especially kinaesthetic or proprioceptive feedback, conscious.
• Analysis, and conscious control, of the activities of speech must be based upon awareness of what the vocal organs are doing and this awareness is derived from the feedback systems.
• Of the seven phases of speech described above only three lend themselves conveniently to categorization for general phonetic purposes: these are the organic phase, the aerodynamic phase, and the acoustic phase. Traditionally, phonetic classification has been based on the organic phase.
• This was the basis of classification of the earliest phoneticians-the Indian grammarians of 2,500 years ago-and also of the ancient Greek and Roman grammarians, the medieval Arab grammarians, and the English phoneticians from Elizabethan times onwards.
• The acoustic phase has only been fully accessible since the development in the twentieth century of electronic devices for acoustic analysis, such as the cathode-ray oscilloscope and the sound spectrograph in the 1930s and 1940s. Nevertheless, since such instruments became available an enormous amount has been learned about the acoustic phase, and the study of this phase of speech is known as acoustic phonetics.
• The aerodynamic phase is also accessible to instrumental investigation and aerodynamic data have been used since the nineteenth century, chiefly as a means of acquiring information about the preceding, organic, phase: by looking at variations in the rate of airflow out of the mouth, measuring intra-oral pressure, and so on, one can make many useful inferences about the organic activities that give rise to these aerodynamic effects.
• It is only recently that the suggestion has been made that there should be a more or less independent aerodynamic phonetics, parallel to acoustic phonetics.
• General phonetic taxonomy, however-that is, the general or basic classification of speech sounds-is still based on the organic phase, with some contributions from aerodynamic and acoustic phonetics where helpful.
• This type of phonetics is often called articulatory phonetics, a term which is somewhat inaccurate, since, as we shall see, articulation is only one (though a very important one) of the components of speech sound production.
Summarize the phases of speech : 1. Neurolinguistics programming: the selection, sequencing, and
timing of what follows. 2. Neuromuscular phase: transmission of outbound (motor)
neural impulses and the contraction of individual muscles. 3. Organic phase: postures and movements of whole organs. 4. Aerodynamic phase: dilation, compression, and flow of air in
and through the vocal tract. 5. Acoustic phase: propagation of sound-waves from speaker's
vocal tract. 6. Neuroreceptive phase: peripheral auditory stimulation and
transmission of inbound neural impulses. 7. Neurolinguistic identification: potential or actual identification
of incoming signals as specific speech-sounds.
Sources-Catford